Review Concepts:

Chapter 1
An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
o Homeostasis
 A relatively constant internal environment

All living things:

Respond to changes in their immediate environment
 Show adaptability
 Grow, develop, and reproduce
 Are capable of some degree of movement
 If this movement is from one place to another, it’s called locomotion
Life functions require energy
o Energy must be replaced when used
 For animals, energy is “captured” by:
o Absorption of oxygen from atmosphere through
respiration
o Absorption of various chemicals from environment

Small organisms
o Able to transfer energy and waste across exposed surfaces
Larger organisms
o Must process complex foods to simpler components (digestion)
o Perform absorption, respiration, and excretion in different portions of
the body
o Must then distribute materials around the body (circulation)
Anatomy
o Literally means “a cutting open”
o Study of the structures of the body
o Study of the physical relationships among body parts
Divisions of anatomical study
o Gross anatomy or macroscopic anatomy
 Study of large structures and features, that is, usually visible
with the unaided eye
 Example: structures of dissected heart
o Microscopic anatomy
 Study of structures that cannot be seen without magnification
 Example: cellular structure of heart wall
o Microscopic anatomy (continued)
 Limited by equipment
o Dissecting microscope – can see tissues
o Light microscope – can see basic cell structure
o Electron microscope – can see individual molecules
Specific functions are performed by specific structures
o Link between structure and function not always understood
o 200 years between description of heart anatomy and demonstration of
its function as a pump
Physiology
o Study of function
o Complex and more difficult to examine than anatomical structures
o Focuses on functional properties
Examples of physiology topics
o Electrical events within the heart coordinating the heartbeat
 Measured by an electrocardiogram (ECG)
o Pressure changes within the heart and major arteries
.
Physiology and anatomy are closely interrelated in theory and in practice
o One cannot be fully understood without the other
 Anatomical details have an effect on function
 Physiological mechanisms are understood in terms of
underlying structural relationships
Examples
o The elbow joint is an example of interrelationship between structure
and function at the gross anatomy level
 Functions like a hinge
 Allows movement in one plane
o Forearm moves toward or away from shoulder, but does
not twist
 Anatomical structures impose functional limits
o Chemical messengers and cellular receptors are examples of
relationship between structure and function at the
microscopic/chemical level
 Cells communicate using specifically shaped molecules called
chemical messengers
 Receptors on target cells receive the message only if the
messenger molecule fits the shape of receptor
Levels of Organization
o The human body is complex, representing multiple levels of
organization
 Each level more complex than underlying one
 All can be broken down to similar chemical and cellular
components
Chemical level
o Atoms combine to form molecules
o Functional properties of molecule determined by its:
 Unique three-dimensional shape
 Atomic components
Cellular level
Cells are the smallest living units in the body
 o Functions depend on organelles (composed of molecules)
o Each organelle has a specific function
 Example: a mitochondrion provides energy for heart muscle cell
contraction
Tissue level A tissue is a group of cells working together to perform
specific functions
 Example: heart muscle cells form cardiac muscle tissue
Organ level
o An organ is composed of two or more tissues working together to
perform specific functions
 Example: layers of cardiac muscle tissue along with connective
tissue form the heart
Organ system level
Organ systems consist of interacting organs
 Example: the heart works with blood vessels and blood to form
the cardiovascular system
Organism level
o Highest level of organization
o Collection of organ systems working together to maintain life and
health

Cells
Free-living cells
o Smallest living structures

Most plants and animals are multicellular

o Containing thousands to billions of cells
o Cells in the human body
 Contains trillions of cells
 Only an estimated 200 different types of cells
o Dimensions measured in micrometers (µm)
 One micrometer = one millionth of a meter
 One micrometer = 1/25,000 of an inch
Cell function is related to its structure
o Smooth muscle cells – long and slender for contraction
o Red blood cells – flattened discs to slip through capillaries
o Fat cells – spherical for fat storage
o Cells lining digestive tract – shaped for absorption
o Sperm (reproductive) – flagella for swimming
o Nerve cells – some have extensive branching providing huge surface
area for communication
Cells work together
o Human life depends on cells working together
o Each cell responds to its local environment independently
o Cells in different parts of the body are coordinated and controlled
Tissues and histology
o Tissues are specialized groups of cells and cell products.
o Histology (histos, tissue) is the study of tissues.
o Four primary tissue types
1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Neural tissue
Epithelial tissue
o Forms a barrier with specific properties
o Covers every exposed body surface
o Lines digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary tracts
o Surrounds internal cavities
o Lines inner surfaces of blood vessels and heart
o Produces glandular secretions
Connective tissue
o Diverse in appearance but all forms contain cells surrounded by
extracellular matrix
 Matrix composed of:
o Protein fibers
o Ground substance (liquid)
 Amount and consistency of matrix varies by the particular
connective tissue type
o Blood – watery matrix
o Bone – crystallized matrix with little ground substance
Muscle tissue
o Has the ability to contract forcefully
o Major functions
 Skeletal movement
 Soft tissue support
 Maintenance of blood flow
 Movement of materials internally
 Stabilization of body temperature
Muscle tissue (continued)
o Three types
1. Skeletal
o Usually attached to the skeleton
o Moves or stabilizes position of skeleton or internal organs
2. Cardiac
o Found only in the heart
o Propels blood through blood vessels
3. Smooth
o Found in blood vessel walls, within glands, along
respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and reproductive tracts
Neural tissue
o Specialized to carry information or instructions within the body
 o Two basic types of cells
1. Neurons (nerve cells)
o Transmit information in form of electrical impulses
2. Neuroglia (supporting cells)
o Isolate and support neurons
o Form supporting framework
Neural tissue (continued)
o Two locations within the body
1. Central nervous system
o Brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system
o Nerves connecting central nervous system with other
tissues and organs
Organ
o Functional unit composed of more than one tissue type
o Organ’s function determined and limited by specific combination and
organization of tissues within it
 For example:
o Organ with flattened shape could function well in
protection (skin)
o Organ with three-dimensional shape could house other
structures (liver)
The heart as an example of an organ
o Contains multiple tissues
 Cardiac muscle (contracts to form heartbeat)
 Epithelial tissue (lines inner and outer surfaces)
 Connective tissue (attaches other tissues)
 Neural tissue (adjusts and coordinates activities)
o All work together to function as a pump
Organ system
o Organs that interact to perform a specific range of functions, often
coordinated
o Eleven organ systems in the human body
 None of these systems function in isolation
 All are interdependent on each other

Integumentary system
o Protects the body from environmental hazards
o Helps control body temperature
Skeletal system
o Provides support
o Protects tissues
o Stores minerals
o Forms blood cells
Muscular system
o Produces movement
 o Provides support
o Generates heat
Nervous system
o Provides rapid control and regulation
o Coordinates activities of other organ systems
Endocrine system
o Secretes chemical messengers
o Directs long-term changes in other systems
Cardiovascular system
o Carries chemicals, cells, dissolved materials to all parts of the body
Lymphatic system
o Defends the body against infection and disease
o Returns tissue fluid to bloodstream
Respiratory system
o Delivers air to gas exchange sites in lungs
o Produces sound
Digestive system
o Processes food and absorbs nutrients
o Excretes waste
Urinary system
o Eliminates excess water, salts, and wastes
Reproductive system
o Provides for the continuity of life
o Produces sex cells and hormones
Homeostasis (homeo, unchanging + stasis, standing)
o Presence of stable internal environment
o Failure to maintain homeostasis leads to illness or death
Homeostatic regulation
o Physiological adjustment to preserve homeostasis in variable
environments
Components of a homeostatic regulatory mechanism
o Receptor (sensor)
 Sensitive to environmental change
o Control center (integration center)
 Processes information from the receptor and sends out
commands
o Effector
 Responds to commands opposing stimulus
Homeostatic control is not precise
o Maintains a normal range around the set point
o Actual value oscillates
 For example:
o House thermostat set at 72F
o Actual temperature in the house ranges a few degrees
above and below that set point
Feedback
 o Stimulation of a receptor triggers response that changes environment
at that receptor
Negative feedback
o Effector opposes or negates the original stimulus
o Minimizes change
o Primary mechanism of homeostatic regulation in the body
o Dynamic process
 Set point varies with varying environments and activity levels
Example of negative feedback in the body
o Body temperature rises above 37.2C (99F)
o Temperature receptors stimulated and send signals to the homeostatic
control center
o Control center responds with commands to effectors
o Effectors respond to assist restoration of temperature
 Smooth muscles in blood vessels relax, dilating vessels and
increasing blood flow to the body surface
 Sweat glands increase secretion
Positive feedback
o Stimulus produces a response that exaggerates or enhances the
original change (rather than opposing it)
o Tends to produce extreme responses
o Does not restore homeostasis
Positive feedback loop
o Escalating cycle
o Typically occurs when a potentially dangerous or stressful process
must be completed quickly before the body can restore homeostasis
 Example: blood clotting mechanism
o Immediate danger to address – preventing blood loss
o Stressful process must be completed quickly
o After the process is complete, the stimulus for the
positive feedback loop stops
Orientation to the body
o Landmarks around the body create a map for orientation
Anatomical position is the body:
o Standing up
o Hands at the sides
o Palms facing forward
o Feet together and facing forward
o Eyes facing forward

o Lying down in anatomical position

 Supine when face up
 Prone when face down
Superficial and Regional Anatomy
There are four abdominopelvic quadrants
There are nine abdominopelvic regions

Directional and Sectional Terms

Directional terms
o Used to describe specific points of reference
o All directions utilize anatomical position as standard point of reference
o Many different terms, often interchangeable
 Anterior or ventral
 Posterior or dorsal

Directional and Sectional Terms

Sectional planes
o Frontal or coronal plane
 Oriented parallel to long axis
 Divides anterior from posterior
o Sagittal plane
 Oriented parallel to long axis
 Divides right from left
 Variations include midsagittal (passes through midline) and
parasagittal (misses midline and divides unequally)
o Transverse or horizontal plane
 Oriented perpendicular to long axis
 Divides superior from inferior
 Also called cross sectionModule 1.17: Body Cavities
Body cavities
o Interior of the body is subdivided into regions established by the body
wall
o Many organs within these regions suspended in closed fluid-filled
chambers called body cavities
o Body cavities of the trunk contain organs of respiratory, cardiovascular,
digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems
Viscera
o Internal organs partially or totally enclosed by body cavities
o Connected to rest of body
o For example: The heart is surrounded by the pericardial cavity
 Pericardium (peri-, around + cardium, heart)
o Delicate serous membrane lining the pericardial cavity
o Secretes watery fluid that keeps surfaces moist and
reduces friction
 Permits heart to change size and shape when beating
Body cavities of the trunk
o Subdivided into two major cavities
  Thoracic cavity
 Abdominopelvic cavity
 These two cavities are separated by the diaphragm
Thoracic cavity
o Everything deep to the chest wall
o Three subdivisions:
 Two pleural cavities
o Lined by pleura
o Contain the lungs
 Mediastinum
o Contains connective tissue and the pericardial cavity
containing the heart
Abdominopelvic cavity
o Everything deep to abdominal and pelvic walls
o Divided into two portions
1. Abdominal cavity
o Contains many digestive glands and organs
2. Pelvic cavity
o Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and last
portion of the digestive tract
Abdominopelvic cavity (continued)
o Within the abdominal cavity is the peritoneal cavity lined be a serous
membrane called peritoneum
 Some organs (e.g., kidneys) lie posterior to the peritoneal
membrane
o Position is called retroperitoneal
 Some organs (e.g., urinary bladder) extend inferior to the
peritoneal cavity
o Position is called infraperitoneal