BLOCK - III

CULTURE, SOCIALIZATION AND SOCIAL ACTION

UNIT 6 CULTURE
Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Meaning and Characteristics of Culture
6.2.1 Functions of Culture
6.2.2 Types of Culture and Acculturation
6.2.3 Material and Non-Material Culture
6.2.4 Cultural Lag
6.3 Relationship between Culture and Personality
6.4 Culture and Civilization
6.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Words
6.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
6.9 Further Readings
6.0 INTRODUCTION
Culture is a term that encompasses a wide variety of meanings. It refers to our
manners, customs, traditions, economic activities, and so on. Culture is also never
constant and is always in a state of flux. As society advances, culture changes
along with it. What was considered Indian culture three decades ago may not be
considered Indian culture today. What kind of influence culture has on development
activities and vice versa are extremely important questions in sociology. In this
unit, we will discuss the important concepts related to culture in sociology. This
will include a discussion on the meaning and characteristics of culture, function of
culture, types of culture, concept of material and non-material culture, meaning of
cultural lag and the relationship between culture and personality. We will also shed
some light on the relationship between culture and civilization.
6.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Discuss the meaning and characteristics of culture
List the functions of culture
Describe the types of culture and the concept of acculturationCulture
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Explain the concept of material and non-material culture
Discuss the meaning of cultural lag
Examine the relationship between culture and personality
Interpret the concept of culture and civilization
6.2 MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
CULTURE
With the evolution of homo sapiens, a number of biological characteristics emerged
in species. These characteristics supported the growth of culture. A few of these
characteristics were: upright posture, well developed constitution of the brain, the
ability to see objects with length, width and depth, development of the hand, etc.
Any one of these biological features, if considered in isolation, cannot contribute
to the development of culture. Even in totality, the most they can assure is that
human beings would be the most privileged species of the animal kingdom. The
evolution of culture has been gradual.
In experiences during their life, people develop an array of regulations and
processes. This is accompanied by a sustained collection of concepts and ethics
known as culture. Sir Edward Tylor (1871) defined culture in a classical and
sociological manner. According to him, ‘Culture is that complex entirety which
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and other capabilities and
habits, that are acquired by man, as a member of society’. One can define culture
as that factor, which is absorbed by society. It is a trait that is adopted collectively
and practiced by all members of a society. An individual inherits culture as part of
social legacy. This inherited legacy is altered and restructured with slight changes
and modifications, before it is again inherited by the future generations.
According to Bidney, culture is the product of agro facts (product of
civilization), artifacts (product of industry), sociofacts (social organization) and
mentifacts (language, religion, art, etc.). According to Marett, culture is
communicable intelligence. Robert Redfield, an American anthropologist and
ethnolinguist, has emphasized a symbolic view of culture. According to him, culture
is an organized body of conventional understanding, which is manifested in art and
artifacts and characterizes a human group. For Redfield, culture is the complete
conventional meaning which is embodied in artifacts, social structure and symbols.
Ruth Benedicts, an anthropologist of culture and personality, in her book,Pattern
of Culture (1936), has defined culture from personality’s point of view. According
to her ‘A culture, like an individual, is more or less consistent pattern of thought
and action.’ Thus, she has defined culture from a formal and aesthetic view point.
Malinowski and Radcliffe Brown have proposed an instrumental and humanistic
definition of culture. According to Malinowski, culture is an instrument for the
satisfaction of the needs of man.Culture
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Malinowski defines culture as the tool that facilitates mankind to protect
and realize his bio-psychic survival. This consequently results in more developed
rational and logical mode of survival. All economic, social, religious and linguistic
needs of mankind originate from one general and basic need, i.e., human need,
hence they are all related to each other. Since all factors within a culture are
interrelated, there are no loose strings. Thus, it is evident that any single trait cannot
exist all by itself. Its identity emerges when it is seen as part of the whole and not
in isolation. Malinowski stressed that culture has a broad range and is self-reliant.
According to him, if a slight change occurs in any of the features of a culture,
the whole of it will reflect a corresponding change. He was a staunch believer of
cultural pluralism, in which the bio-physical requirements of individuals impact the
growth of every culture. He recommended that culture can be studied on the basis
of these requirements and not on the basis of any fixed standards. Sufficiency,
based on basic requirements, is a quality of a culture in which many different parts
are closely connected and work successfully together. This is a result of widespread
knowledge.
On the other hand, Radcliffe Brown regards culture as a social heritage
which perpetuates social life. Sociologists who belong to structural functional school
have regarded the whole of culture as a unit of study. They assume a holistic view
of the entire culture. R.H. Lowie said, ‘culture is nothing but total or whole of
social tradition.’ Kluckhohn defined culture as all those designs which have been
historically created for life. These designs may be, explicit, implicit, rational,
irrational, or those which exist at any given time as potential guides for the behaviour
of men.
Culture defines a typical way in which human beings live. This did not have
a single point of origin. This means that no member of the human species emerged
all of a sudden on this earth. The evolution of culture was as gradual, as was the
conversion of primates to human beings.
Culture can be characterized in the following ways:
Culture is man-made.
Culture is learned.
Culture is transmitted.
Every society has its own culture.
Culture is social, not individualistic.
Culture is an ideal for a group.
Culture satisfies human need.
Culture has adaptability.
Culture has integrative quality.
Culture shapes human personality.
Culture is both super-individual and super-organic.Culture
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Culture is not a simple accumulation of folkways and mores; it is an organized
system of behaviour. Culture is always organized with cultural traits and complexes.
Cultural traits are basically the smallest units of culture, for instance, shaking hands,
offering prayer, saluting a flag, etc. Every culture includes thousands of traits. Culture
complex is a combination of different elements like religious ceremonies, magical
rites, a courtship activity and a festivity etc. The culture complex is intermediate
between the trait and the institution.
Folkways
Willam Graham Sumner, in his book, Folkways(1906), defined folkways as the
usual, established, routine and regular way in which a group performs its activities.
These activities can range from shaking hands, eating with knives and forks, driving
in the left side of streets, etc.
Folkways are established ways in which a social group behaves. This pattern
of behaviour is exhibited to counter the problems faced by a group which lives in
a society. Life in society has many problems and different problems give rise to
different efforts made by man, to tackle them. Various societies come up with a
variety of operational models for resolving their problems. Social groups may
achieve a probable set of solutions through an experimental approach or some
strange observation, etc. Irrespective of the means by which they come upon a
solution, its success establishes its acceptance as a normal way of behaviour. It is
inherited by successive generations and surfaces as a behavioural tendency of the
group of the folk, thus it is known as a folkway. As stated by Sumner, psycho
physical traits have been transmitted genetically into men from their brutish
ancestor’s. These traits include skills, nature of character and temperament that
provide a solution to the problem of food supply, sex, business and self-importance.
The outcome of this is a collection of occurrences like, flows of likelihood, harmony
and collective inputs, which result in folkways. Folkways are thus outcomes of
continuous recurrences that are seemingly insignificant activities, generally in large
numbers. These activities arise when similar needs are experienced by a group.
Lundberg agrees that folkways assign similarities in group behaviour to the
way of life of individuals in that group. These are born out of recurring or occasional
needs or happenings. In this manner, it is believed that the collection of instinctive
behavioural patterns governs and protects the existence and development of a
social group. This collection includes rituals and practices that have been transmitted
from one generation to the other, along with alteration and addition of new features,
corresponding to the fluctuating needs of time. These symbolize man’s exclusive
trait of changing himself to become accustomed to the environment. None of the
individuals within the group is ever skeptical about a folkway nor is he required to
introduce a folkway forcefully.
The concept of culture can be visualized as an ongoing repository, which
keeps on adding material and nonmaterial elements that have been socially inherited
by future generations, from past generations. Culture is incessant because itsCulture
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patterns have surpassed the boundaries of time to recur in succeeding generations.
Culture keeps on getting updated since every generation adds a new feature or
quality to it. Accordingly, an outstanding equivalence comes into focus, which
connects the evolution of homo sapiens with the growth and prosperity of culture.
This similarity cannot be elaborated upon, since most conclusions about the
prehistoric period are based on material facts, which reveal only part of the way
of life of the people of those times. In addition, the biological and cultural evolution
should not be aligned next to each other. Cro-Magnon main’s ability to think was
great, but other characteristics related to the development played an active role in
restricting a visible growth in learned behaviour.
Diffusion
Though invention contributed largely to cultural development, over a period of
time, diffusion benefited it more. Diffusion means adopting the characteristics of
culture from other societies, irrespective of their means of emergence in the source
society.
For diffusion to prevail on a large scale, the societies should be segregated
and their origin should be old enough so as to support the development of unique
cultures. In addition to this, it is important for these societies to be in touch mutually.
This would provide options for substantial borrowing. Such scenarios have gained
momentum only in the later stages of evolution. Once the process of cultural
borrowing began, it turned so persistent that a large number of elements of modern
cultures were borrowed.
Both invention and diffusion have contributed to the development of culture.
The initial start was slow, because it was mostly caused by invention. However,
with the growth of the culture base, societies were further set apart. This caused
an expanded increase in the diffusion of traits and a simultaneous increase in the
growth factor. At present, the growth factor of culture has scaled spectacular
heights, especially in the western countries.
Custom
A habit, once formed, becomes a normal way of life. Customs usually comprise
mutual give and take, accompanied by compulsive responsibilities. Additionally,
customs also abide by the law, in the absence of which they would be worthless.
According to Maclver and Page, custom sets up its own kind of social order
which curbs the disagreements that rise between custom and law. Thus, customs
streamline the entire social life of an individual. Law is not equipped enough to
cover all activities of social behaviour. Practices of rituals and customs add to the
harmony within a social group. Often, the effect of customs crosses the boundaries
of one’s own community. In certain cases, custom is the measure of the relations
between two enemy communities, for instance, it is the custom of the Bedouins of
the Arabian desert not to damage any water-well, even if it belongs to the enemy.Culture
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However, a few of the customs have no impact on social control. These
customs exist simply because they have been there since ancient times and people
of all generations have been practicing them. A perfect example of this is the custom
of people bathing in an unclean pond or lagoon simply because it has been an age
old religious practice. Although, in many traditional societies, religious rituals and
customs are losing their significance. In other words, custom is viewed just like
public opinion. It has a strong impact on life in social groups simply because it is
the only factor which textually influences social behaviour.
The north-eastern part of India is a residence to innumerable tribes with
their distinct cultures. The Nagas are a conglomeration of a number of tribes like
Ao, Angami, Chang, Konyak, Mao, etc. They mostly inhabit the state of Nagaland.
The Nagas are simple, hardworking and honest people with high integrity. The
Nagas mostly live in villages with ornately decorated wooden houses. Each tribe
has a distinct way of decorating their huts. The tribes make their own clothes, own
medicines, cooking vessels, etc., which make them self-sufficient in all ways
possible. Colourful woollen and cotton shawls are made by Naga women of almost
all tribes. Folk songs and dance make up the Naga culture. The spread of
Christianity in these tribes is bringing a slow death to the indigenous Naga culture.
The state of Assam is nestled beneath the sub Himalayan range of hills in the
North and North East. Assam is encircled by the states of Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and West Bengal. Assam is a
mixing pot where culture, heritage, tradition, lifestyle, faith and belief of numerous
tribes and sub-tribes have lent an exotic recipe of delightful heritage. The Assamese
population can be divided into two broad groups: the non-tribal people who
constitute the majority of the population and the tribals. The tribals mainly live in
the hills; most important among these tribes being the Boro-Kacharis, the Deori,
the Misings, the Dimassas, the Karbis, the Lalungs, the Rabhas, etc. Ahkhomiya
or Assamese is the language of Assam. Assam has a reputation for warm hospitality.
People of Assam are warm, homely and openhearted. Most of the festivals
celebrated in Assam have their roots in the varied faith and belief of its people.
Besides the religious and national festivals observed throughout the country, Assam
has a large number of colourful festivals of its own replete with fun, music and
dances. Assam’s fairs and festivals are as varied as its population which comes
from different racial origins, both tribal and non-tribal.
Bihu, the agricultural festival of Assam is celebrated by all Assamese,
irrespective of caste, creed or religion. Bihu, Assam’s very own festival come off
at various stages of cultivation of paddy, the principal crop of Assam. There are
three Bihus that come off at various stages of cultivation of paddy, the principal
crop of Assam. These are Bahag (Baisakh) Bihu, Kati (Kartika) Bihu and Magh
(Magha) Bihu.
From time immemorial, the people of Assam have traditionally been
craftsmen. The magic of art of Assamese craftsmen is a common passion inspiring
the deep senses with its age-old simplicity and sophistication. Assam is renownedCulture
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for its exquisite silks, bamboo and cane products. However, the colourful Assamese
japi (headgear), terracotta of Gauripur and various decorative items bear witness
to the craftsmanship of this land. Assamese handloom is noteworthy offering a
mosaic of colours and contours with pleasing motifs and designs. Dance, music,
woodwork, pottery and the art of mat making have survived through centuries
with fewer changes since it remained an integral part of the locals.
Mizoram, nestled into the southern part of the north-eastern part of India is
land of rolling hills, rivers and lakes. The state’s closeness to the numerous
international borders has made Mizoram a blend of various tribes that migrated
primarily from China and Myanmar. The Lushai, Hmars, Paithes, Raltes, Pang,
Mara, Lakher, Kukis and Pawis of Mizoram are the tribes who were originally the
believers of the Pathan (good spirit). With the immigration of the British and
consequently the settling of the Christian missionaries in the region, most people
got converted to Christianity. Thus, due to the influence of the British in this region,
most of the population speaks in English besides Mizo. This is an impregnable
society with no class difference and no discrimination on the grounds of sex.
Majority of the society are into cultivation and the village seems like a big family.
Birth of a child, marriage in the village, death of a person or a community feast
organized by a member of the village, are prime events in which the whole village
takes part. The traditional crafts of Mizoram are weaving, cane and bamboo work.
The Mizo women weave intricate traditional designs and patterns on their looms.
The shawls carrying tribal clan motifs woven into them and are passed down the
generations.
The Khasi, Garo and Jaintia people residing in the different parts of
Meghalaya portray the rich culture of the state. Meghalaya is, basically, a Christian
dominated area. Many Christian missionaries had immigrated to Meghalaya during
the 19th century. Yet, besides the Christians, other predominant people in
Meghalaya are the Garo, Jaintia and Khasi tribes. Arts and craft, as well as dance
and music also form an integral part of the culture in Meghalaya. Meghalaya is the
home of music and dances. The dances are associated with their festivals or seasons
and hence are to be enjoyed throughout the year. The dances are social, religious,
agricultural and recreational in nature. The land echoes the sound of perfect tempo,
beautiful songs and traditional instruments. The Garos usually sing folk songs relating
to birth, festivals, marriage, love and heroic deeds along with the beats of various
types of drums and flutes. The Khasis and Jaintias are generally fond of songs
lauding the nature surrounding them and also expressing love for their land. At the
time of singing, different types of musical instruments like drums, duitara and
instruments similar to guitar, flutes, pipes and cymbals are also played
Arunachal Pradesh is a land to many tribes, the most important of whom
are the Adi, Apatani, Bugun, Galo, Khamba, Koro, etc. It is a land of beautiful
handicrafts comprising a wide range in variety. Majority of the population follows
a tradition of artistic craftsmanship. A wide variety of crafts such as weaving,
painting, pottery, basketry, woodcarving, etc., are found among the indigenousCulture
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people. From the point of view of art and culture the area may very conveniently
be divided into three zones. The first zone includes the Buddhist tribes, i.e., the
Sherdukpens and Monpas and also to some extent the Khowa, Aka and Miji
group; the Membas, Khambas, the Khamtis and Singphos. The people of the first
zone make beautiful masks. They also periodically stage pantomimes and mask
dances. Making of beautiful carpets, painted wooden vessels and silver articles
are, however, the specialty of the Monpas. The people of the second zone are
expert workers in cane and bamboo. The Apantanis, Hill Miris and Adis make
beautiful articles of these materials, which speak eloquently about their skill in
handicrafts. The second cultural zone occupies the central part from East Kameng
in the west to Lohit in the east. The third zone is formed by the southeastern part
of the territory. They also weave articles that are in common use in their daily life.
The shawls and Jackets of the Apantanis, the Adis Gale and shoulder bag and the
Mishmi’s coat and shawl are symbolic of the high weaving talents and artistic
sense of the people. The people of the third zone are famous for their woodcarving.
The Wanchos, however, weave beautiful bag and loin cloth also. Goat’s hair, ivory,
boar’s tusks, beads of agats and other stones as well as of brass and glass are
special fascinations of the people of this zone.
Among all the north-eastern states, there may be seen a unity in the manner of
expressing their craftsmanship and culture. Most of the tribes, though influenced by
Christianity and foreign influences have held on to their traditional beliefs and customs.
Though a large part of the younger generation has moved to bigger towns and cities
in search of better amenities, education and economic conditions, there remains a
certain part of these tribes that would still continue with their folk songs and dances
and mat and shawl weaving irrespective of the fact that these may or may not fetch
them monetary assurances just because they love their culture. As long as these
tribes prevail, we can rest assured that the north-eastern culture will thrive too.
6.2.1 Functions of Culture
When it comes to society and the impact of culture, there are a number of functions
which come to the fore. Looking at the relationship between culture, society and
individual one can observe that they are interrelated and interdependent:
Behaviour map: Individuals overall have independent thoughts, but all their
endeavors do not guarantee success. In fact, adopting a method of learning
by mistake or trial and error is not feasible for humans in general. The function
of culture in this scenario is to provide as the aggregator for the human
society which provides which the general behaviour pattern or map which
humans can follow with certain degree of reliability as to the results. Take
for example, people know that studying in schools will make them become
attractive candidates which might help them in employment. Without this,
they would have to wonder how to secure a successful livelihood. Similarly,
the culture also provides boundaries as to what behaviour is right or wrong.
For example, that cheating or stealing will result in receiving punishment.Culture
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Attitude, value and goals: Culture has another function very important
function in the society: that of influencing individual and societal goals, values
and attitudes. This results in reflecting the manner in which the individuals
are expected to act or behave. For example, respecting elders or courting
for marriage. Culture also reflects in the ways certain things are valued over
others. For example, owning a car or reliance on the government’s welfare
motives, etc. In fact, individual goals too are affected by culture in the sense
of striving to become the president of a firm, or engaging in community
service, etc.
Defining the situation: Culture has a massive role in determining the sense
in which a situation is comprehended by an individual. For example, in
some regions, lowering your hat might reflect one giving respect to another,
while in another culture it may represent shame or loss of respect.
Legends, myths and traditions: Culture also affects group behaviour by
representing the collective belief system of the community. In the sense, that
certain traditions in terms of religion allow the individuals to follow a lifestyle.
Further, the myths and legends also carry certain ideas and philosophies
with them, which again reflect the significant ideals of the particular
community.
6.2.2 Types of Culture and Acculturation
Cultural relativism
Cultural relativism is a concept of analysing various societies of cultures in an
objective way without comparing them with each other. It is not possible to study
the activities of another group if they are analysed on the basis of our motives and
values. Their activities must be analysed on the basis of their motives and values,
for an unbiased understanding. Cultural relativism can be defined as the function
that measures trait on the basis of its cultural environment. In an isolated form, a
trait is neither positive, nor negative. It can be regarded as positive or negative
only on the basis of the culture in which it exists and thrives, for instance, fur
clothes are important in the Polar region, but serve no purpose in deserts. In
some societies, being fat is considered to be a sign of health and prosperity.
However, in other societies, being fat is not only a waste but it also signifies bad
health and ugliness. Thus, the idea of cultural relativism does not make all customs
equally important or harmful. It believes that some customs may be extremely
beneficial in some places, and may be very harmful elsewhere. It is a phenomenon
that is related to the environment. The most prominent feature of cultural relativism
is that in a certain type of environment, specific traits are just right because they
are beneficial to that environment. However, if the same traits are shifted to an
entirely different setting, they may result in a disaster by colliding with other traits
of that culture.Culture
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Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is interrelated with cultural relativity. The word ethno is derived
from a Greek terminology which means, people, country, cultural bonding, centric
is derived from a Latin word, which means centre. Thus, ethnocentrism means the
inclination of every society to place its own culture patterns at the centre of things.
Ethnocentrism is the act of evaluating other cultural practices, in terms of one’s
own and obviously rating them as inferior. It is the tendency of considering one’s
own culture superior. This converts one’s own culture into a yardstick which can
be used to gauge all other cultures and rate them as right or wrong.
Ethnocentrism is the way humans respond in every society, group and
walk of life. It is a part of the growth of every individual. It is reflected in the
possessive nature of a child, who learns the difference between the toys which
belong to him and which do not belong to him. He exhibits a superiority complex
when he feels that his toys are better then those of other children, unless corrected
by his parents or elders. Though parents may not encourage such ideas in their
children in public, but in the privacy of their homes, they may give him the feeling
that his possessions are genuinely nice. The teaching of ethnocentrism may either
be direct and intentional or indirect and unintentional. But at least a small part of it
is purposeful. History has several evidences where it often teaches to place the
accomplishments of one’s own country higher than those of other countries.
Religious, civic and other groups belittle their rivals in the most explicit ways. In
the case of fully developed individuals, ethnocentrism simply translates as a reality
of life.
As the awareness of ethnocentrism spreads, the urge to validate it in moral
terms rises. By the way, this is also a variety of ethnocentrism. However, it is to be
noted that ethnocentrism is one of the characteristics of culture. Thus, similar to
the remaining part of culture, it can be appraised only on the basis of its involvement
in the maintenance of social order and in the promotion of social change.
Ethnocentrism has largely contributed to the maintaining of social order than
for promoting social changes. Similarly, the efforts of ethnocentrism for maintaining
social order too are much obvious. It begins by consolidating the unity of the
group. This is based on the level of faith between companions. Ethnocentrism has
both, positive and negative influences. On the positive side, it brings about a steady
status quo and on the negative side, it put off change.
Ethnocentrism also obstructs the importance of collaboration between
different groups. It believes that if one group functions in the best way, it does not
need to interact with other groups which have lower standards of functioning. In
reality, this stimulates the mental outlook of skepticism, disregard and animosity.
Generally disputes and clashes are caused by severe levels of ethnocentrism. This
is evident by the historical details pertaining to wars and religious and racial conflicts.
Conflict brings about social changes through ethnocentrism, which in turn,
promotes this change. There are cases when these changes are encouraged throughCulture
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peaceful evolution. In general, scientists advocate a peaceful evolution of social
changes. They are against conflicts. As a result, they use diplomatic means to
disregard ethnocentrism. They discourage their students to support and adopt
ethnocentrism by defining it as a hindrance to the learning process. For this purpose,
sociologists use a blend of the concepts of evolution and functionalism. On the
other hand, ethnocentrism is used by radical groups (belonging to the downtrodden
blacks, the poor, women and young people) to intensify their power and functioning.
This is clearly visible in the form of slogans like ‘black power’, etc
Acculturation
Acculturation is an expression that explains the manner in which different cultures
interact with each other. It also defines the customs of such interactions. These
interactive processes between cultures may either be socially interactive in a
direct way or through media, or other forms of communication. As a result of
these interactions, the identity and culture of the interacting groups change. In
some cases, hostility between both the cultures may result in the emergence of a
new form of culture. This new culture may adopt the characteristics of both the
cultures.
6.2.3 Material and Non-material Culture
Human culture, as viewed by sociologists comprises of two interrelated concepts:
the physical objects which are a part of the culture and the ideological objects
which exists in a culture. This classification is referred to as material and non
material culture.
Material culture: It refers to the tangible, physical objects, spaces and
resources which are considered important or representative of a culture.
Bear in mind, these physical objects do not include natural resources like
trees, rocks, etc., are not deemed material culture but the ideas or meaning
attached to them are. The examples of material culture include objects like
clothing, food, architectural structures like churches, schools, factories, clubs,
etc. These material objects collectively reflect the perceptions or ideas of
the region they are found in. For example, computers might hold a higher
priority for an industrialized society in comparison to a fairly agriculture
based culture for whom let’s say cattle is a higher priority.
Non-material culture: It refers to the abstract ideas, values or beliefs
people have that are not reflected in the physical objects in the society.
Non-material culture in this respect includes attitudes, values, norms,
acceptable behaviour patterns, ethics, language, symbols, and institutions.
The four major process of non-material culture in sociology are considered
to be symbols, language, values and norms.
6.2.4 Cultural Lag
According to William F. Ogburn, objective inventions (technology) have greatly
influenced social changes. Ogburn played a key role in promoting the theory thatCulture
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the number of inventions within a society is directly proportional to the magnitude
of the existent culture. He also observed that the number of material inventions
was growing with the passage of time. Ogburn held that both material and
nonmaterial cultures experience different changes. Changes that are affected in
material culture have a particular direction and are dynamic in nature. This is because
they have specific values of effectiveness, which are used as a base for estimating
them. An instance of this can be seen in the use of airplanes. The development of
airplanes involves continuous efforts to produce planes that can fly, higher and
faster and can carry heavier cargo at minimum cost. Since these standards can be
applied to the development of airplanes, all related inventions are directed to achieve
these goals. On the contrary, in the case of nonmaterial culture, such accepted
standards are not a general occurrence. For instance, a person interested in paintings
may prefer the work of either M.F. Hussain, or Picasso, or Gainsborough, etc.
This choice is a result of his likeing and preference. Additionally, it is not necessary
for these choices to remain constant. Likewise, government or economic
organizations comprise of contending forms of styles. These styles may be
dictatorships, oligarchies, republics or democracies.
The economic system may have communist, socialist, feudal or capitalist
style of functioning. Target-oriented changes, which are a feature of material
culture, do not exist in most of the areas of nonmaterial culture. Thus, Ogburn
and other sociologists were of the opinion that changes in material culture are
more dynamic than those in nonmaterial culture. Surely, one of the most obvious
highlights of modern life is the continuous growth of technology. Man’s life has
undergone tremendous changes with inventions like radio, TV, automobiles,
airplanes, rockets, transistors, computers, etc. These changes are within material
culture. On the other hand, transformations in governments, economic systems,
family lives, education and religion have been very gradual. These changes are
nonmaterial in nature. Ogburn introduced the concept of cultural lag after
observing this disparity in the rates of cultural changes. According to him, material
inventions promoted changes that required amendments to different domains of
nonmaterial culture. An invention like the automobile led to two different types
of changes. On the one hand, it made travelling easier and on the other, it provided
an easy escape for criminals.
Culture lag is the duration or gap of time that exists between the emergence
of a new material invention and the process of adapting it to the corresponding
nonmaterial culture. This duration is usually long, for instance, the period between
the invention of the typewriter and its practical use in offices was fifty years. Even
today, most of the family systems are more suited to an agricultural economy
rather than an industrial one. Thus, the theory of cultural lag is related to the type of
social problems that are associated with it. Academics have visualized an equilibrium
and tuning between material and nonmaterial cultures. This tuning is disturbed
when raw material objects appear. This disturbance results in a disproportion
which is known as a social problem. This social problem continues till the
nonmaterial culture adapts itself to the new technology.Culture
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Check Your Progress
1. How did Sir Edward Tylor define culture?
2. What is culture, according to Marett?
3. How is culture complex related to trait and the institution?
4. List four major processes of non-material culture.

6.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURE AND

PERSONALITY
Culture is the hallmark of every society. It is the distinguishing mark of human
society. The term personality has been used in several terms, both popularly and
psychologically. However, its comprehensive and satisfactory use is integrated.
The dynamic organization of physical, mental and social qualities of an individual is
apparent to others, in the exchange of social life.
One can define personality as the collection of habits, mindsets, behaviour
and qualities of a person. These focus externally on specific and general roles and
statuses. Internally, they are focused around self-consciousness and the concepts
of self, ideas, values and purpose.
Following are the characteristics of personality:
It is influenced by social interaction.
It is acquired.
It refers to persistent qualities of an individual.
It is an individual unit.
It is not related to bodily structure alone.
The type of personality is generally defined by the culture which prevails in
a specific social group. Culture plays a vital role in influencing the personality of a
group. This has attracted the attention of the scholars of culture and various schools
of thought that are concerned with personality.
The relationship between culture and personality involves on one side, the
total social heritage available to the individual and to which he consciously and
unconsciously responds and on other, the integral character of the individual being.
It can be argued that personality is everything that makes an individual. Personality
comprises of the total ‘organized aggregate of psychological processes and states
pertaining to the individual’. The culture personality focus is one that reminds us
that the pattern of any culture basically determines the broad contours of individual
personalities. These individual personalities, in turn, provide evidence of the culture
pattern and tend to strive for its perpetuation.Culture
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Studies in culture and personalities
Ruth Fulton Benedict, in her famous book, Patterns of Culture, developed the
concept of culture pattern. She has also focused on the significance of culture. The
culture which is described in her book illustrates Benedict’s idea that culture can
be viewed as consisting of cultural configurations. These configurations are
integrated under the domination of one general matter pattern. Therefore, a culture
is analogous to individual beings, such that it is a more or less consistent pattern of
thought and action. According to Benedict, integration of any culture is due to the
arrangement of its content in a cotemporary or permanent style, or design. This
arrangement is defined as pattern, by Benedict. There is a particular style or design
in every part of a culture. These separate designs, together, present a grand design
of culture as a whole. This is the configuration of culture. The emergence of this
reunion in culture is due to a common tendency to see all aspects of culture. Benedict
termed this main tendency as a ‘special genius’ of culture. It is this ‘genius of
culture’, that brings about its integration. This alone, is the basis of integration of
form. Benedict proposed that two kinds of ‘geniuses’ are found in human society.
One is ‘Appollonian’ and the other is ‘Dionysian’. The word ‘Appollonian’ has
been derived from the word Apollo, whichmeans peaceful sun god. Greek regarded
sun as the god of peace, discipline, kindness and humanity. Therefore, in the
Appollonian pattern of culture, one finds the existence of peace, discipline and
kindness. Benedict has cited the example of Pueblo (a term used to describe
modern and ancient communities of Native Americans). They are peace loving
and disciplined. They extend help and cooperation to each other. Not only in
Pueblo, but the Appollonian genius is found in all societies, which have peace and
tranquility as their main qualities. These are the causes of their integration. The
term ‘Dionysian’ has been derived from the Greek God Dionysius, who appeared
to be connected to drinking and a luxurious way of life. In his way, the Dionysian
genius is found in a culture, which experiences many storms and changes. Benedict
cited the example of the Dobu and the Kwakitul cultures of the north-west coast
of America as representatives of the Dionysian genius. Thus Benedict has accepted
patterns or geniuses as an ideal or an induced theory, which determines the behaviour
of human beings.
Benedict was also concerned with showing the influence of personality on
culture. She argued that Appollonian and Dionysian geniuses are integrated
personalities of two cultural groups. These groups are quite opposite in their
behaviour pattern. She also held how these two geniuses molded the personality
of members of their cultural groups. The Appollonian personality compels the
members of the group to behave peacefully and in a disciplined way. This ultimately
forms special cultural characteristics of the concerned group. In the same way, the
Dionysian personality shows its influence on the characteristics of the culture of a
particular group. In this way, personality influences culture.
Margaret Mead, through her studies, has attempted to show the impact of
culture on the formation of personalities. An individual is born in a particular cultureCulture
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and he or she enters into a preformed cultural environment, which plays a significant
role in the formation of his or her personality. An individual adopts not only the
material aspects of a culture, i.e., house, tool, furniture, art, etc., but also its
nonmaterial aspects. The nonmaterial aspects may include parts of culture, such
as, religion, tradition, custom, rituals, beliefs, norms, values, ideals, etc. It is culture
which teaches an individual to behave in society, in a systematic way. An individual
adopts culture through the processes of enculturation and assimilation. Mead studied
the impact of culture on the personality formation of three primitive groups of
New Guinea. These groups were, Mundugumor, Arapesh and Tschambuli. Though
these tribes lived in the same geographical region, they had different character and
personalities. This was due to differences in their culture.
Ralph Linton, in his famous book,Cultural Background of Personality (1945),
attempted to define and classify culture on the basis of behavior. He has also
defined personality and attempted to show how it was formed in a given cultural
situation. He also emphasized how personality influenced culture. According to
Linton, ‘culture may be defined as the sum total of knowledge, attitudes and natural
behavior pattern, shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society.’
He divided culture into three groups, based on the behaviour of their members.
These groups are:
(i) Real culture (Actual behaviour)
(ii) Ideal culture (philosophical and traditional culture)
(iii) Culture construct (what is written about culture)
Real culture is the aggregate of the behaviour of the members of a society,
which are learned and shared in particular situations. It is the way of life of a
community member. The ways of life differ from culture to culture. Ideal culture
pattern is formed by philosophical traditions. In this, some traits of culture are
regarded as ideals. When a culture is studied, it also reflects our understanding of
that culture, which is to be written. This is known as culture-construct. Linton has
also differentiated among cultural universals, cultural alternatives and cultural
specialties. He argued that some cultural traits are necessary for all members of
the society, while the other traits are shared only by some members. The traits,
which are followed by all members, are called universals of culture. For instance,
man must clothe certain parts of body. This is a universal culture. On the other
hand, a person may choose among a number of religious beliefs, or even adopt
none. Specialists are the elements of culture, which are shared by some, but not all
groups, within a society. Linton used the term ‘contra-culture pattern’ to designate
those groups, which not only differ from the prevailing pattern, but sharply challenge
them. For instance, a group of thieves has its own norms and standards, which are
compelling for all members of the group. However, these norms and standards
sharply differ from the conventional prevailing patterns.Culture
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6.4 CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION
According to McIver and Page, two great areas of human experience and of
human activity are ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’. All that man does, all that he creates,
all his artifacts, etc., fall permanently into one order or the other. It would include
not only our systems of social organization but also our techniques and our
material instruments. It would include the ballot box and the telephone alike, our
laws as well as our schools and our banking systems as well as our banks. They
argued that technology is a part of civilization. Within the order of civilization,
they distinguished between basic technology and social technology. Basic
technology is directed towards man’s control over natural phenomena. It is the
area of the engineer and the mechanic. It applies the laws of physics, chemistry
and biology to the service of human objectives. It rules the process of production
in industry, agriculture and extractive industries. It constructs ships, planes,
armaments, tractors and elevators and an endless variety of artifacts. It shapes
and assembles the objects of every scale. It plans the modernized city and its
parkways and also the newest design of women’s hats. Social technology, on
the other hand, is a collection of techniques that are directed to the regulation of
the behaviour of human beings. It has two essential divisions, economic technology
and political technology. Economic technology is concerned with economic
processes and the immediate relationships between men, for the pursuit of
economic means. Political technology regulates a wide range of human
relationships. While MacIver and Page describe culture, they believe that, just
as the typewriter belongs to one great order, similarly the book that has been
typed on it belongs to another great order. All material things that we bring into
existence, give us something that we crave for or we need. All of them are
expressions of us. They have been created to satisfy the need within us. This
need is not an outer necessity. They belong to the realm of culture. This is the
kingdom of principles, styles, emotional strings and intellectual ventures. They
argue that culture is then the antithesis of civilization. It is the expression of our
nature in our modes of living and thinking, in our everyday intercourse, in art, in
literature, in religion, in recreation and in enjoyment.
MacIver and Page pointed the difference between culture and civilization in the
following ways:
Civilization has precise standard of measurement, but not culture:
When we compare the product of civilization, we can prove which is superior
and which is inferior. Since they are means to ends, their degree of efficiency
can be readily estimated. This efficiency can be measured only if the end is
clearly postulated. For instance, a lorry runs faster than a bullock cart, an
aeroplane runs faster than a lorry, a power loom produces more than
handloom, etc. On the other hand, cultural aspects that raise the ultimate
problem of value cannot measure the culture.Culture
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Civilization is always advancing, but not culture:Civilization not only
marches, it marches continuously, provided there is no catastrophic break
of social continuity in the same direction. An achievement of civilization is
generally exploited and improved, until it is superseded or rendered
obsolete by some new invention. It is true that in the past, some
achievements of civilization have again been lost. Men forgot the art which
raised the pyramids of Egypt and constructed the roads and aqueducts of
Rome. The reason for this was that these losses were a result of
catastrophic changes which blotted out the records of civilization. With a
wide area of civilization and superior methods of recording discoveries,
any utilitarian or technical gain becomes a permanent possession within
the social heritage. It then conditions further gains. It is otherwise a cultural
achievement. Since man first invented the automobile, it has continuously
improved. Our means of transportation develop constantly. They are much
superior to those which the ancient Greeks employed. But the same cannot
be opined about our dramas and sculptures, our conversation and our
recreation, etc. Here certitude fails us. There are no automobiles which
are today comparatively inefficient as the first vehicle of Henry Ford. His
work and that of other inventors inevitably prepared the way for better
cars. But our plays are not necessarily better today because of the
achievements of Shakespeare. Culture is subject to retrogression as well
as advancement. Its past does not assure its future.
Civilization is passed on without effort, but not culture: Culture can
only be assimilated by the like-minded. It can be had only by those who are
worthy of it. No one can appreciate art without the quality of an artist.
Civilization, in general, makes no such demand. We can enjoy its products
without sharing the capacity which creates them. Civilization is the vehicle
of culture; its improvement is no guarantee of finer quality in that which it
conveys. Television can show movies, but there is no guarantee of their
quality.
Civilization is external and mechanical, while culture is internal and
organic: Civilization is inclusive of external things. Culture is related to
internal thoughts, feelings, ideals, values, etc. According to MacIver,
‘Civilization is what we have, culture is what we are’.
Though culture and civilization have certain demarcation lines, they are
interdependent. One can believe that they hardly exist apart from each other. Both
are not only interdependent but also interactive. The articles of civilization called
‘artifacts’ are influenced by articles of culture known as ‘mentifacts’. Similarly,
culture is influenced by articles of civilization. The objects of civilization gradually
acquire cultural aspects. The tools and artifacts of primitive communities are not
tools, but they are symbols of culture.Culture
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Check Your Progress
5. What is the hallmark of every society?
6. Name the two kinds of geniuses proposed by Benedict.
7. What is social technology?
6.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
1. Edward Tylor’s definition of culture says, ‘Culture is that complex entirety
which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and other
capabilities and habits that are acquired by man, as a member of society’.
2. According to Marett, culture is communicable intelligence.
3. Culture complex is intermediate between the trait and the institution.
4. The four major non-material culture in sociology are considered to be
symbols, language, values and norms.
5. Culture is the hallmark of every society.
6. Benedict proposed two kinds of geniuses, Appollonian and Dionysian.
7. Social technology is a collection of techniques that are directed to the
regulation of the behaviour of human beings.
6.6 SUMMARY
The development of culture makes human society a special case, as compared
to the societies of other species. The ways of acting, thinking and feeling are
transmitted from one generation to the other and across societies, through
learning and not through inheritance.
Culture includes language and technology, both of which involve the
communication of ideas and the possibility of sophisticated coordination of
action.
Like an organism, a society is a system of relations. These relations are
between organisms themselves, rather than between cells. The organism a
determined structure and parts of this structure, when in operation, contribute
to the existence of the whole. This whole gives it continuity, which is apart
from that of constituent individuals.
Heredity contains all the potentialities of life, but all its actualities are evoked
within and under the conditions of environment.Culture
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Culture is not simply an accumulation of folkways and mores; it is an
organized system of behaviour. Culture is always organized with cultural
traits and complexes.
Cultural traits are basically the smallest units of culture. Traits are, for instance,
the actions of shaking hand, offering prayer, saluting a flag and small material
objects like pen, cloth, etc. Each culture includes thousands of traits.
Cultural relativism implies that the operation and significance of a trait is
affected by its cultural setting. If regarded independently, a trait is neither
positive, nor negative. It can only be categorized as positive or negative,
when it is considered relative to the culture in which it operates.
Ethnocentrism is the inclination of every society to place its own cultural
patterns at the centre of things. It is the act of regarding the cultural practices
of others as inferior to one’s own.
Culture lag is defined as the duration between the emergence of a new
material invention and its absorbance into its corresponding area of non
material culture.
Culture is the hallmark of every society. It is the distinguishing mark of
human society. The term personality has been used in several terms, both
popularly and psychologically. However, its comprehensive and satisfactory
use is integrated. The dynamic organization of physical, mental and social
qualities of an individual is apparent to others, in the exchange of social life.
One can define personality as the collection of habits, mindsets, behaviour
and qualities of a person. These focus externally on specific and general
roles and statuses. Internally, they are focused around self-consciousness
and the concepts of self, ideas, values and purpose.
The relationship between culture and personality involves on one side, the
total social heritage available to the individual and to which he consciously
and unconsciously responds and on other, the integral character of the
individual being.
According to McIver and Page, two great areas of human experience and
of human activity are ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’. All that man does, all that
he creates, all his artifacts, etc., fall permanently into one order or the other.
It would include not only our systems of social organization but also our
techniques and our material instruments.
Though culture and civilization have certain demarcation lines, they are
interdependent. One can believe that they hardly exist apart from each other.
Both are not only interdependent but also interactive. The articles of
civilization called ‘artifacts’ are influenced by articles of culture known as
‘mentifacts’. Similarly, culture is influenced by articles of civilization. The
objects of civilization gradually acquire cultural aspects. The tools and artifacts
of primitive communities are not tools, but they are symbols of culture.Culture
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6.7 KEY WORDS
Folkways: Established ways in which a social group behaves.
Ethnocentrism: The way humans respond in every society, group and
walk of life.
Cultural relativism: A concept of analysing various societies of cultures in
an objective way without comparing them with each other.
Acculturation: An expression that explains the manner in which different
cultures interact with each other.
Real culture: The aggregate of the behaviour of the members of a society,
which are learned and shared in particular situations.
6.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. How does conflict affect ethnocentrism?
2. What is material and non-material culture?
3. Briefly describe the functions of culture.
4. List the characteristics of personality.
5. How did Linton divide culture?
Long-Answer Questions
1. What is culture? Discuss the characteristic features of culture.
2. Define and explain the types of cultures.
3. What is acculturation? How is it different from cultural lag?
4. Analyse the relationship between culture and personality.
5. What is civilization? How is it different from culture?
6.9 FURTHER READINGS
Horton, Paul and Chester, L. Hunt. 1984. Sociology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Kingsley, Davis. 1937. Human Society, New York: Macmillan.
Klineberg, Otto. 1935.Race Differences. Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing.
Mac Iver, R.M and C. Page. 1962. Society, An Introductory Analysis, New
York: Macmillan.
Woods, F.A. 1906. Mental and Moral Heredity in Royalty. Montana: Kessinger
Publishing.Socialization
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UNIT 7 SOCIALIZATION
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Socialization: Meaning and Importance
7.3 Process, Stages, Agencies, Theories and Types of Socialization
7.3.1 Process
7.3.2 Stages of Socialization
7.3.3 Agencies
7.3.4 Theories
7.3.5 Types of Socialization
7.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
7.5 Summary
7.6 Key Words
7.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
7.8 Further Readings
7.0 INTRODUCTION
The process that teaches an individual his culture is called socialization. In this unit,
you will learn about the importance of socialization. This process goes on throughout
one’s life, and it develops a sense of self and converts the individual into a member
of the society. For the success of this process, the individual needs consistent and
organized interaction with his culture and social surroundings. The growth of the
self is influenced by contact with family, peers and the media.
Infants are born without any culture. It is through the process of socialization
that individuals acquire culture and this is done with the help of parents, teachers,
books, media, and so on. Socialization teaches us language, as well as the roles
that we are expected to play or fit into, in society. It also teaches individuals about
the norms of the society of which one is a member. Socialization also contributes
to the formation of one’s personality. Although personality type may depend on
one’s genes, it is the process of socialization that can shape it into particular
directions.
7.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the importance and processes of socialization
Discuss the theories and types of socialization
Critically analyse the agencies of socializationSocialization
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7.2 SOCIALIZATION: MEANING AND
IMPORTANCE
The term ‘socialization’ refers to processes whereby individuals are taught the
skills, behaviour patterns, values and motivations that are needed for competent
functioning in the culture in which they are growing up. The most dominant among
these are social skills, social understandings and emotional maturity. These are
needed for interaction with other individuals to fit in with the functioning of social
dyads and larger groups. Socialization includes all those processes in which culture
is transmitted from one generation to the next, including training for specific roles
in specific occupations.
According to Maclver, ‘Socialization is the process by which social beings
establish wider and profounder relationships with one another, in which they come
closer to each other and build a complex structure of association.
According to Kimball Young, ‘Socialization means the process of inducting
the individual into the social and cultural world of making him a particular member
of a society and its various groups and inducing him to accept the norms and
values of that society. Socialization is definitely a matter of learning and not of
biological inheritance.’
Importance of Socialization
A new born individual (human infant comes into the world as a biological organism
with animal needs. He/she is gradually moulded into a social being and learns the
social ways of acting and feeling. Without this process of moulding, neither the
society nor the culture would exist, nor would the individual become a social person.
The following points reflect the some of the other significance of socialization:
It helps in transmission of culture from generation to generation
It influences individual’s behaviour and personality
It allows individuals to learn skills and discipline to participate in the society
It reflects on the values, ambitions, and goals of individuals in the society
It allows individuals to assume social roles in the society they become a
member of
7.3 PROCESS, STAGES, AGENCIES, THEORIES
AND TYPES OF SOCIALIZATION
In this section, you will learn about the process, stages, agencies and theories of
socialization.
7.3.1 Process
Once we study socialization, we tend to question about to processes. As we
know, every man tries to adjust himself to the conditions of his social environment.Socialization
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The process of adjustment itself is socialization. Socialization is the process of
transforming a biological being to a social being. As we have discussed earlier in
the stages of socialization, direct socialization begins only after birth.
Socialization is a continuous and unending process. It is a process of inducting
an individual into the social world. It is consisting of learning cultural values and
norms which he/she must learn and share. Socialization is social learning.
The fundamental process of socialization is the emergence and gradual
development of ‘self’. It is in terms of the self that a personality takes shape and
mind begins to function. The notion of self begins to arise as a child learns about
the feeling of sensation. According to Johnson, the ‘self might be regarded as the
internalized object representing ones own personality.’ Self is an internalized object
that includes ones own conception of ones abilities and characteristics and an
evaluation of both.
7.3.2 Stages of Socialization
Socialization takes place within a ‘simplified’ social world. The social system in
which the infant or the child is being trained is much less complex than the society
as a whole. This simplification makes it possible for the child to attend to relatively
few things at a time. There are four stages of socialization from infancy to adulthood.
The names given to these stages have become fixed in usage and they are fairly
appropriate, although far from being adequately descriptive. They are as follows:
First stage—The oral stage
Second stage—The anal stage
Third stage—The oedipal stage and latency
Fourth stage—Adolescence or adult socialization
In all these stages, especially in the first three, the family is the main socializing
group. Therefore, one can consider the structure of the family as it bears on
socialization. The family varies in composition from one society to another, but the
nuclear family is universal. One can ignore the variation in particular families and
concentrate on the institutional structure of the nuclear family. A nuclear family has
four roles: husband-father, wife-mother, son-brother and daughter-sister. The
details of these roles vary from one society to another. One obvious feature is the
division according to generation. This division is also according to the relative
power to control interaction; father and mother are able to control their son and
daughter more than the son and daughter being able to control parents.
(i) First stage—the oral stage
In the womb, the foetus is presumably warm and comfortable. At birth, the infant
faces its first crisis—it must breathe, exert itself to be fed, it is susceptible to cold,
and other discomforts; it cries a lot. The essential goal of the first stage of
socialization is to establish oral dependency. The infant builds up fairly definite Socialization
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expectations about feeding time and it learns to signal its pressing needs for care.
During this stage, the infant is not involved in the family as a whole. It is involved
only in the sub-system consisting of itself and its mother. For other members of the
family, as said by American sociologist Talcott Parsons, ‘the baby is little more
than a possession’. If the father or anyone else shares the task of caring for the
baby with the mother, no role differentiation is involved. The person will also be
performing the role of a mother.
Freud called this stage as the ‘primary identification’. In the personality of
the infant, by the time oral dependency has been established, its own role and that
of the mother are probably not clearly distinguished. Mother and infant are merged
and some control over the hunger drive has been established.
(ii) Second stage—the anal stage
The crisis with which this stage begins is caused by the imposition of new demands.
These are the demands for the child to take over some degree of care for himself.
Toilet training is the main focus of new concern. During this stage, the child recognizes
two roles: its own and that of its mother. The child not only receives care but
receives love and gives love in return.
In this stage, one can clearly see the importance of a general fact about
socialization; the socializing agent always has a dual role. During this stage, the
mother first participates in a limited social system. She is the instrumental leader
relative to the child, for she is still chiefly responsible for meeting his specific needs.
The child’s contribution to the system is mainly expressive. He helps to integrate
the system by cooperating and giving love. He is still too young and dependent to
contribute much to the accomplishment of tasks.
The dual role of the socializing agent is to train the child so that he will
ultimately be able to participate in a more complex social system. Obviously, the
socializing agent has to know the roles and common values of the larger system.
Secondly, socialization is an unpleasant task, to some extent for the socializing
agent as well as for the child. The mother does not enjoy seeing her child suffer
through the process of weaning and toilet training. Though she can console herself
with thoughts of the final accomplishment, but probably she is forced to some
extent, by pressure from the larger social system, of which she is a member.
At the same time, the mother as a socializing agent, mediates between the
subsystem and the larger system. She is also supported by that larger system. Her
husband will understand the strain she is undergoing and will relieve her off some
other burdens, for instance, by spending more time with other children.
(iii) Third stage—the oedipal stage and latency
The third stage extends from the fourth year to puberty (the age of twelve or
thirteen). The ‘Oedipal crisis’ occurs typically during the fourth and fifth years,
followed by the latency period.Socialization
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In the course of the third stage, the child becomes a member of the family as
a whole. He must accept all the four roles of the family and he must, above all,
identify himself with the social role ascribed to him on the basis of his biological
sex.
The ‘Oedipus complex’, as Freud named it, is the feeling of jealousy the
boy is believed to have towards his father on account of their rivalry for the mother.
For a girl, the ‘Electra complex’ is the corresponding set of feelings that she has
for her father and is, therefore, jealous of her mother.
When the proper stage of socialization has been reached, many social
pressures are brought to bear on the child, to identify with the appropriate sex.
Boys begin to get rewarded for behaviour that is appropriate towards boys, and
girls are rewarded for acting feminine. Moreover, the toys given to boys are different
from those given to their sisters. Fairly striking anatomical differences make the
correct identification easy, yet the correct identification is largely an achievement
of socialization.
The term ‘identification’ has been used in different ways. Firstly, one is said
to identify with a social role, if one not only recognizes the role but also adopts it
as one’s own. One strives to attain the necessary skills and to conform to the role
norms. Secondly, one is said to identify with a social group if one recognizes the
role system of the group and considers oneself to be a member of it. Identification
in its first sense links a boy with his father and brother, for example, but not with
his mother. Identification in its second sense links a boy with his family, including
both parents and all siblings.
(iv) Fourth stage—adolescence/adult socialization
The fourth stage is adolescence which is roughly at puberty. This is the stage
during which young boys or girls are ordinarily more and more ‘emancipated’
from parental control. The crisis of this period is the strain that is produced by
greater demands for independence. At the same time, in the middle class of a
different society, the adolescent may still be controlled to some extent by his
parents in many activities wherein he might like greater freedom. This is
especially true when individuals become aware of their sexuality. The
psychological changes that accompany adolescence would not produce
problems till sexual maturity.
The goal of adulthood is considered to be attained when a person can
support himself or herself, entirely independent of the parental family. Full adulthood
also implies the ability to form a family.
7.3.3 Agencies
One can conceive of socialization, then, as a succession of processes occurring at
various stages of development, with the child’s family of origin being the first.Socialization
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There are various agencies of the socialization process. These are:
(i) Family
The family gets the baby first. Therefore the process of socialization begins in the
family. The child is born with some basic abilities that are genetically transmitted
from his parents. These abilities and capacities are shaped in a way that is determined
by culture. The mother, with whom the relation of child is most intimate, plays a
significant role in the process of moulding the child in the initial stages. Subsequently,
the father and older siblings transmit other values to the child. Values like knowledge
and skill are transmitted, that children are expected to acquire in a particular society.
(ii) Peer group
As the child grows older, his contemporaries begin to influence him. He spends
most of his spare hours outside his work and study schedule, with his peers in the
playground and places outside his/her home. The attraction of peers is virtually
irresistible to him. He learns from them and they also learn from him. As time
passes, the peer group influence surpasses that of his parents, significantly. Teenage
is the stage when misunderstanding occurs between parents and children. In
socialization of the child, the members of the family, particularly those who exercise
authority over him and members of his peer group exercise two different types of
influences on him. Both authoritarian and equalitarian relationships are equally
significant to him. He acquires the virtues of respect, constraint and obedience
from the first type of relationships and the virtues of cooperation that is based on
trust and mutual understanding, from the second.
The importance of equalitarian element in the socialization process rests on
altogether different grounds. There is free and spontaneous interaction instead of
coercion among those who have equalitarian relationships. They view the world in
the same way, share the same subjective attitude and consequently have perfect
understanding of one another. They learn shades of meaning, fads and crazes,
secret modes of gratification and forbidden knowledge from one another. Part of
this knowledge is often socially useful and yet socially tabooed. Kingsley Davis
has given the instance of knowledge of sex which is supposed to remain undisclosed
until marriage. If this were followed, the problems of maladjustment and aberration
of many kinds would not have been infrequent. Fortunately such knowledge is
transmitted as a part of the lore that passes from child to child. However, the
disadvantage of such inperfect knowleedge is that the child gathers wrong
information from his equally have friends
(iii) School
The school is the second agency of socialization. When a child comes to school,
his formal indoctrination into the culture of the society begins. In school the child
gets his education, which moulds his ideas and attitudes. He is formally introduced
to the lore and the learning, the arts and the science, the values and beliefs, theSocialization
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customs and taboos of the society from a wider circle. His teachers play a very
significant role. Education is of great importance in socialization. A well-planned
system of education can produce a socialized person.
(iv) Books
In literate societies, another important agency of socialization is the printed word
in books and magazines. Experiences and knowledge of the cultural world, values
and beliefs, superstitions and prejudices are expressed in words. According to
Bierstedt, ‘words rush at us in torrent and cascade; they leap into our vision as in
newspaper, magazine and text book’. Text books are written by authors. They
join the teachers, the peers and the parents in the socialization process of every
young individual.
(v) Mass media
Apart from newspapers which carry printed words, the two other mass media,
viz., radio and television, exercise tremendous influence in the socialization process.
7.3.4 Theories
Some important theories of socialization were developed by Charles Horton Cooley,
George Herbert Mead and Sigmund Freud.
Charles Horton Cooley
Cooley, in his book Social Organization, writes that the construction of self and
society are twin born and that we know one as immediately as we know the other.
He further says that ‘the notion of a separate and independent ego is an illusion’.
He reiterates that self consciousness can arise only in a society and it is inseparable
from social consciousness. According him, the self is social. The basic idea of the
conception is, ‘the way we imagine ourselves to appear to another person is an
essential element in our conception of ourselves. He believes that there are three
steps in the process of building ‘looking-glass self’.
(i) Our perception of how we look to others
(ii) Our perception of their judgement of how we look
(iii) Our feeling about these judgements
Thus, we are constantly revising our perception of how we look. Just like
a mirror that gives an image of physical self, so the perception of the reaction of
others gives an image of the social self. Another important point is that the
perception of the judgement of others, is the active factor in the self-image forming
process.
G.H. Mead, basically a psychologist, agreed completely with Cooley that
it is absurd to look at the self or the mind from the viewpoint of an individual
organism. Although it may have its focus on the organism, it is undoubtedly a
social product and a social phenomenon. He believes that the self arises inSocialization
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interaction with the social and nonsocial environment. The social environment is
particularly important.
The basic argument which Mead developed was in support of this conclusion
and also in support of his theory of ‘Me’ and ‘I’. For Mead, ‘Me’ is that group of
organized attitudes to which the individual responds. He called the acting self the
‘I’. The ‘Me’ on the other hand, is part of the self which consists of the internal
attitudes of others.
The process of personalizing the attitudes of others has been aptly described
by Mead, who developed the concept of ‘generalized other’. This generalized
other is composite of the expectations that one believes, others hold towards one.
Awareness of the generalized other is developed through the process of taking
and plying roles. Taking role is an attempt to act out the behaviour that would be
expected of a person, who actually holds the role. Playing a role is acting out the
behaviour of a role that one actually holds, whereas in taking a role, one only
pretends to hold the role.
Mead argues that a three stage process is through which one learns to play adult
roles. These three stages are as follows:
(i) Preparatory stage (1–3 years): In this stage a child imitates adult
behaviour without any real understanding.
(ii) Play stage (3–4 years): In this stage, children have some understanding of
the behaviour but switch role erratically. At one moment, the boy is a builder
who is pilling blocks and a moment later, he knocks them apart. Similarly, at
one moment, he is a policeman and a moment later he becomes an astronaut.
(iii) Game stage (4–5 years): This stage is one where the role behaviour
becomes consistent and purposeful and the child has the ability to sense the
role of the other players. To play baseball, each player must understand his
or her own role, as well as the role of all other players. Thus, one develops
an ability to see one’s own behaviour in its relation to others and senses the
reaction of the people who are involved.
Mead’s theory of role taking is an essential learning process in socialization.
Both Cooley and Mead explain the process of interaction. They saw personality
as shaped through our social interaction with others. Both assumed a basic harmony
between self and society. To Cooley, the separate individual was an abstract idea
that had no existence apart from society, just as society has no meaning apart from
individuals. The socialized self is shaped by the society and the society is an
organization of the persons it socializes. Thus self and society were two aspects of
the same thing.
Sigmund Freud saw self and society in basic conflict, not harmony. He believed
that self is the product of the ways in which basic human motives and impulses are
denied and repressed by the society. Freud believed that the rational portion of
human motivation was like the visible part of an iceberg. The larger part of humanSocialization
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motivation that rests within the unseen forces has a powerful affect on human
conduct. He divided the self into three parts:
a. The Id
b. The ego
c. The super ego
The Id is the pool of instinctive and unsocial desires and impulses, which
are selfish and antisocial.
Ego is the conscious and rational part of the self, which oversees the super
ego’s restraint of the Id.
Super ego is the complex of social ideals and values which one has
internalized and which form of consciousness.
Ego is the control center, whereassuper ego is the police officer and Id is
a combination of selfish, destructive desire. Since society restricts the expressions
of aggression, sexuality and other impulses, the Id is continually at war with the
super ego. The Id is usually repressed, but at times it breaks through in open
defiance of the super ego, creating burden of guilt that is difficult for the self to
carry. At other times, the forces of the Id find expression in misguided forms which
enables the ego to be unaware of the real and underlying reasons for its actions, as
when a parent relieves hostility by beating the child, believing that this is for its own
good. Thus, Freud finds that self and society are often opponents and not merely
different aspects of the same thing. Freud sees self and society in eternal conflict.
7.3.5 Types of Socialization
According to Ian Robertson, the socialization that a person undergoes in the course
of his lifetime may be divided into four types:
(i) Primary socialization
(ii) Anticipatory socialization
(iii) Developmental socialization
(iv) Re-socialization
(i) Primary socialization is the most fundamental and essential type of
socialization. It takes place in early childhood. In this stage, a child internalizes
norms and learns language and cognitive skills.
(ii) Anticipatory socialization is where human beings learn the culture of a group
of which they are immediate members. They also learn the culture of a
group with the anticipation of joining that group. This is referred to by R.K.
Merton as ‘anticipatory socialization’.
(iii) Developmental socialization is the kind of socialization that is based on the
achievement of primary socialization. It builds on already acquired skills
and knowledge as the adult progresses through new situations, such asSocialization
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marriage or new jobs. These require new expectations, obligations and
roles. New learning is added to and blended with old in a relatively smooth
and continuous process of development.
(iv) Re-socialization takes place mostly when a social role radically changes.
An individual not only changes roles within a group, but also changes groups.
Check Your Progress
1. Define the fundamental process of socialization.
2. Name the third stage of socialization.
3. What are the grounds on which the equalitarian element in the socialization
process rests upon?
4. Mention the parts in which Freud divides the ‘self’.
5. List four types of socialization.
6. What is anticipatory socialization?
7.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
1. The fundamental process of socialization is the emergence and gradual
development of ‘self’. It is in terms of the self that a personality takes shape
and mind begins to function.
2. The third stage of socialization is called the oedipal stage and latency.
3. The importance of equalitarian element in the socialization process rests on
the grounds that there is free and spontaneous interaction instead of coercion
among those who have equalitarian relationships.
4. Freud divides the ‘self’ into three parts:
The Id
The Ego and,
The Super Ego
5. The four types of socialization are:
Primary socialization
Anticipatory socialization
Developmental socialization
Re-socialization
6. Anticipatory socialization is where human beings learn the culture of a group
of which they are immediate members.Socialization
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7.5 SUMMARY
The term‘socialization’ refers to processes whereby individuals are taught
the skills, behaviour patterns, values and motivations that are needed for
competent functioning in the culture in which they are growing up. The most
dominant among these are social skills, social understandings and emotional
maturity.
A new born individual (human infant comes into the world as a biological
organism with animal needs. He/she is gradually moulded into a social being
and learns the social ways of acting and feeling. Without this process of
moulding, neither the society nor the culture would exist, nor would the
individual become a social person.
Socialization is a continuous and unending process. It is a process of inducting
an individual into the social world. It is consisting of learning cultural values
and norms which he/she must learn and share. Socialization is social learning.
The fundamental process of socialization is the emergence and gradual
development of ‘self’. It is in terms of the self that a personality takes shape
and mind begins to function.
Socialization takes place within a ‘simplified’ social world. The social system
in which the infant or the child is being trained is much less complex than the
society as a whole. This simplification makes it possible for the child to
attend to relatively few things at a time. There are four stages of socialization
from infancy to adulthood. They are as follows:
First stage—The oral stage
Second stage—The anal stage
7.6 KEY WORDS
Socialization: The process by which somebody, especially a child, learns
to behave in a way that is acceptable to the society is called socialization.
The Id:The Id is the pool of instinctive and unsocial desires and impulses,
which are selfish and anti-social.
Ego:Ego is the conscious and rational part of the self, which oversees the
super ego’s restraint of the Id.
Super ego:Super ego is the complex of social ideals and values which one
has internalized and which forms a part of consciousness.
Developmental socialization: Developmental socialization is a kind of
socialization that is based on the achievement of primary socialization. It
builds on already acquired skills and knowledge as the adult progresses
through new situations, such as marriage or new jobs.Socialization
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7.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. What according to Kimball Young is socialization?
2. Write a short note on the process of socialization.
3. What is George Herbert’s theory of socialization?
4. What are the types of socialization?
5. Write a brief note on adult socialization.
6. What is re-socialization?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss the theories and types of socialization.
2. Examine the four stages of socialization.
3. Critically analyse the agencies of socialization.
7.8 FURTHER READINGS
Bottmore, T.B. 2008. Sociology — A Guide to Problems and Literature. Delhi:
S. Chand.
Davis, Kingsley. 1937. Human Society. New York: Macmillan.
Horton, Paul. B, and Chester, L. Hunt, 1968. Sociology. New York: McGraw
Hill.
Hadden W. Richard. 1997. Sociological Theory — An Introduction to the
Classical Tradition. Canada: Board View Press.
Mac Iver, R.M, and Charles Page. 1962. Society, an Introductory Analysis.
New Delhi: Macmillan Publishers India.
Spencer, H. 1961. Study of Sociology. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.Social Action and
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UNIT 8 SOCIAL ACTION AND
INTERACTION
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Social Action: An Overview
8.2.1 Scope of Social Action
8.3 Social Relationships, Interaction and Social Process
8.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Words
8.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
8.8 Further Readings
8.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit provides the reader an insight into the concept of social action as an
integral part of sociology. Max Weber, an important architect of social science,
presents the notion of sociology as a scientific inquiry with its own repertoire of
empirical reality. According to him, the “highly ambiguous” term ‘sociology’, can
be defined as “the interpretative understanding of social action in order to arrive at
a casual explanation of its causes and effects.” Action is social as long as it takes
into account the behavior of others. In other words, the notion that social action
cannot exist in isolation forms the central notion of Weber’s conceptualization.
This co-dependence of individuals in society not only forms the fundamental
understanding of sociology but also sheds light on the larger process of socialization.
The core meaning of social action can be located in the collective and not in the
singular.
Social action is different from social interaction which tries to study the
manner in which the interactions take place. A sub-section of social interaction are
social processes which again has many subdivisions as to the way in which the
interactions take place. Social relationships are sometimes used in place of social
interaction. The basic idea of such categorizations become important subject of
study in sociology as it helps us to determine how individual generally reacts and
might react. It helps us get an idea about the workings of a particular society and
improve on our interactions.Social Action and
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8.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Describe the concept and scope of social action
Discuss the theories of social action
Explain the concept of social relationships
Examine the relationship between social interaction and social processes
8.2 SOCIAL ACTION: AN OVERVIEW
The concept of social action is at the centre of Max Weber’s social ideas.
According to him all social concepts hinge on the central idea of social action.
According to Weber’s observation social action is that action of an individual
which is influenced by the action and behaviour of other individuals which also
modifies or determines its direction. Simply stated, social actions are those actions
which are influenced, guided or determined by the actions of other individuals.
Pointing out the importance of a sociologist’s ability to grasp the subjective quality
of human action, Weber wrote, ‘a correct causal inter-pretation of a concrete
course of action is arrived at when the overt action and the motives have both
been correctly apprehended and at the same time their relation has become
meaningfully comprehensible.’ Weber makes a subtle analysis of the concept of
social action, wherein it is regarded as quintessentially human once it is seen in the
light of its motive.
Social Work and Social Action
Social action is a process of change which is brought about by the deliberate effort
of a group or community. As early as 1922, Mary Richmond, one of the early
pioneers of the profession, referred to social action as one of the four processes
involved in social work. In fact, according to Richmond, social action was an
integral part of the concept of social work which emerged out of liberal, rational
and democratic traditions. Early efforts to promote the settlement movement in
the US to change the system of charities into a programme of family welfare were
motivated by a desire to ameliorate the conditions that prevailed at that time. The
question that needs to be discussed, relates to the stage when curative and
preventive services start using the process of action for bringing about desired
changes. Here we will trace the process of social action and discuss its use in the
practice of social work.
As a process of bringing about desired changes, social action includes the following
elements:
Although action might begin with the initiative of one or more individuals,
group action is essential for its fulfillment.Social Action and
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Action has to be organized and given the shape of a movement.
Belief in social progress should motivate participants.
Action should be in accordance with established democratic practices, within
the constitutional rights of a citizen.
The authority of the group arises out of the consent of its members.
The force behind social action lies in group compulsion. A judicious blending
of these elements under proper leadership, together with persistent striving and
continuous education, helps achieve the desired change. There are, however, some
differences between social work professionals and the nature of social action. The
first question that arises is: is social action a separate process, or is it part of the
three recognized methods of social case work, social group work and community
organization? According to some, social action is subordinate to community
organization. Others consider it to be complimentary to community organization.
In addition to this, there are viewpoints that critique the involvement of compulsion
and coercion in promoting social action. The involvement of education is being
acknowledged and public opinion in favour of it is being mobilized to initiate social
action. The overall objective has to be the greatest good of the greatest number
for fulfilling the principles of democracy. Vested interests have to be opposed
firmly. Social justice has to be at the very root of all social action.
By its very nature, the application of the process of social action has to be
selective. Every effort should be made to bring about desired changes in the
nature of social services and social welfare services through education, discussions
and deliberations among concerned parties whether it is the government or private
parties. Social action should be used only when social advances do not occur
through voluntary action. Social action should arise out of the conviction that
social justice calls for such action and the specific situation that requires change
is a matter of urgency and cannot be left to the slow process of gradualism or
voluntary acceptance. Having realized this, leaders in social action should ensure
the following:
Unity of philosophy, opinion and purpose
Better professional preparation
Integrated and continuing programmes of social study and research
Freedom to work jointly with labour unions, professionals and business
organizations and civic and other community groups, towards common
objectives
The starting point of any social action is identifying the problem. This calls
for a study of all factors which are both directly and indirectly related to the situation
undertaking their detailed analysis. A study of the situation should also help in
indicating a solution. The sources of the study may include records, case studies,
unmet needs, recurrent complaints, newspaper reports, observations by people
and community-wide surveys. The usual methods of research may include testsSocial Action and
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for a working hypothesis, collecting factual statistics and logical inferences. In
order to sustain public interest, it is necessary to suggest specific solutions or cures
for a given situation against which social action is initiated. In addition to presenting
facts to indicate the nature and extent of the problem, social research should also
present data to demonstrate that the situation is remediable. Cooperating individuals
and groups should be given an opportunity to help in identifying the problem, to
review the facts in relation to it and to participate in planning a possible solution.
Educating the public should be the objective of social action. Education should be
directed not only at the need but also at the type of cure that is likely to be effective.
A beginning should be made with a strong core of supporters, and efforts at
education and involvement should gradually extend to areas where there is least
evidence of vested interests. Even when overall community support is secured,
efforts should be made continuously to locate cells of hidden resistance. These
efforts should either be isolated or dissolved before the organizational process is
given full momentum. Besides individual contacts, group discussions and group
participation are effective sources of influence.
Importance of Effective Leadership
The selection of proper leadership is essential for the success of any social action
movement. Discovering, training and disciplining leadership should be carefully
planned. In selecting leaders, it is necessary to guard against sentimental and
hysterical individuals. Worthy and well-meaning people are the first to respond to
any urgent call. Social action attracts all types of personalities. While some may
seem normal, there are others who may appear obsessed. These individuals could
also be battle scarred. Moreno’s Who Shall Survive gives a detailed account of
how social drama, as a form of exhibition for social action, can prove to be useful
as a treatment for emotionally disturbed individuals.
Significance of Indigenous Leadership
It is necessary to put the unquestionable zeal of all individuals to work, with judgment,
care and understanding. If social action is to lead to the enactment of legislation,
some of these individuals may be useful for lobbying by correspondence and
contacts. Some of them may prove useful in influencing pressure groups. Efforts,
however, should be made to involve indigenous leadership as these people can
speak the language of the cause more effectively. Indigenous leaders should not
only know each other but should also trust each other despite differences of opinion
on extraneous issues. They should continue to promote participation of the people.
The effectiveness of social action is dependent on the extent of mass support that
the programme enjoys. People should feel that it is their cause and also their
programme. This will mean comparative anonymity for organizing individuals,
agencies and groups. The leadership should also be representative of all the affected
people. Such a cross-section will undoubtedly accentuate difficulties in community
organization, but it will help guarantee effective and lasting results.Social Action and
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Social Legislation as a Form of Social Action
Social legislation is one form of social action which is attempted most frequently in
a democracy. If legislation is contemplated, various agencies such as the concerned
public administration, members of the legislature and members of the subject
committee have to be contacted and provided with detailed information on the
need for the legislation. Continuous education of the public and their elected
representatives on a given legislation needs to be planned and sustained. Many
legislative bills do not get enacted because of lack of skills in handling them at
different stages of consideration. Therefore, it is necessary to plan a strategy for
providing concerned individuals and groups with information. Propagating expert
opinion on a given legislation helps in developing public opinion. A system of
lobbying for social legislation needs to be developed by professional organizations
as very little is being done in this direction at the moment. One should recognize
that social action does not end with the enactment and signing of social legislations.
The real test of social action is in the execution of policies. Therefore, social action
requires perseverance and constant vigilance.
Extensive studies have been done in recent years on the various aspects of
group dynamics—on communication and social change relating to group decisions,
overcoming resistance, stationary and quasi-equilibria, social conformity,
interaction, isolation, acceptance, rejection, cohesiveness, deviance, assimilation
and help in understanding the development and implications of social action.
Professor W. H. Sprott in his ‘Josiah Mason Lectures’ delivered at the University
of Birmingham traces the influence of these studies in social sciences on social
action. These studies clarify various aspects of social action which were hitherto
unknown.
However, in spite of the clear conceptual acceptance of social action as a
process of social work, and in spite of an advanced body of knowledge available,
how is it that there is limited evidence of measures of social action taken either
by individuals, professionals, social workers or by professional organizations?
This is not an easy question to answer. Social action is universally limited to a
few inspired individuals and groups. Although training in social work includes
the subject of social action, it is one of the many topics that the subject covers.
To a considerable extent, conviction among students depends on the conviction
of the teachers in the schools of social work and that of fieldwork supervisors.
Besides, the urgency for social action seems to have lessened since
Independence. There are other ways, which are easier and more comfortable,
for redressing grievances, and for getting change introduced through social
legislation. In fact, in recent years social action measures in the country have
been added to social legislation. Unfortunately, most of these legislations remain
in statute books and much remains to be done for their implementation. Besides,
the climate for social action does not exist even for such urgent issues like
untouchability, civil liberties and exploitation of women and children in industrialSocial Action and
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areas. Under the circumstances, it is difficult to promote social action for securing
social services and social welfare services. The social awareness that was
prevalent in the pre-Independence era needs to be revived. A professional social
worker, in his/her capacity as a citizen and a worker in a social welfare agency
or institution and as a member of the profession, is obliged to take social action
to modify those conditions which lead to social problems. A social worker is in
a unique position to know and be a witness to prevailing social problems that
require change. His/her training equips him/her to promote social action. Social
research and methods of group work and community organization provide him/
her the wherewithal to take such action.
Typology of Social Action
Weber classifies social action according to its mode of orientation. Typically, any
scientist should start with observable data and then proceed on to higher levels of
abstraction. According to Weber in tune with other sciences, even sociology
basically studies sociology social action. This is an observable phenomenon and
rightly forms the crux of Weber’s analysis as it is an interpretative understanding of
the subjective meaning of social action.
For social action there must be a minimum of mutual orientation. That is, taking the
simplest kind of interaction, the alter ego situation, the alter ego’s behaviour must
be influenced by and oriented to the ego and vice-versa. Such an action does not
become social action because there is no mutual orientation. For instance, the fact
that all people who are out open their umbrellas when it rains, does not imply
social action because each person is reacting individually to an external stimulus
which incidentally is common to all. On the mode of orientation, Weber classified
social action into four types:
1. Zweckrational action
2. Westrational action
3. Affectual action
4. Traditional action
1. Zweckrational Action
This is a purely rational action. It means that an actor who is fully conscious of the
end he wants to achieve selects the appropriate means towards the attainment of
his goal. Economic behaviour is purely rational in the sense that a producer chooses
the cheapest and most efficient means in the production of goods. Every
entrepreneur aims at an optimum level of production using the best and most efficient
means for achieving this end. Hence, he chooses from the alternatives available to
him to achieve this goal and exercises the rationality principle. His decision is
purely rational in economic terms. This is referred to as ‘Zweckrational action’ by
Weber.Social Action and
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2. Westrational Action
The second kind of action is Westrational action in which an actor is governed by
values. Here logic refers more to the means than to the end because the end may
or may not be true. Religious behaviour in which people engage in a number of
activities to achieve certain things, is a typical example of this kind of social action.
Whether a devotee achieves his ends through a particular religious mean cannot
be known but the fact that he engages in prayers and other related activities denotes
that he is influenced by religion as a value.
3. Affectual Action
The third kind of action is Affectual in which sentiments, emotions and certain
other states of mind play an important part. For example, the affectual relationship
among members of a family. A mother loves her children not because she finds
it gainful to do so, but purely because she cannot help loving her children. Here
the role of sentiments and affection is the base of actions and kinship bonds
among the members of the group cannot be ignored under any conditions of
study.
4. Traditional Action
Traditional behaviour is the fourth kind of action. This action is performed merely
because it has always been performed. All customs, folkways and mores belong
to this category. A particular way of dressing, for instance, is followed because
that is what people before have been following. Observing some rites and
performing ceremonies are matters more of custom than rationality.
Weber broadly classified these four kinds of action into rational and irrational
typologies. This classification, however, is not mutually exclusive because a
particular action may come under both these typologies. Marginal causes are not
uncommon in sociological knowledge. However, the typologies of social action
propounded by Weber have been the bane not of ‘social action’ as such but that
of an ‘ideal type’ of analysis. Ideal types, referred to as standards for comparative
methods are based on the Zweckrational classification of social action and these
formulations are immense in modern sociological theory.
8.2.1 Scope of Social Action
Social action as a method of bringing about political and economic change although
known to developing countries for liberation from foreign rule, did not find
commitment among social work professionals as such. Those who believed in
social action left the profession and joined the company of social activities.
Research Studies
Research studies on identification of social problems have emerged among social
scientists, especially sociologists and social anthropologists; they have also beenSocial Action and
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found among a few students of social work. Studies on the methodology of
social intervention as well as on strengthening social functions of individuals,
groups, local communities and institutions, are few in number as Ramachandran
has concluded. According to him growth in social work research in India has
been uneven. Greater attention has been paid to writings on social policy, planning
and social administration. The recent development of doctoral studies in some
schools of social work gives hope that there will be advanced studies on
adaptation and effectiveness of social work education in social conditions in
Indian society.
Search for Specialization
In most developing countries the conflict between generic and specialized courses
of social work in education has come to surface. With increasing employment
opportunities demand for specialized training is also being felt. This began with
separate emphasis on contents for courses in labour welfare and personnel
management which was later extended to streams including medical, psychiatry
and school social work. The detailed requirements for these fields, especially as
these are reflected in case studies, offered opportunities for indigenization. At the
same time, specialization divided professional loyalties and disturbed the unity of
the profession.
Fieldwork Practices
Fieldwork practices offer the most effective opportunity of understanding people’s
requirements in the background of prevailing cultural traditions and values, and
thus offer opportunities to indigenize practices. These also provide opportunities
for innovation. Some schools have adopted ‘floating fieldwork’ while others have
taken up the ‘see-saw approach’. The most pronounced adaptation was carried
out by the Department of Social Work, University of Philippines, when it shifted
the faculty and the student body to rural areas for one term, thus adopting a rural
base in learning theory, conducting surveys and research, gathering case studies
and integrating fieldwork with rural requirements. However, this effective effort at
indigenization did not last long in the urban culture of the profession.
A number of meetings and conferences were held by the UN Economic and
Social Commission of Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) and by the regional branches
of the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) and the
International Council of Social Welfare (ICSW) to relate social work with regional
requirements. The most deliberative effort was made in Drucker’s study of
‘Exploration’. Unfortunately, the impact of these deliberations has been marginal.
Studying the impact of UN efforts on social work education and practice in the
region will be a valuable exercise.Social Action and
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Material
Check Your Progress
1. List three issues that leaders in social action should ensure for its success.
2. List two elements that social action must incorporate.
3. According to Weber what do all social concepts hinge on?
4. What is the most common problem to have emerged among social scientists?
5. How has fieldwork enhanced social research?
8.3 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS, INTERACTION
AND SOCIAL PROCESS
In this section, we will discuss the concept of social interaction and social process.
Let us first begin by studying the concept of social interaction.
Social Interaction
Social Interaction is nothing but the process or the interaction between the members
of the society due to which there is a change or influencing of one set of attitudes,
values or ideals.
Social interaction can occur in three forms:
Person to person
Person to group
Group to group
Two conditions are essential for the occurrence of social interaction: social
contact and communication. Social contact is nothing but the sense organ receiving
and perceiving the communicated message. The means of communication is essential
to social contact.
Another very important factor about social interaction is that it can occur in four
forms: accidental, repeated, regular, and regulated.
Accidental social interaction: It refers to social interaction which does
not have any further consequences. It is unplanned and unrepeated.
Repeated social interaction: These are actions which have happened
before, do not happen all the time and have the possibility of occurring from
time to time.
Regular social interaction: These are social interaction which happen
regularly, not planned but very common.
Regulated social interaction:It refers to actions which are regulated by
rules, regulations and customs.Social Action and
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The empirical study of social interaction is a subject of microsociology which
includes the subjects of symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology.
Symbolic Interactionism is a study in which elements like words, gestures,
sounds and actions form the basis of communication of ideas. This is based on the
premise that humans use thing to interact and these have ascribed meanings based
on the culture and the individual’s perception. Another study includes the study of
symbols that are shared for communication, patterns of behaviour and the roles
humans assume in specific situations.
The term ethnomethodology literally means the methods that people use
on daily basis to accomplish their everyday lives.
To put it slightly differently, the social world is seen as an ongoing practical
accomplishment. People are viewed as rational, but they use practical reasoning
in accomplishing their everyday lives. The emphasis in ethnomethodology is on
what people do, whereas, in phenomenological sociology, it is on what people
think.
However, while ethnomethdologists focus on action, it is action that implies
and involves a thoughtful actor; ethnomethodology does not deny the existence of
mental processes.
Social Relationships
The term social relationship is very commonly used interchangeably with the word
social interaction. The primary relationships correspond to primary social groups
which are generally characterized by three distinct features: direct, personal and
intimate interactions. Secondary relationships similarly correspond to the formation
of secondary groups which are characterized by impersonal and generally
constituted to fulfill specific collective interests or goals. We will study about the
primary and secondary social groups in Unit 10.
Generally, the study of social relationships focuses on the following factors:
Structural changes in relations
Variations over life course
Individual relations within the society
Diversity of relationships
And factors like inequality and dynamic relations
Social Processes
There are different types of social interaction and these types of recurring interactions
which form a social relationship are called social processes. It is crucial to remember
that social processes are only a certain specific type of social interaction. It is
essential that a social interaction is observable, consistent and has a specific direction
to be deemed as a social process.Social Action and
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Material
Further social processes can be classified on different bases:
1. On the basis of formation including
(i) Universal or basic social processes
(ii) Derived social processes
2. On the basis of unity or opposition
(i) Conjunctive social processes
(ii) Disjunctive social processes
We will discuss in detail the conjunctive and disjunctive social processes in
Unit 9.
Check Your Progress
6. State the two conditions essential for the occurrence of social interaction.
7. What are the repeated social interaction?
8.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QIESTOPMS
1. Three points that leaders in social action should ensure for its success are as
follows:
unity of philosophy, opinion and purpose
better professional preparation
integrated and continuing programmes of social study and research
2. Two elements that social action must incorporate are:
Although action might begin with the initiative of one or more individuals,
group action is essential for its fulfillment.
Action has to be organized and given the shape of a movement.
3. The concept of social action is at the centre of Max Weber’s social ideas.
According to him all social concepts hinge on the central idea of social
action.
4. Identification of social problems and uneven growth are some of the problems
to have emerged among social scientists.
5. Fieldwork practices offer the most effective opportunity of understanding
people’s requirements in the background of prevailing cultural traditions
and values.
6. Two conditions essential for the occurrence of social interaction are: social
contact and communication.Social Action and
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7. Repeated social interaction are actions which have happened before, do
not happen all the time and have the possibility of occurring from time to
time.
8.5 SUMMARY
The concept of social action is at the centre of Max Weber’s social ideas.
According to him all social concepts hinge on the central idea of social
action. According to Weber’s observation social action is that action of an
individual which is influenced by the action and behaviour of other individuals
which also modifies or determines its direction.
Social action is a process of change which is brought about by the deliberate
effort of a group or community.
The force behind social action lies in group compulsion. A judicious blending
of these elements under proper leadership, together with persistent striving
and continuous education, helps achieve the desired change. There are,
however, some differences between social work professionals and the nature
of social action.
By its very nature, the application of the process of social action has to be
selective. Every effort should be made to bring about desired changes in
the nature of social services and social welfare services through education,
discussions and deliberations among concerned parties whether it is the
government or private parties.
The starting point of any social action is identifying the problem. This calls
for a study of all factors which are both directly and indirectly related to the
situation undertaking their detailed analysis.
Social legislation is one form of social action which is attempted most
frequently in a democracy. If legislation is contemplated, various agencies
such as the concerned public administration, members of the legislature and
members of the subject committee have to be contacted and provided with
detailed information on the need for the legislation.
Weber classifies social action according to its mode of orientation. Typically,
any scientist should start with observable data and then proceed on to higher
levels of abstraction. According to Weber in tune with other sciences, even
sociology basically studies sociology social action. This is an observable
phenomenon and rightly forms the crux of Weber’s analysis as it is an
interpretative understanding of the subjective meaning of social action.
On the mode of orientation, Weber classified social action into four types:
1. Zweckrational action
2. Westrational actionSocial Action and
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Material
3. Affectual action
4. Traditional action
Social action as a method of bringing about political and economic change
although known to developing countries for liberation from foreign rule, did
not find commitment among social work professionals as such. Those who
believed in social action left the profession and joined the company of social
activities.
Social Interaction is nothing but the process or the interaction between the
members of the society due to which there is a change or influencing of one
set of attitudes, values or ideals.
Two conditions are essential for the occurrence of social interaction: social
contact and communication. Social contact is nothing but the sense organ
receiving and perceiving the communicated message. The means of
communication is essential to social contact. Another very important factor
about social interaction is that it can occur in four forms: accidental, repeated,
regular, and regulated.
Symbolic Interactionism is a study in which elements like words, gestures,
sounds and actions form the basis of communication of ideas. This is based
on the premise that humans use thing to interact and these have ascribed
meanings based on the culture and the individual’s perception.
The term social relationship is very commonly used interchangeably with
the word social interaction. The primary relationships correspond to primary
social groups which are generally characterized by three distinct features:
direct, personal and intimate interactions. Secondary relationships similarly
correspond to the formation of secondary groups which are characterized
by impersonal and generally constituted to fulfill specific collective interests
or goals.
There are different types of social interaction and these types of recurring
interactions which form a social relationship are called social processes. It
is crucial to remember that social processes are only a certain specific type
of social interaction. It is essential that a social interaction is observable,
consistent and has a specific direction to be deemed as a social process.
8.6 KEY WORDS
Social action:It refers to that action of an individual which is influenced by
the action and behaviour of other individuals which also modifies or
determines its direction.
Fieldwork practices: It refers to the practices which provide opportunities
for innovation.Social Action and
Interaction
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Social Interaction: It refers to the process or the interaction between the
members of the society due to which there is a change or influencing of one
set of attitudes, values or ideals.
Ethnomethodology:It refers to the methods that people use on daily basis
to accomplish their everyday lives.
Social processes: It refers to the types of recurring interactions which
form a social relationship.
8.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. Give the difference between social work and social action.
2. List the various elements of social action.
3. List what all should an effective leadership ensure in social action.
4. What are the different types of social interactions?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Write a descriptive note on social legislation as a form of social action.
2. Analyse the typology of social action.
3. What are the factors considered for studying social relationships?
8.8 FURTHER READINGS
Bottmore, T.B. 2008. Sociology — A Guide to Problems and Literature. Delhi:
S. Chand.
Davis, Kingsley. 1937. Human Society. New York: Macmillan.
Horton, Paul. B, and Chester, L. Hunt, 1968. Sociology. New York: McGraw
Hill.
Hadden W. Richard. 1997. Sociological Theory — An Introduction to the
Classical Tradition. Canada: Board View Press.
Mac Iver, R.M, and Charles Page. 1962. Society, an Introductory Analysis.
New Delhi: Macmillan Publishers India.
Spencer, H. 1961. Study of Sociology. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.Social Interactions:
Associative and
Disassociative
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Material
BLOCK - IV
SOCIAL PROCESSES, SOCIAL GROUPS
AND SOCIAL ORGANISATIONS
UNIT 9 SOCIAL INTERACTIONS:
ASSOCIATIVE AND
DISASSOCIATIVE
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Associative/Conjunctive
9.2.1 Cooperation
9.2.2 Accomodation
9.2.3 Assimilation
9.2.4 Diffusion
9.3 Diassociative/Disjunctive
9.3.1 Competition
9.3.2 Conflict
9.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
9.5 Summary
9.6 Key Words
9.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
9.8 Further Readings
9.0 INTRODUCTION
We have learnt in the previous unit that social interactions may be of many types
and prominent among social interactions are social processes which show a repetitive
pattern of interactions. Not all social interactions are of the same nature. Social
interactions have a bearing one both parties and the social relationships alter due
to these interactions. Some social interactions are positive for the both parties
involved and help in their development whereas other social interactions negative
impact the characteristics of one party due to the other. This division of social
interactions on the basis of their overall affect on the groups involved is our focus
in this unit. We will study two broad types of social processes: associative and
dissociative forms. These forms of social interaction are also designated as social
processes.Social Interactions:
Associative and
Disassociative
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9.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Describe the meaning of cooperation
Discuss the concept of accommodation
Learn the importance of assimilation
Interpret the idea of diffusion
Examine the concept of competition
Discuss the meaning of conflict
9.2 ASSOCIATIVE/CONJUNCTIVE
Also known as integrative process of social interaction. These types of social
interactions are positive in nature, in the sense that it brings about the unity among
the members of the society. People, as a part of associative social interaction tend
to help each other out in the society by balancing and aligning their interests with
that of other members of the society.
Associative forms of social interaction can be divided into three categories:
(i) Cooperation
(ii) Accommodation
(iii) Assimilation
9.2.1 Cooperation
Cooperation is the most pervasive and continuous form of social processes. It
integrates one individual with the other, it also integrates one community with the
other. The word ‘cooperation’ has been derived from two Latin words, co means
together and operari means work. Cooperation generally means working together
in pursuit of continuous and common endeavour of two or more persons to perform
a task or to reach a goal that is commonly cherished. According to Merrill and
Eldredge, ‘Cooperation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons
work together to gain a common end’. Cooperation always requires joint or
organized efforts and a common end.
According to Cooley, ‘Cooperation arises when men see that they have a
common interest and have at the same time, sufficient intelligence and self control
to seek this interest through united action. Perceived unity of interest and faculty
of organization are the essential facts in intelligent combination’. Cooperation also
requires mutual aid. Cooperation is possible when there are similarity of purpose,
mutual awareness, mutual understanding and mutual helpfulness. Cooperation is
brought about by several circumstances like, desire to active common goal,
situational necessity, desire to achieve larger objective, etc.Social Interactions:
Associative and
Disassociative
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Material
The modes of cooperation in social life may be divided into two principal types:
(a) Direct cooperation
(b) Indirect cooperation
Direct cooperation may include all activities which people perform together.
The essential character of these activities is that people perform them in company,
which they cannot do separately or in isolation. When two or three companies
carry a load together which would be very annoying for one of them to carry
alone, such a cooperation may be characterized as direct cooperation.
Indirect cooperation may include those activities which people perform,
unlike tasks towards a common goal. The principle of division of labour, that is
embedded in the nature of social life, exemplifies indirect cooperation. This mode
of cooperation is revealed wherever people combine their differences for mutual
satisfaction or for a common goal.
Cooperation is a universal phenomenon. Without cooperation, neither an
individual nor a community will survive. Mutual aid starts with cooperation in rearing
of progeny and in the provision of protection and food. Even among the lowest
group of animals such as ants and termites, cooperation is evident for survival.
9.2.2 Accomodation
Accommodation is essentially a process of adjustment, a sort of working
arrangement among persons or groups who are not favourably disposed towards
each another. Just as adaptation is a biological process, so is accommodation a
social process. The question of accommodation arises only in situations of conflict.
Had there been no conflict, there would have been no necessity for adjustment
and hence no need for accommodation. A compromise that is reached by conflicting
parties is termed as accommodation.
Accommodation is the resolution of conflicts which generally means adjusting
oneself to the new environment. Adjustment may be to the physical or social
environment. Adjustment to physical environment takes place through organic or
structural modification that is transmitted by heredity and is termed as adaptation,
while adjustment to social environment is achieved by an individual through the
acquisition of behaviour patterns. These behavioural patterns are transmitted
socially and through adoption of new ways of behaving and are called
accommodation. Therefore, animals that are lower than man adjust themselves
most frequently through adaptation; man does this primarily through accommodation
as he lives in a truly social environment. Accommodation is a social process,
whereas adaptation is a biological process.
Modes of accommodation
Accommodation is social adaptation that involves the invention or borrowing of
devices whereby one ethnic group develops modes of life, economic and otherwise.
These modes complement or supplement those of others groups. It is primarilySocial Interactions:
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Disassociative
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135
concerned with the adjustment issuing from the conflict between individuals and
groups. In a society, individuals have to resolve their conflicts sooner or later. This
compromise that is reached by conflicting parties is accommodation. According
to Park and Burgess, in accommodation the antagonism between conflicting
elements is temporarily regulated. This is why Sumner referred to accommodation
as antagonistic cooperation. Accommodation or resolution of conflicts may be
brought about in many different ways and accordingly, may assume various forms.
The most important of these forms are:
Compromise: When the combatants are equal in strength and neither may be able
to prevail over the other, they attain accommodation by agreeing to a compromise.
In compromise each party to the dispute makes some concessions, yields to some
concessions and yields to some demand of the other. The ‘all or nothing’ attitude
gives way to a willingness to yield up to a certain point in order to gain other. A
compromise is a state in which everyone can find consolation for his disappointment
by reflecting that everyone else is disappointed too. The settlement of disputes in
the parliament involves accommodation of this kind.
Arbitration and conciliation: This is also achieved by means of arbitration and
conciliation which involves attempts on the part of the third party to bring an end
to the conflict between contending parties. The labour management conflict, political
or famitial conflicts may be through the intervention of an arbitrator or a mediator
in whom both the parties have complete confidence. In international law, mediation
or arbitration is a recognized mode of settling international disputes.
Toleration: This is the form of accommodation in which there is no settlement of
difference but there is only the avoidance of overt conflict. In toleration, no
concession is made by any of the groups and there is no change in the basic policy.
It involves accepting a group despite some state of affairs that are definitely
objectionable to the other group. However, each group must bear with the other.
Toleration is best exemplified, particularly in the field of religion, where the different
religious groups exist side by side. Each has some rights over others which it can
also claim for itself. The coexistence of states with radically different economic
and social systems such as communist and capitalist systems is an example of
toleration. The difference in such cases cannot be resolved as they involve
irreconcilable ideologies.
Superordination and subordination: The most common accommodation is the
establishment and recognition of the order of superordination and subordination.
The organization of any society is essentially a result of this type of accommodation.
In a family, relationships among parents and children are based in terms of
superordination and subordination. In larger groups, whether social or economic,
relationships are fixed on the same basis. Even under a democratic order, there
are leaders and followers who give orders and others who follow them. When
individuals ordinarily accept their relative positions as a matter-of-fact,
accommodation is said to have reached a state of perfection.Social Interactions:
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Disassociative
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Material
Accommodation also checks conflicts and enables persons and groups to
maintain cooperation, which is an essential condition of social life.
It also enables individuals to adjust themselves to changed conditions.
Therefore, it is not only controls but also maintains the necessary security of
a social order, without which it may be difficult for the individuals to carry
on their activities together.
Society is the result of accommodation.
9.2.3 Assimilation
Assimilation refers to a process whereby a group of people that has lived
among another group of people for a considerable period of time, adopts the
ways of life of the latter. This way both groups are completely indistinguishable
from each other. Assimilation is both psychological and social. According to
Nimkoff, ‘Assimilation is the process whereby individuals or groups, once
dissimilar, become similar and identified in their interests and outlook’. According
to Lundberg ‘Assimilation is a word used to designate a process of mutual
adjustment through which culturally different groups gradually obliterate their
differences to the point where they are no longer regarded as socially significant
or observable’.
According to Horton and Hunt, ‘The process of mutual cultural diffusion
through which persons and groups come to share a common culture is called
assimilation’.
According to Park and Burgess, ‘Assimilation is a process of
interpenetration and fusion in which persons and groups acquire the memories,
sentiments, attitudes of other persons or groups and by sharing their experiences
and history are incorporated with them in a cultural life’.
When different cultures come into contact, originally it is the sentiment of
mutual conflict that is most prominent, but they gradually assimilate elements from
each other. In the process of assimilation, the two distinct groups do not just
compromise to get along with each other, they also become much like each other,
such that they are no longer distinguishable as separate groups. Assimilation is a
social and a psychological process.
Assimilation also takes place with foreigners or migrants, who are assimilated
in the host culture. Assimilation takes place in the other way round. It is a very
slow and gradual process, it takes quite some time for individuals or groups who
were once dissimilar to become similar, that is become identified by their interests
and outlook. Acculturation takes place before assimilation, when one cultural group
which is in contact with another appropriates or borrows certain cultural elements
from it and incorporates them into its own culture. Social contact and acquisition
of new values and norm are also part of assimilation.Social Interactions:
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Disassociative
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Hurdles in assimilation
Assimilation is not a simple but an essentially complex process. There are certain
factors which facilitate assimilation and others, which create hurdles in the process
of assimilation.
According to Gillin and Gillin, factors that favour assimilation are:
(a) Tolerance
(b) Equal economic opportunity
(c) Sympathetic attitude on part of the dominant group, towards the minority
group
(d) Exposure to dominant culture
(e) Similarity between cultures of the minority and dominant groups
Factors that go against assimilation are:
(a) Isolated condition of life
(b) Attitude of superiority on part of the dominant group
(c) Excessive psychological pressure
(d) Cultural and social difference between the groups
(e) Persecution of the minority group by the majority group
According to Mclver, cultural differences, particularly those of language
and religion are usually considered to be the main constitutions of culture. Immigrants
having the same religion and language as people of the country of their adoption
can easily adjust themselves there. For example, in USA English speaking people
are assimilated quickly and easily, whereas those who do not speak English face
difficulty in being assimilated there. Customs and beliefs are other cultural
characteristics which can aid or hinder assimilation.
Prejudice may also impede assimilation. As long as the dominant group
prejudices against those who have been set apart, neither the other group nor their
individual members can easily become assimilated to the general culture. Prejudice
also impedes assimilation between constituent elements within a given society.
Religious groups often allow the social distance that is created by prejudice to
maintain there separateness. Prejudice may be the outcome of some unpleasant
experiences such as, fear of losing superior status, dread of economic competition
or some form of collective phobia.
The differences between assimilation and accommodation are shown in
Table 9.1
Table 9.1 Differences between Assimilation and Accommodation
Assimilation Accommodation
Assimilation is permanent. Accommodation is non-permanent.
Assimilation is a slow process. Accommodation may be a sudden process.
Assimilation is unconscious. Accommodation is deliberate.Social Interactions:
Associative and
Disassociative
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Material
9.2.4 Diffusion
As we have mentioned in earlier units. Diffusion is a type of social change. In
essence, diffusion is a type of social change in which the elements of one society
or culture makes it way to become part of another culture or society. It is considered
to a be a positive element since it is not rigidly or forcefully imposed like colonization.
Diffusion happens in the form of culture and in the form of innovation. Modern
society as we know it today is considered to be a result of cultural diffusion. The
elements which get transferred in cultural diffusion include knowledge, ideas, values,
beliefs, symbols, practices and behaviours. One primary example can be the
acceptance and practice of yoga in the western societies.
The idea of cultural diffusion started in the mid-nineteenth century through
arguments made by anthropologists like Edward Taylor who sought to explain the
theory of evolution but for cultural similarities. Following this, several sociologists
have also discussed and developed the theory of cultural diffusion. The principle
idea remains that the elements of cultural exchange takes place when different
societies co-exist and interact with each other. The more the interaction, the more
the level of cultural diffusion.
Basic ideas of cultural diffusion include:
Elements of foreign culture which bear semblance to some of the elements
of host culture are adapted.
The adaptation of elements occurs to fit ideas of the foreign culture within
the sensibilities of the host culture.
The ideas that are too foreign for the host culture is weeded out by the
members of the host culture.
Only the elements of the foreign culture which develop or improve the host
culture are adapted.
Cultures which borrow or adapt foreign culture are likely to more openly
accept further more elements from the foreign culture.
Check Your Progress
1. What is indirect cooperation?
2. Is accommodation a social or a biological process?
3. When is accommodation considered to reach its perfection?
4. What is the form of accommodation in which there is no settlement of
difference but there is only the avoidance of overt conflict?Social Interactions:
Associative and
Disassociative
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9.3 DIASSOCIATIVE/DISJUNCTIVE
Dissociative forms of social processes can be divided into two categories:
(i) Competition
(ii) Conflict
9.3.1 Competition
According to Kingsley Davis, ‘Competition simply aims to outdo the competitor
in achieving a mutually desired goal. The urge to outdo arises only when the desired
goal is in scarce supply. Competition is actually the most fundamental form of
social struggle. It is also considered to be a very healthy and a necessary social
process. Competitive spirit is deliberately inculcated in order to produce a result
which is considered to be socially desirable.
Here are a few definitions of competition.
According to Anderson and Parker, ‘Competition is that form of social action
in which we strive against each other for the possession of or use of limited material
or non-material good’. According to Bogardus ‘Competition is a contest to obtain
something which does not exist in a quantity that is sufficient to meet the demand.
Sutherland, Woodward and Maxwell defined competition as, ‘Competition is an
impersonal, unconscious, continuous struggle between individuals or groups for
satisfaction which, because of their limited supply, all may not have’.
(a) Competition is impersonal struggle: According to Park and Burgess,
‘Competition is an ‘interaction without social contact’. It means that it is an
inter-individual struggle that is impersonal. It is usually not directed against
any individual or group in particular. The competitors are not in contact and
do not know each other.
(b) Competition is an unconscious activity. It takes place on an unconscious
level
(c) Competition is universal. It is found in every society and in every age group.
(d) Competition is not an inborn tendency; it is a social phenomenon. It takes
place only when the desired thing is in short supply.
(e) Competition can be seen at different levels like social, cultural, political and
economic.
9.3.2 Conflict
According to Gillin and Gillin, ‘Conflict is the process in which individuals or groups
seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist either by violence or by
threat of violence.’ As a social process it is the anti-thesis of cooperation. Conflict
is conscious action. It is a deliberate intent to oppose. Conflict is also universal.Social Interactions:
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Disassociative
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Material
Conflict expresses itself in numerous ways and in various degrees and over every
range of human conduct. Its modes are always changing with changes in social
and cultural conditions. Some types disappear and new types emerge.
According to Maclver, conflict can be divided into two types. These are:
a. Direct conflict and b. Indirect conflict
(a) Direct conflict: When individual or groups thwart, impede, restrain, injure
or destroy one another in an effort to attain a common goal, direct conflict
occurs.
(b) Indirect conflict: When individuals or groups do not actually impede the
efforts of one another but nevertheless, seek to attain their ends in ways
that obstruct the attainment of the same ends by the other, indirect conflict
occurs.
Kingsley Davis has argued, ‘Conflict is a part of human society because of
the kind of society. He further observed, ‘As a matter of fact, society itself engenders
conflict situations and cannot avoid doing so. By allotting different statuses to
different people, it lays the base for envy and resentment. By giving authority to
one person over another, it sets the stage for the abuse of authority and for retaliation
by force. By instilling ends that are competitive, it makes it possible for competition
to convert into violence.,
As we have discussed, conflict is universal. It occurs at all times and in
every place. There has never been a time or a society in which some individuals or
groups did not come into conflict. According to Malthus, scarce means of
subsistence is the cause of conflict. According to Darwin, the principle of struggle
for existence and survival of the fittest are the main causes of conflict. According
to Freud, ‘the innate instinct for aggression in man is the main cause of conflict’. It
arises primarily due to a clash of interests within groups and societies and between
groups and societies. Conflict also arises as a result of the difference between the
rate of change in moral norms of a society and men’s desire, hopes, dissatisfactions
and demands.
Cultural differences among groups sometimes cause tension and lead to
conflict. Religious differences have occasionally led to wars and persecution in
history. Clash of interests also cause conflict. The interest of worker, clash with
those of the reading employers to conflict among them. When a part of society
does not change along with changes in other parts, then conflict occurs. Social
change causes a cultural lag which leads to a conflict.
Check Your Progress
5. What are the different levels at which competition can be seen?
6. When does an indirect conflict occur?Social Interactions:
Associative and
Disassociative
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9.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
1. Indirect cooperation may include those activities which people perform,
unlike tasks towards a common goal. The principle of division of labour,
that is embedded in the nature of social life, exemplifies indirect cooperation.
This mode of cooperation is revealed wherever people combine their
differences for mutual satisfaction or for a common goal.
2. Accommodation is a social process, whereas adaptation is a biological
process.
3. Tolerance is the form of accommodation in which there is no settlement of
difference but there is only the avoidance of overt conflict.
4. When individuals ordinarily accept their relative positions as a matter-of
fact, accommodation is said to have reached a state of perfection.
5. Competition can be seen at different levels like social, cultural, political and
economic.
6. When individuals or groups do not actually impede the efforts of one another
but nevertheless, seek to attain their ends in ways that obstruct the attainment
of the same ends by the other, indirect conflict occurs.
9.5 SUMMARY
Social interaction is the most important aspect of social life. Social interaction
is also essential for survival of any community and culture.
Also known as integrative process of social interaction. These types of
social interactions are positive in nature, in the sense that it brings about the
unity among the members of the society. People, as a part of associative
social interaction tend to help each other out in the society by balancing and
aligning their interests with that of other members of the society.
Associative forms of social interaction can be divided into three categories:
(i) Cooperation
(ii) Accommodation
(iii) Assimilation
Cooperation is the most pervasive and continuous of the social processes.
It integrates one individual with other individual; it also integrates one
community with other community.
Accommodation is essentially a process of adjustment, a sort of working
arrangement among persons or groups who are not favourably disposed
towards one another.Social Interactions:
Associative and
Disassociative
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The most important of these forms are: Compromise, Arbitration and
conciliation, Toleration, Superordination and subordination.
Assimilation refers to a process whereby a group of people, having lived
among another group of people for a considerable period of time, adopts
the way of life of the latter in such a way as to be completely indistinguishable
from the later.
Diffusion is a type of social change. In essence, diffusion is a type of social
change in which the elements of one society or culture makes it way to
become part of another culture or society. It is considered to a be a positive
element since it is not rigidly or forcefully imposed like colonization. Diffusion
happens in the form of culture and in the form of innovation.
Dissociative forms of social processes can be divided into two categories:
(i) Competition (ii) Conflict
According to Kingsley Davis, ‘Competition simply aims to outdo the
competitor in achieving a mutually desired goal. The urge to outdo arises
only when the desired goal is in scarce supply. Competition is actually the
most fundamental form of social struggle. It is also considered to be a very
healthy and a necessary social process. Competitive spirit is deliberately
inculcated in order to produce a result which is considered to be socially
desirable.
According to Gillin and Gillin, ‘Conflict is the process in which individuals
or groups seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist either by
violence or by threat of violence.’ As a social process it is the anti-thesis of
cooperation. Conflict is conscious action. It is a deliberate intent to oppose.
Conflict is also universal. Conflict expresses itself in numerous ways and in
various degrees and over every range of human conduct. Its modes are
always changing with changes in social and cultural conditions. Some types
disappear and new types emerge.
9.6 KEY WORDS
Cooperation: It generally means working together in pursuit of continuous
and common endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task or to
reach a goal that is commonly cherished.
Accommodation: It is essentially a process of adjustment, a sort of working
arrangement among persons or groups who are not favourably disposed
towards each another.
Assimilation: It refers to a process whereby a group of people that has
lived among another group of people for a considerable period of time,
adopts the ways of life of the latter.Social Interactions:
Associative and
Disassociative
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Competition: It refers to that form of social action in which we strive against
each other for the possession of or use of limited material or non-material
good.
Conflict: It is a deliberate intent to oppose.
9.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. Define associative social interactions.
2. Mention the ways in which adjustment to physical environment takes place.
3. Briefly state the hurdles in assimilation.
4. Differentiate assimilation and accommodation.
5. What is diffusion?
6. What are the types of conflict as per MacIver?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss the disassociative type of social interactions.
2. What are the modes of cooperation in social life? Discuss.
3. Explain the conjunctive social interactions.
9.8 FURTHER READINGS
Bottmore, T.B. 2008. Sociology — A Guide to Problems and Literature. Delhi:
S. Chand.
Davis, Kingsley. 1937. Human Society. New York: Macmillan.
Horton, Paul. B, and Chester, L. Hunt, 1968. Sociology. New York: McGraw
Hill.
Hadden W. Richard. 1997. Sociological Theory — An Introduction to the
Classical Tradition. Canada: Board View Press.
Mac Iver, R.M, and Charles Page. 1962. Society, an Introductory Analysis.
New Delhi: Macmillan Publishers India.
Spencer, H. 1961. Study of Sociology. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.Social Groups
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UNIT 10 SOCIAL GROUPS

Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Social Groups: An Overview
10.3 Types of Social Groups: Characteristics and Functions
10.3.1 Primary Groups
10.3.2 Secondary Groups
10.3.3 Differences between Primary and Secondary Groups
10.3.4 Reference Groups
10.4 Peer Groups in Modern Society
10.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
10.6 Summary
10.7 Key Words
10.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
10.9 Further Readings
10.0 INTRODUCTION
A major area of study of sociology includes the social groups. A social group
comprises of two or more people who share similar characteristics and, hence, a
sense of identity. We all typically belong to a social group such as workplace,
sports team, clubs, and so forth. There are basically two types of social groups
namely, primary and secondary groups. Also, one should consider the fact that
peer groups influence an individual by providing emotional support and providing
opportunities to develop friendship. In this unit, you will study about the meaning
and types of social groups and the influence of peer groups in modern society.
10.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Interpret the meaning of social groups
Discuss the types of social groups
Analyse the position of peer groups in modern society
10.2 SOCIAL GROUPS: AN OVERVIEW
The famous sociologist H.M. Johnson had remarked, ‘Sociology is the science
that deals with social groups.’ This shows the importance of social groups in
sociology.Social Groups
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When two or more people having common outlooks and identities, interact,
they tend to form what is called a social group. It is human nature to seek the
company of other human beings to live forming groups and seldom do we find
someone living all alone in solidarity. Every human begins life as a member of a
group called family, in which he grows and eventually passes away as part of the
group. In the course of his lifetime, the individual forms associations to meet and
attain shared aspirations of the group (family), which in turn play a key role in
shaping one’s personality throughout one’s life.
Two words, ‘social’ and ‘group’ make up the term social group, by which,
we essentially mean a collection or group of men and women or a mix of both.
But, the term social refers to social relationships or shared behaviours. Likewise,
in the words of E.S. Bogardus, well-known figure in the history of American
sociology, the term, ‘Group refers to a number of units of anything in close proximity
with one another’. In case of human beings as Maclver and Page say, a group is
‘Any collection of human beings who are brought into social relationships with one
another’. In the same tone, a social group is an assemblage of people who interact
and participate to carry out similar activities and have a realization of joint interaction.
Some degree of reciprocity and mutual awareness among the individuals exists in
this case.
Being organized is one of the key characteristics of a social group. The
members of a social group have a definite relationship with each other and as such
share reciprocal and a recognized pattern of interactions with each other.
Sociologically, a group is a collection of individuals who have come together into
a socially accepted relationship and establish and consolidate themselves so as to
fulfil mutually shared aims.
In order to completely understand the term ‘social group’, a distinction
must be made with similar sounding terms such as, ‘Social Aggregates’, ‘Social
Category and ‘Potential Group’ or ‘Quasi Group’.
Simply put, a social aggregate is a group of individuals who are in a specific
place at a specific time but share no certain relationship with one another. For
example; the passengers in a train or any form of public transportation. However,
a social category refers to a collection of people who have some unique common
characteristics. For example; members of a certain caste, sex, age and occupational
groups constitute a social category.
A potential or quasi group involves a group of individuals who have some
common characteristics, but, do not possess any recognizable structure. However,
a potential or quasi group becomes a social group if/when it becomes organized.
Firstly, a social group has an organisational aspect. This essentially means that it
has rules, regulations, rivals and structure. Secondly, a social group has a
psychological aspect. This means that there exists an awareness or consciousness
among the members. The members of a social group are linked together in a
system of varied social relationships with one another and they interact andSocial Groups
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co-operate with one other as per norms of the group. Furthermore, a social group
is also very dynamic in nature.
Let us study same of the prominent definitions of a social group–as defined by
renowned sociologists.
As per Ogburn and Nimkoff, ‘Whenever two or more individuals come
together and influence one another, they may be said to constitute a social
group’.
As per A.W. Green, ‘A group is an aggregate of individuals which persists
in time, which has one or more interests and activities in common which is
organized.’
As per Horton and Hunt, ‘Groups are aggregates or categories of people
who have a consciousness of membership and of interaction.’
As per Maclver and Page, a social group is ‘Any collection of human beings
who are brought into human relationships with one another’.
As per Williams, ‘A social group is a given aggregate people playing inter
related roles and recognized by themselves or others as a unit of interaction.’
As per E.S. Bogardus, ‘A social group may be thought of as a number of
persons two or more, who have some common objects of attention who
are stimulating to each other, who have common loyalty and participate in
similar activities.’
The important characteristics of a social group are as follows:
Social groups have a certain given number of individuals: A social
group comprises of a given number of persons. It is not possible to form a
social group without a given number of persons. A minimum of two
individuals constitute a group. This number may vary depending on how
large the group may be. These individuals are considered to be a unit of the
group as they belong to the group as group members.
Reciprocal relations within social groups: All group members have a
reciprocal relationship with one another and this relationship is the very
foundation or basis of a social group without which a social group will
cease to exist. It is also important that group members must interact with
one another.
Social groups have common goals: Having common goals is another
vital feature of a social group. The group members have common set of
aims, objectives and principles and it is for the accomplishment of these
common goals that social groups are formed. It is important to note here
that an individual’s interests are always superseded by the group’s interests.
Social groups provide sense of solidarity and unity: A sense of unity
and a bond of unanimity, common goals amongst members of a group always
characterize a social group. Moreover, mutual relationships further reinforce Social Groups
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this bond of solidarity which generates a feeling of loyalty and consideration
amid fellow members of group.
Social groups have a strong sense of a ‘we-feeling’: ‘We-feeling’ is
strongly imbibed amongst the members of a social group. It is actually the
‘we-feeling’ which cultivates sense of cooperation and a feeling togetherness
between its members. Owing to we-feeling members feels associated with
other group members and also consider other people who are not its member
as an outsider.
Social groups have group norms:Every social group has clearly defined
its own set of guiding principles which need to be adhered to, by its members.
Furthermore, these set of standards and rules help group in controlling its
members. These rules might be in verbal or non-verbal forms but violation
of rules results in punishment. The group norms also aid to nurture sense of
unity and integrity among the members of social group.
Social group members have similar behaviour: Members of a social
group always exhibit similar behaviour since the interests, ideals and values
of a group are common its members behave similarly. Similar behaviour
aids in achieving of common goals.
Social group members have awareness:The members of a social group
are well aware of their membership which distinguishes them from other
non-members. This is possibly due to ‘the consciousness of kind’ as opined
by Giddings.
Check Your Progress
1. Mention one of the key characteristics of a social group.
2. When is a potential group termed as a social group?
10.3 TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS:
CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS
Social groups may broadly be classified into two, namely, Primary Groups and
Secondary Groups.
Small social groups whose members share personal and long-lasting or
enduring relationships are called primary groups. The members of such groups
share a relationship with each other that is primarily personal, intimate, informal
and total in nature. These are the commonest kind of groups that human beings
come across. For example, family, friends and play group. Primary groups provide
a sense of security to its members. Primary group members are often emotionally
attached and loyal in their relationships as that is the sole end for members of a
primary group.Social Groups
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Quite the opposite of primary groups, a secondary group is one that is
constituted by a large number of generally unrelated individuals who aggregate
solely to pursue a specific activity or common interest. Such relationships involve
little personal knowledge and weak emotional ties with one another. Impersonal,
formal, utilitarian and segmental are some adjectives that typically characterize a
secondary group. However, these groups are often created to attain certain goals
and interactions are pleasant, although impersonal in nature. For example: co
workers at ones workplace or members of a political party.
In-Groups and Out-Groups
Anin-group is that type of group to which members have a feeling of belongingness
and loyalty for the group. On the other hand, an out-group is such a group whose
members neither have a feeling of belonging nor feel loyalty for the group.
People are often judged to be members of a group based on factors which
include caste, religion, race, nationality, job category, and level of education. When
we meet a person for the first time, we often scrutinize them to see whether they
are ‘one of us.’ One person’s observation of another to be a member of the same
group can foster feelings of loyalty or shared identity. People, who meet by chance
and who happen to share something in common, for example, their alma mater or
hometown, often feel an immediate kinship.
10.3.1 Primary Groups
A primary group, comprising of a small number of directly communicating individuals
who interact ‘face-to-face’ for companionship and to help each other mutually,
maybe said to be at the core of all social organizations. Members of such groups
may be said to be living in the presence and thoughts of other members of the
group.
Charles H. Cooley was the first sociologist to bring our attention to primary
groups, adds further to what has been said above. He states that the primary
groups are greatly responsible for shaping the personality, nature and ideals of an
individual.
Psychologically speaking, the result of a close relationship is a certain
amalgamation of personalities in a shared unit; so that the existence of the self is
the common life and purpose of the group. Perhaps the easiest way of describing
the wholeness is by saying that it is a ‘we’; it includes the sort of compassion and
mutual identification for which ‘we’ is the natural manifestation. The unity in a
primary group is distinguished in that it is primarily competitive, admittance of self
proclamation and various appropriative desires. These desires or passions are
mixed by sympathy, and come, or tend to come, under the discipline of the common
spirit. The individual of a primary group will have ambition, but the main object
this ambition will be to bear allegiance to common standards of service and fair
play within the group. For example, in a school’s cricket team—a boy may disputeSocial Groups
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with his teammates for a place in the team, but he will keep aside such disputes
when the glory of his class or school is in question.
The most significant areas of the close association and co-operation are
undoubtedly the play group of kids, the family and group of neighbourhood elders
such as, the laughter club, amongst many others. These are universal for all times
and for all development stages and forms the basis of what is common in human
nature and in human ideals.
Colley, while defining primary groups, lays emphasis on ‘face-to-face
association’ and on the association of ‘consideration and shared identification,’
i.e., the feeling of togetherness in form of ‘we’. Cooley differentiates the two groups
on basis of the ownership of the ‘we’ feeling and the value of ‘sympathy and
shared recognition’. However, it is also believed that all groups tend to possess
varying degree of this ‘we feeling’ so his distinction might not be very relevant.
Additionally, this is evident that without existence of ‘we’ feeling no group
can maintain its cohesiveness. Therefore, one cannot differentiate between
secondary and primary groups on the basis of ‘we’ feeling. Also, it is important to
note that one cannot limit ‘we-feeling’ to ‘face-to-face’ relationships because there
are many relationships, which do not involve face-to-face interaction but still remains
pleasant and intimate, and on the contrary there are relationships which involves
‘face-to-face’ interaction but are still formal and neutral.
Thus, a closer analysis of Cooley’s definition reveals certain ambiguities;
yet, his differentiation of groups into primary and secondary ones is nonetheless,
an important one.
Characteristics of a Primary Group
Feelings of intimacy, co-operation and close relationships are the main characteristics
of a primary group. These are found aplenty in some concrete groups than many
others.
Intimacy of relationship depends upon the following factors:
Physical proximity:It is necessary for people’s relationships to be close,
it is imperative that their contacts should also be close. Being able to see
and talk with one another makes exchanging ideas and opinions easy. It
makes possible the ‘conversation of gestures’.
Being physically close is not a requirement for the existence of a primary
group. Being physically close only provides a congenial environment for
fostering the growth of a primary group. The culture of the group defines
whether or not physical proximity will foster the development of intimate
relations within the group.
Development of intimacy owing to physical proximity may be hindered by
factors like sex, language, occupation, status and even age. Hence, intimate
relations may not flourish among people living at close quarters. It may,Social Groups
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however, flourish even at great distances owing to regular communication
through various channels.
Small size:Only a small group can ensure intimate and personal relationships
as there is always a point beyond which further expansion of membership
would mean ‘dispersion instead of concentration, dilution instead of
reinforcement of the common interest.’ As a group becomes larger it becomes
increasingly difficult to be in sensory contact with many people at the same
time as each person begins to count more as a sheer cipher or a unit, rather
than as a unique personality.
Stability:The primary group should be stable in order to promote intimacy
of relationship.
Similarity of background: It is imperative that members of a primary
group should not only be close and near to each other, but also, be of
approximately equally experience and intelligence. According to MacIver,
‘There is a level on which every group must dwell, and the person who is
too far above or below it, disturbs the process of group participation.’
Every member must have a reciprocal relationship and must have something
to give as well as to take. An example of this could be a group discussion
scenario, where each member presents his/her views on the given subject
and takes the views of others.
Limited self-interest: The group’s common interest comes first over and
above personal interests of individual members who undermine them in the
spirit of togetherness. The real nature of primary group will not be established
if members meet only to satisfy their personal ends. Rather they come
together to address and do away with common grievances. This commonality
of interest fosters mental peace, contentment and amity among members.
Intensity of shared interests: Common or shared interests lies at the
crux of a primary group. This infuses every member with the drive to share
a devotion to realize the group’s ends. This synergy, thus, created by the
interest of a larger number of people is far greater than that of members in
seclusion. It may further be added that a member, by himself, should not be
construed as just a legal entity or an economic cipher or for that matter a
technological cog, in fact, he is all these rolled up in one.
Camaraderie helps a person tide over hardships, as group members
empathize with one another in unison. Such situations would otherwise be
insufferable to deal with all alone.
A primary group not only endures the common interest of the group but
also sustains the altruistic nature of the group itself. The common interest of group
members is not a means to an end; rather it is intrinsically enjoyable as it is informal
and personal, spontaneous, emotional, inclusive and non-transferable.
Face-to-face characteristic of a primary group does not mean that it exerts
a compelling influence over group members. For example, the members of a familySocial Groups
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who may not necessarily influence one another’s habits and may develop different
and even divergent viewpoints and habits.
A family may be termed as a primary group because it exerts influence in the
early life of a child i.e., it influenced the child before other groups could do so.
In primary group setting, members do similar things together and may often
have similar desires and attitudes as they are striving for similar things. In other
words, close identification results in direct co-operation. Group members look at
the world through the same eyes in which each member views the welfare of the
other as one of his ends. Thus, members achieve their common interest through
direct and face-to-face co-operation with each other.
Group members of a primary group do not act independently; rather, they
do so interdependently by participating in the same process to achieve common
objectives. Although there may be segregation and distinction of labour in a primary
group, yet it must act together. A good example may be a football team, in which
there are center-forwards, midfielders, strikers and goal keepers—they all play
together with the common objective of winning the match.
Similarly, for example, research associates working on a subject may begin
working independently, however, they do come together when group activities
commence. In this light it may be added that the members of a primary group are
involved not just in the group but also in the process of creation of the group. The
need for a society is satiated only in a face-to-face scenario.
10.3.2 Secondary Groups
Secondary groups are quite contrary to primary groups. The functions and activities
of a secondary group are rather utilitarian and time and task oriented as it is
structured around secondary relationships only. These interactions are relatively
more formal, segmental, detached and functional than that of interactions in primary
group.
In a secondary kind of group, the members of the group are not concerned
with the other individual as a person per say, but as a representative who is taking
on a part to do. For example from our daily life one can see secondary groups in
the form of formal organizations and in the form of larger active associations such
as clubs, political parties, labour unions, corporations, international cartels, clubs,
and people travelling by means of public transport or in a modern concept of car
poolers.
It may be said that in the case of a secondary group one’s segmental (partial)
personality, and not one’s total personality, is involved. These groups entirely lack
intimacy of association as we generally find in primary groups. Sociologists Ogburn
and Nimkoff (1950) define secondary groups as: ‘The groups which provide
experience lacking in intimacy are called secondary groups.’ Kimball Young (1942)
has termed these groups as ‘special interest groups’ as they are formed to fulfil
certain specific end or ends.Social Groups
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Following are the main functions of secondary groups:
Secondary groups help in fulfilling various kinds of collective human needs.
Secondary groups aid in bringing about social responsiveness and social
change.
Secondary groups aid in eradicating traditionalism and misconception through
means of education and balanced thinking.
Secondary groups increase social mobility.
Secondary groups help in satiating various special interests such as sports,
dance, music and touring.
The main characteristics of secondary groups are as follows:
Large size: Secondary groups are usually large in size and constitute a
large number of members who may be spread the world over. Example
could be the ISCKON society or The Art of Living or OSHO, whose
members are spread globally. Due to of this large size indirect relations are
found among the members.
Defined aims:Secondary groups are formed to fulfil certain defined aims.
One key parameter of judging the success of a secondary group is the
extent by which it fulfilled its aims. For example, a school or a college
opened to provide education. Or an IIT/Medical coaching institute whose
students successfully cleared various exams.
Voluntary membership: The memberships to secondary group are
voluntary. One has the free will to become a member of a secondary group.
No one can compel an individual to be a member of a secondary group.
Example, it is not at all necessary that one should be a member of the Indian
National Congress (INC) or any political party for that matter.
Formal, indirect and impersonal relation: Group members of a
secondary group share a formal, impersonal and an indirect relationship
with one another where they do not develop personal bonds among
themselves as such relations are not face-to-face and are rather casual.
Interaction of members is in accordance with formal rules and regulations
as individuals in large numbers cannot establish direct relations with one
another. A member is not directly concerned with the other member’s life
as contact and relation are primarily indirect.
Active and inactive members: Secondary group consists of both active
as well as sedentary members owing to the lack of close and personal
associations amid other members of a group. This can be better explained
with an example of an online community where some members may actively
participate in the interactions while some may prefer to remain inactive
participantsSocial Groups
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Formal rules: Formal and written rules which regulate and organize
characterize a secondary group. These rules are meant to exercises control
over members. A secondary group ensures a formal authority set-up and a
well-defined division of labour. Those not obeying these rules and regulations
lose their membership.
Status of an individual depends on their role: In a secondary group, a
member’s status and position depends on the roles that they play in the
group. One’s birth or personal qualities have no bearing on one’s status in a
secondary group.
Individuality in person: Secondary groups are also called ‘special interest
groups’ because people became member in order to fulfil their personal
interests. Hence, they always give stress on the fulfillment of their self
interests. As a result, the individuality of a person is reflected in the group.
Furthermore, upon fulfilment of one’s interests members may no longer be
interested in the group.
Self-dependence among members: Since secondary groups are large in
size the members share an indirect and impersonal relationship with one
another. Interestingly, members also selfishly safeguard and fulfil their own
interests.
Dissimilar ends: Secondary group members have different and diverse
ends and people join such groups only to fulfil their diverse ends.
Relationship is a means to an end: Secondary relations are a means to
an end and not an end unto itself. One’s personal interests are above group
interests and people become friends for specific purposes only.
Formal social control: A secondary group establishes control over its
members through formal ways or implements such as the judiciary, the
executive and so forth. Formal means of social control play a significant
role in secondary groups.
Division of labour: In secondary groups, each member has his share of
duties, tasks and accountabilities and he is expected to accomplish the
functions assigned to him.
Classification of Secondary Groups on the basis of culture:
I. Culturally organized groups
(i) Status groups – for e.g., castes, social classes and so forth.
(ii) Nationality groups – for e.g., states, nations and so on.
(iii) Residence groups – for e.g., communities, cities and regional groups.
(iv) Attention, interest and purpose groups – for e.g., religious bodies, publics,
trade unions, institutional groups and corporations.Social Groups
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II. Groups not fundamentally organized by culture
(i) Biological groups – for e.g., age, sexes and racial groups.
(ii) Casual groups – for e.g., gatherings, crowd, audiences and mobs.
Importance of secondary groups
Secondary groups play a pivotal role in the functioning of societies in an effective
manner as they facilitate people who are not intimately familiar to accomplish
various tasks to move ahead in their respective job roles, to achieve specific goals.
School institutions, universities, hospitals, labour unions, political parties are
formed by quite a few secondary groups.
The impersonality and decorum of the secondary group enables its members
to focus on skills and interests rather than on their personalities. Most job roles
have visibly defined set of roles and goal expectations. Hence, the personal traits
of the individuals satisfying the role and the needs of the people for emotional
engagement with them takes a back seat.
Due to an irrelevant and narrow focus on issues and small emotional
attachment invoked by secondary groups, they occupy a rather insignificant position
in an individual’s life. However, secondary groups are critical in efficiently running
a society.
10.3.3 Differences between Primary and Secondary Groups
Both primary and secondary groups can be distinguished from each other in the
following ways:
Difference in meaning: Face-to-face interactions and co-operation are
the main elements of a primary group and lie at the core of all social
organizations. An individual’s social nature and ideals are shaped by primary
groups. On the other hand, secondary groups are large-scale groups where
relationships are comparatively casual, impersonal and competitive. Such
groups are consciously formed to fulfill common goals or objectives.
Difference in structure: Primary groups are very simple and are based
on an informal structure. All group members participate in the same processes
and are governed by informal rules and regulations. Secondary groups on
the other hand, have very formal structures and are governed by a set of
formal rules and regulations.
Difference in size: Smallness of size and number characterize a primary
group, whereas, largeness of size and global spread of members characterize
a secondary group.
Difference in co-operation: There exists direct co-operation among
members of a primary group as they sit, play and discuss together and also
due to face-to-face contact and personal relationships. The members of a
secondary group co-operate only indirectly with each other since relations
among the members is indirect.Social Groups
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Difference in stability: Primary groups are pretty stable or durable.
However, secondary groups may be temporary or permanent.
Difference in relationships:Primary group members have a direct, intimate
and personal relationship with one another. These relations are all inclusive
as such groups are relationship directed. On the flip side, secondary groups
are formal as there is an indirect and an impersonal relationship among the
members.
Difference in goal: In a primary group, members share the same or
common set of objectives and goals. The goal of a particular group member
transcends into goal of the entire group. While, members share different set
of goals in a secondary group and each member has to play his/her part to
achieve their respective goals. Fulfilling their respective agendas motivate
an individual to be part of a secondary group.
Difference in the method of social control: Customs and folkways are
some of the means of exerting control over primary group members.
However, the degree of social control is restricted in case of secondary
groups and is controlled by state mechanisms such as police, jail, court and
law.
Difference in effect on personality: Primary groups have a greater
influence on the development of its members’ personalities. However,
secondary groups have little bearing on the development of a member’s
personality. The secondary group may only be concerned with a particular
aspect of an individual’s personality.
Differences in physical closeness: Members of primary groups live in
close physical proximity to each other and face-to-face relations are a norm,
whereas, members of a secondary group may live far and wide and may
rarely communicate face-to-face.
Relationship:Primary group members exhibit camaraderie, contact face
to-face and share a direct, intimate and personal relationship with one
another. As such, the primary group is concerned more with the total
personality of an individual as the relations are particularly inclusive. On the
other hand, a secondary group is regulated by official rules which imply a
substitution of impersonal for otherwise personal relationships. The relations,
thus, become secondary and formal. A secondary group does not exercise
any primary influence over its members as members do not live in any physical
or emotional proximity to one another. Secondary group members may do
their jobs, follow orders, pay their dues and/or contribute to the group
interest, and yet may never see each other.
In addition to the classification of groups as expressed above, there are
some sociologists who are of the opinion that classification of groups as primary
and secondary is not very convincing. No group, they stress, can be classified asSocial Groups
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wholly exhibiting primary characteristics or wholly exhibiting secondary
characteristics. They add further, that, even a large scale group cannot work without
a certain identification of its members with the organization as a whole. In the
place of classifying groups into primary and secondary, it is more convenient to
classify contacts.
Furthermore, the main distinction between primary and secondary groups
is not one of size or structure, but of relationship among members. For example, if
a country may be called a secondary group, it is, thus, called since its members
(citizen) do not have a close, personal and warm relationship with one another.
10.3.4 Reference Groups
There is yet another important type of social group in sociology. Reference group
refers to that social group to which the members may or may not belong but
certain aspire to become a part of. The individual takes this group, as the name
suggest, to basically refer to and correct or improve his/her own actions and
behaviour pattern. These groups act like a yardstick with which to measure their
own status and activities in the society. Some examples include: our co-worker,
celebrities, neighbourhood, teachers, etc. It was Herbert Hyman, who coined the
term reference group for the first time in Archives of Psychology (1942). The
following points clarify the concept of reference groups in a better fashion:
It is not necessary that an individual aspires or refers to only one reference
group at a time.
The reference groups might change over the period of a lifetime in tune with
the changes in the lives of the individuals themselves.
There are many factors apart from money and social status which affects
the choice of reference group for the individual. This might include moral
dictates, etc.
Reference groups may be positive (ones whose acceptance is sought) or
negative (one which is avoided).
Reference groups have three functions: enforcing behaviour pattern or belief,
yardstick for comparison and act as goal posts for what is to be achieved.
Check Your Progress
3. Name the types of social groups.
4. What do you understand by the term in-group?
5. Name the sociologist who introduced the idea of primary groups.
6. Why has Kimball Young termed secondary groups as special interest
groups?Social Groups
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10.4 PEER GROUPS IN MODERN SOCIETY
A peer group is a type of social group constituted by people who are equal in such
aspects as age, education or social class. These individuals generally share a similar
interest, social status and background. They can also be very different, with people
from varied social and economic backgrounds, culture and race. Peer relationships
in general provide a unique background for social and emotional development of
a person while enhancing the persons’ reasoning abilities, cooperating with people
and concern for others. Modern research resonate such sentiments, depicting social
and emotional gains as indeed being provided by peer interaction.
During an individual’s adolescent years, his peer groups undergo intense
changes as adolescents tend to spend more time away from their primary group,
i.e., family and home, away from supervision of governing adults. During this time,
adolescents develop new interest areas and are keen to explore what the future
hold for them. The way they had been communicating prior to adolescence,
changes, as they grow up and prefer to talk to their parents about things like their
school, friends and career choices, while they enjoy talking and discussing about
things such as sex and other interpersonal relationships with their friends or their
peer group. Children seek acceptance in the peer groups that they join or aspire
to join, even if such groups may be involved in undesirable activities. It is less likely
for a child to get accepted in a peer group if his temperament does not match with
that of the group.
Some common examples of peer groups may include: Sports teams, school
organizations and clubs, classmates, neighbours who are close in age. At any given
time, an individual may belong to several peer groups at the same time.
Peer groups provide several things for a teen, including:
Opportunities to develop friendships
Support for figuring out abilities and interests
A way to learn how to deal with problems
The chance to learn how to interact with others
Independence from adults
Emotional support
The adolescent peer groups may be divided into:
Cliques
Crowds
(i) Clique:Itmay be defined as a small group of two-twelve individuals
formed by friendship or by common interest, among people of the
same sex, age, race and class. These groups often serve the purposeSocial Groups
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of social control and agents of socialization for its members who are
often quite similar in terms of their risk behaviour and academic
backgrounds. For these individuals, being members of the clique can
be advantageous as members feel a sense of security, belongingness
along with a sense of well-being and also some levels of autonomy to
function and behave.
Generally, a young adolescent would go to a clique to seek support
or answers to his/her questions. For example, they may want answers
to such simple questions as what should he/she say or do during
particular situations, who should he/she be friends with and/or hang
out with, or even what should he/she wear…latest fashion tips.
A clique may also comprise peers whom other members choose or
may include individuals who have come together due to circumstances.
For example, an afterschool club whose members come together
because the circumstances are such. Cliques can have both positive
and negative influences on adolescents.
(ii) Crowd: It may be defined as a large but ambiguous gathering of
unrelated people. For adolescents, such gatherings may also be said
to serve as peer groups. Quite importantly, these are prevalent during
early adolescence and their importance decreases as individuals
advance towards the latter phase of adolescence.
One of the crowds usually identified in most schools is the ‘popular’ crowd.
Concern over being popular can take up a lot of energy for some teens. There
are different ways to look at or define popularity. One perspective that comes
to mind immediately is the view of popularity often portrayed in the media. The
‘popular’ crowd usually consists of the pretty or most handsome people with
the best clothing and cars. The media also usually depicts ‘popular’ teens as
unkind or cruel people who frequently make life miserable for peers. Some of
the ‘popular’ teens also form cliques that wield a lot of power in the school
social scene. The power exists in part because other teens do not challenge that
power; they may be envious of the clique members’ status and/or intimidated.
Another view of ‘popular’ crowds comes from parenting expert Dr. Laurence
Steinberg. He says truly popular teens are friendly, helpful, enthusiastic, good
natured, humorous and intelligent.
Popular teens also:
Perceive and respond to others’ needs
Are confident and assertive without being cocky
Like to have fun in positive ways
Behave in ways peers consider appropriate for their ageSocial Groups
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Table 10.1 Distinction between Cliques and Crowds
Cliques Crowds
Small group (2-12 members) Much larger (may include several cliques)
Members are good friends Members may or may not be friends.
Identified by interest, social status Often membership is based on reputation and
(popular or unpopular) or stereotypes
Belonging to a clique or a crowd can actually modify adolescents’ beliefs and
behaviour but family experiences affect the extent to which adolescents become
like peers. In one study comprising 8000 students from class IX to class XII gave
the following results:
Adolescents who described their parents as authoritative were members of
‘Brain’, ‘Jack’ and ‘Popular’ groups that accepted both adult and peer
reward systems.
Adolescent boys, with permissive parents aligned themselves with the
‘Parties’ and ‘Burnouts’, suggesting a lack of identification with adult reward
system.
Theories on Peer Groups
Social Learning Theorists and Developmental Psychologists such as the likes of
Harry Stack Sullivan, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson are of the belief
that peer groups give adolescents a setting for social, cognitive and emotional
development. Modern day studies have also corroborated the fact that peer groups
undoubtedly provide numerous emotional and social benefits to individuals’
interaction with the groups. Let us briefly discuss the various theories on peer
groups:
(i) Sociocultural Theory: This theory was propounded by the renowned social
scientist Lev Vygotsky which primarily emphasizes the significance of a child’s
culture and how the child consistently acts within the given circumstances
during social interactions. He also studies the child’s language and learning
skills within the identified zones of proximal development. This zone
essentially is the gap between what a student can do alone and what he can
do or achieve with the help of a teacher.
A child will be positively affected if he/she is part of a positive peer group.
For example, a child is very likely to imbibe the characteristics of a studies
focused peer group and do better at studies if he/she is made part of such a
peer group. An average performer begins to perform better if he/she is put
in the company of top performing students.
(ii) Theory of Cognitive Development: As per the theory propounded by
Piaget on cognitive development, there are primarily four stages of cognitive
development. Piaget considers that based on his/her own experiences, aSocial Groups
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child actively builds his understanding of the outer world. Besides, Piaget
recognized facets of development which occur from pre-adolescent stage
onwards, for which peer groups plays a significant role. He recommended
that communication of children with peers is relatively less egocentric than
that compared to adults. Egocentric speech talks about the dialogue that is
not amended to what the listener just said.
(iii) Theory of Stages of Psychological Development: Erikson has
categorized psychosocial development of an individual into eight stages which
ranges from birth of child to his old age. He has laid emphasis on the idea
that not only family but also a society in which an individual lives, has a
significant influence on an individual’s identity and ego through the stages of
development. He also advocated the key role of peer pressure during the
stage of adolescence of psychosocial development of an individual. Children
between the age group of six-twelve years or the Latency stage, is when
individuals begin developing relationships within their peer groups.
(iv) Theory of Interpersonal Relations: This theory was propounded by
Harry Stack Sullivan, American Neo-Freudian psychiatrist and
psychoanalyst, according to whom friendship performs several functions
such as the following:
Offering voluntary validation
Strengthening feelings of self-worth
To provide warmth and a situation for intimate disclosure
Fostering relational sensitivity
Laying the groundwork for future romantic and parental relationships
Sullivan was of the belief that the above functions took prominence during
childhood and that real deep friendships were formed around the age of
nine or ten.
Social groups foster positivity when it comes to a child’s learning and
development. Social learning theorists, the likes of John B. Watson, B.F.
Skinner, and Albert Bandura, all speak for the influences of the social group
in learning and development of a child. The theories ofBehaviourism, the
Theory of Operant Learning, and the Theory of Cognitive Social
Learning, all positively dwell on the part which the social world plays in
the development of children.
The fact that peer groups expressively influence the intellectual and personal
development of an individual is well encapsulated by J.R. Harris in The
Nurture Assumption. Furthermore, many studies support the assumption
that peer groups significantly affect overall achievement of an individual.
However, there are only a few studies examining the influence peer groups
have on tests of cognitive ability.Social Groups
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Effects of Peer Groups
Peer groups affect both positively and negatively. These are discussed as follows:
I. Positive effects of Peer Groups
(a) Peer groups serve as a source of information: Peer groups are
instrumental in an individual’s life to provide a perspective outside one’s
own viewpoint. Being a member of peer groups, one learns the art of
developing and nurturing the relationships with others in the social structure.
Peers, predominantly group members, become vital social referents to teach
other members customs, prevalent societal norms, and different ideologies.
(b) Teach gender roles: Peer groups can also function as a setting where one
learns gender roles. Group members learn about cultural and social
expectations, and sex differences through gender role socialization. However,
girls and boys vary greatly; there is no one-to one connection between sex
and gender roles with females always exhibiting feminine characteristics and
males always exhibiting masculine characteristics. In fact, both the gender
types can have different intensities of femininity and masculinity. Peer groups
can comprise of either all males or all females or mix of males and females.
It has been shown in the different studies that majority of peer groups are
unisex. Peer groups can have great impact or pressure of peers on each
other’s gender role behaviour depends on the intensity of peer pressure.
(c) Serve as a practicing venue to adulthood: As adolescents’ progress
towards adulthood with a feeling self-sufficiency and their dependence on
parents begins decreasing as they start connecting with a much larger social
network. It is now that they find support and help in peer groups. To them,
their peers become a sort of social referents as they emulate and learn the
art of negotiating relationships beyond those of their families. Often peer
groups influence and shape an individual’s attitude and behaviour on various
social and cultural issues such as violence, drugs, achievements, academics
and so on.
(d) Teach unity and collective behaviour in life:Peer groups have a number
of positive influences on adolescents and one of them is the fact that they
inculcate a sense of unity and collective behaviour in life. They are quite
influential in the socialization process promoting in-group similarity. Factors
like group will and consensus and conformity with certain attitudes and
behaviours all foster a group’s cohesion. Group members decide amongst
themselves as to what is ‘normal’ for them. For example, the group may
together decide what kind of clothes they must all wear. That is normal for
them. Such normative codes can often be very rigid in nature.
(e) Identity formation: Peer groups help individuals find out as to who they
are. Obviously, then, if it is the peer group who helps a person to identify
his/her identity. This identification helps a person acquire a sense of self.Social Groups
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Studies have shown that peer groups provide individuals with a platform to
experiment with roles and discover themselves, as they are guided by the
normative regulations of the group.
II. Negative effects of peer groups
Besides having positive effects on individuals, peer groups also affect them
adversely. These are discussed as follows:
(a) Peer pressure: The term peer pressure may be defined as the unwanted
indirect pressure that one feels to change his/her behaviour so as to conform
to their peers’ behaviour. For example, a teetotaller may feel pressured to
drink alcohol or smoke cigarettes so that he/she does not stand the odd
one out at a party. However, in the spirit of the negative meaning of the
term, peer pressure can also be used positively. For example, when a weak
student is introduced into a group of studious kids, he feels pressured to
perform better to be able to conform to the group’s norms.
Peer pressure is not restricted to adolescents only. Even grown-ups are
often faced with peer pressure though it is most commonly seen in
adolescents, especially boys. Studies suggest that girls are less likely to
experience peer pressure compared to boys. Boys especially tend to spend
more time with their peers in social contexts. Teens often force one another
to conform to certain beliefs and behaviours. Thus, a lot of research has
been done to understand how peer pressure affects teenagers negatively,
and it is really helpful for parents to study and learn how peer groups can
affect teens negatively; and how they can at best try to negate the ill effects.
(b) Future problems: An individual’s psychological developments and
academic achievements often are affected by the peer relationships one has
had while growing up. Being in bad company earlier on in age can lead an
individual to turn out unsuccessful with a poor academic track record. Such
people may even have marital and employment related issues in the future.
(c) Risk behaviours: Many studies have been carried out till date which
suggest that peer groups often adversely affect teenagers which leads to
them displaying risk behaviours. In 2012, a study done on teenagers’
involvement in risk behaviours occurring in the context of peer groups
conclude that both peer pressure and control were responsible for risky
behaviour. It was further established that adolescents more dedicated to
having their own personal identity within the group, were less prone to
displaying risk behaviour. The conclusion was that those individuals who
had developed their own identities were less affected adversely by peer
pressure.
(d) Aggression and prosocial behaviour: Adolescent behaviour is largely
affected by the type of peer group they are part of. There was a study
conducted in 2011 which focused on aggression and pro-sociality which
suggested that teenagers who joined an aggressive group tended to showSocial Groups
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an increase in aggression in their own behaviour over a period of rime.
Furthermore, they also displayed prosocial behaviour that was akin to the
standard behaviour of the group they were in. Thus, we see how peer groups
affect the behaviour of adolescents.
(e) Sexual promiscuity: Teen sexual activity leading to teenage pregnancy
and transmission of sexual diseases and sexual violence, are major issues
that adolescents grapple with in today’s times. Adolescence is a time when
a teen’s body and mind goes through a lot of changes. Their emotions and
hormone levels are surging and their desire to experiment and delve into
previously unchartered territories is high and,thus, they indulge in sexual
activity. A longitudinal study spanning over a period of thirteen years was
carried out in 2012 which presented that there was a strong relationship
between deviant peer groups and teen sexual promiscuity. Individuals who
were part of the study stated that they indulged in having sex early in life due
to pressure from peers or even partners.
Adolescents and their peer groups
The behaviour of boys and girls changes with growing age. They behave quite
differently in pre-adolescence, adolescence, mid-adolescent and late adolescence
years. In a cross-sectional, correlational study conducted by Gavin, it was found
that mid-adolescents gave more importance to being in a popular group and felt
more group conformity and leadership within the group than in pre or late
adolescence. Furthermore, it was found that early and middle adolescents reported
few positive interactions with group members and more negative interactions with
those who were not their group members. Girls were more bothered by negativity
and, hence, reported having more positive group interactions, opposed to boys.
Gavin further concluded that the decreased importance of leadership in late
adolescence resulted in lesser conformity with a peer group. Also, being in a popular
group and conforming to group norms became less important in late adolescence.
Further studies conducted by Tarrant on the effects on in-groups and out
groups is also noteworthy for the findings that in-group was always associated
with a higher number of positive characteristics compared to the out-group, and
the more an individual identified with the in-group, the higher their evaluations
were for it.
Adolescents living in multi-cultural countries often form peer groups based
on racial preferences. For example, Caucasians would be more comfortable being
with Caucasians, Blacks with Blacks and Latinos with Latinos. This often leads to
race related prejudices. Preference of being with one’s own racial group can lead
to the rejection of the racial out-group. It has been observed that females are most
prone to such discrimination. Cross Race Peer Groups in this case are beneficial
in fostering racial harmony within groups as they lower racial prejudices and
increase prosocial behaviour. Having cross-racial friends is often shown to giveSocial Groups
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youngsters a sense of higher social satisfaction. A racially diverse peer group often
helps in decreasing the feeling of victimization by members of a racial minority.
Check Your Progress
7. Name the factor which helps to determine the development of an
individual personality.
8. Define the term peer group.
9. Mention the types of adolescent peer groups.
10.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
1. Being organized is one of the key characteristics of a social group.
2. A potential group becomes a social group when it becomes organized.
3. There are two main types of social groups, namely primary groups and
secondary groups.
4. An in-group is that type of group to which members have a feeling of
belongingness and loyalty for the group.
5. Charles Cooley was the first sociologist who introduced the idea of primary
groups.
6. Kimball Young termed secondary groups as special interests group as they
are formed to fulfil certain specific end or ends.
7. An environmental stimulus helps to determine the development of an
individual personality.
8. Peer group is a type of social group constituted by people who are equal in
such aspects as age, education or social class.
9. The types of adolescent peer groups are as follows:
Cliques
Crowds
10.6 SUMMARY
A potential or quasi group involves a group of individuals who have some
common characteristics, but do not possess any recognizable structure.
The important characteristics of a social group are as follows:
o Social groups have a certain given number of individuals
o Reciprocal relations within social groupsSocial Groups
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o Social groups have common goals
o Social groups provide sense of solidarity and unit
o Social groups have a strong sense of ‘we-feeling’
Social groups may broadly be classified into two, namely, primary groups
and secondary groups.
Feelings of intimacy, co-operation and close relationships are the main
characteristics of a primary group. These are found aplenty in some concrete
groups than many others.
Secondary groups are quite contrary to primary groups. The functions and
activities of a secondary group are rather utilitarian and time and task oriented
as it is structured around secondary relationships only.
Both primary and secondary groups can be distinguished from each other
by the following points:
o Difference in Meaning
o Difference in Structure
o Difference in Size
o Difference in Co-operation
o Difference in Stability
A peer group is a type of social group constituted by people who are equal
in such aspects as age, education or social class.
Theories on peer groups include the following:
o Sociocultural theory
o Theory of cognitive development
o Theory of stages of psychological development
o Theory of interpersonal relations
o Peer groups affect both positively and negatively.
10.7 KEY WORDS
Social group: It has been defined as two or more people who interact with
one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of
unity.
Primary group: Small social groups whose members share personal and
long-lasting or enduring relationships are called primary groups.
Secondary group: It is group that is constituted by a large number of
generally unrelated individuals who aggregate solely to pursue a specific
activity or common interest. Such relationships involve little personal
knowledge and weak emotional ties with one another.Social Groups
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Reference group: It refers to that social group to which the members may
or may not belong but certain aspire to become a part of.
Peer group: It is a type of social group constituted by people who are
equal in such aspects as age, education or social class. These individuals
generally share a similar interest, social status and background.
10.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. Differentiate between ‘Social Aggregates’, ‘Social Category and ‘Potential
Group’ or ‘Quasi Group’.
2. Write a short note on In-Groups and Out-Groups.
3. What are the main functions of secondary group?
4. State the types of culturally organized groups.
5. What are reference groups?
6. Briefly state the various theories on peer groups.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Analyse the important characteristics of a social group.
2. Distinguish between primary and secondary groups.
3. Explain the primary groups.
4. Describe secondary groups.
5. Discuss the peer groups existing in modern society.
6. What are the effects of peer groups? Discuss.
10.9 FURTHER READINGS
Bottmore, T.B. 2008. Sociology — A Guide to Problems and Literature. Delhi:
S. Chand.
Davis, Kingsley. 1937. Human Society. New York: Macmillan.
Horton, Paul. B, and Chester, L. Hunt, 1968. Sociology. New York: McGraw
Hill.
Hadden W. Richard. 1997. Sociological Theory — An Introduction to the
Classical Tradition. Canada: Board View Press.
Mac Iver, R.M, and Charles Page. 1962. Society, an Introductory Analysis.
New Delhi: Macmillan Publishers India.
Spencer, H. 1961. Study of Sociology. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.Social Organizations
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UNIT 11 SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS

Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Social Organizations: An Overview
11.2.1 Formal Organizations: Characteristics and Functions
11.2.2 Informal Organizations: Characteristics and Functions
11.3 Bureaucracy
11.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
11.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
11.8 Further Readings
11.0 INTRODUCTION
Humans function within a society and they attain a social identity which is crucial
to the individual development. Social organizations are the organization of social
interactions or relationships of members or groups within a society. Social
organizations by existing give a boost to the sense of community. Additionally,
cooperation and functioning together allows the groups or individuals to satisfy
not only their own but their groups’ goals. Since interactions differ as per the
social relationships, the social organizations are also affected by the manner in
which and the purpose for which these interactions take place. Sociological studies
of organizations are important because organizations work in the domain of
demography, legal, economy, politics and more. These then have direct and indirect
consequences on the individual’s life and actions. In this unit, our focus is on the
social organization and its types. We will discuss the concept of formal and informal
organization. Weber was one of the first sociologists to sociologically study the
concept of organization. This is why, we will also discuss Weber’s theory of
Bureaucracy, which is an administrative type of formal organization.
11.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Discuss the concept of social organization
Explain the characteristics and functions of formal organizations
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of informal organizations
Interpret the meaning and nature of bureaucracy
Discuss the types of bureaucracySocial Organizations
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11.2 SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS: AN OVERVIEW
The interdependence and correlation between different groups in a society is what is
known as social organization. It can be said that social organizations are essential for
the existence and efficient working of social groups in the society. Some sociologists
refer to the concept of social organization as social system. This study of social
organization is considered very important to understand the working of and the
manner in which the individual groups in the society are related to each other.
According to H.M Johnson, organization refers to an aspect of interaction
systems.
Characteristics of Social Organizations
The organizations are formed for the fulfillment of a specific purpose. The
interactions and the pattern will only remain consistent if the goals are
consistent.
Three factors are essential to the social organization: consensus, mutual
understanding and cooperation.
The organization assigns its members roles and status for undertaking different
functions.
The organization uses methods of social control to ensure that functions
assigned are carried out by the members in the organization.
Keeping in consideration the diverse interests of humans and societal needs.
The social organizations are divided in modern complex societies as: informal and
formal organizations.
The important elements of formal organizations are rationality, hierarchy of
power, division of labour, specific functions and very specific manner of allocating
and assigning of tasks and organizational roles. Another very important factor
differentiating formal organizations are that they mostly follow centralized and
systematic authority. One of the first and most significant contribution to the study
of formal organizations was done by Max Weber at the outset of 20th century. He
proposed the theory of bureaucracy. Additionally, sociologists like Talcott Parsons
and Blau have also studied bureaucracy in different capacities.
Informal organizations are those social organizations that do not have such
a rigid and strict structure. They are mostly referred to as human relationships
made for the fulfillment of certain causes. It has also been found that informal
organizations are also found to exist within the structure of formal organizations.
11.2.1 Formal Organizations: Characteristics and Functions
Let us discuss some of the characteristics and functions of formal organizations:
Functions: The foremost characteristic of formal organizations are that
they are constituted to fulfill very specific functions. It is also important toSocial Organizations
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remember that the functions of a formal organization may not necessarily be
singular. There can be sub-divisions within the wider scope of the primary
functions. For example, a temple acts like a formal organization, and in this
sense, it’s main function is religion and its practice. But this is only the manifest
function of the temple. The temple also engages in activities like charities,
educational donations, promotion of ethical values, sponsoring of different
philanthropic ventures, community service, canteen service, etc. These
functions then can be referred to as latent functions of the formal organizations.
Norms and behaviour: Formal organizations also have very specific norms
and behaviours which are expected to be followed by its members and
groups. The activities which happen inside the formal organizations too are
governed mostly by these general norms of behaviour.
Code of conduct: Following the norms and behaviour, the code of conduct
within a formal organization are mostly very clearly recognized and followed.
The procedures are laid down for all the members, so that there is absolute
clarity over which actions are considered permissible and acceptable.
Hierarchical structure, authority, and status:In a formal organization,
the labour is divided into specific positions and roles. This ensures that
efficiency is maintained. These roles and positions then specify the scope of
power and authority each position has. This is to say that it is because of the
formal organization and its division of power that authority is created. Further,
the status explains to the members themselves the rank they hold in the
organization and the responsibilities they are accountable for. The hierarchical
structure or the administrative structure in a formal organization is what is
known as bureaucracy. We will discuss more about this in the next section
of this unit.
Rationality:Another very important characteristic of formal organizations
are that they are based on rationality or logical actions. There can be two
sources of this rationality: rules that have existed from before which are
known to have specific positive results or systematic knowledge.
Permanence: Formal organizations, when compared with informal
organizations are considered to be quite permanent as to their existence.
But it is also possible that some might last longer than others.
Advantages of Formal Organization
Focused achievement of organizational objectives
Systematic working
Clear chain of command
No duplication of work
Coordination of different and large number of functions in a better mannerSocial Organizations
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Disadvantages of Formal Organization
Single focus on achievement of results and completion of work
Very little consideration of member’s social well being
The rigid chain of command makes it difficult to get work done faster
11.2.2 Informal Organizations: Characteristics and Functions
Informal organizations refer to the smaller groups of people united together for a
common cause.
Informal organizations can be referred to as human relations which are formed
due to associations of people working within a formal organizational structure.
The members interact with one another in a very non-official manner, sharing
their interests and fears.
The norms and behaviours within a formal organization are not codified.
Certain behaviours are followed but that is more so in the unofficial capacity.
There is no formal authority in an informal organization only leadership which
binds the groups together to ensure the association has a purpose or direction.
There are no rigid hierarchies or statuses present in informal organization.
The informal organizations though small in size are very important for an
individual in a society. These small informal organizations also keep in check and
add to the strengths of the formal organizational structures.
Advantages of Informal Organization
Fulfillment of social needs of the members
Realistic feedback is achieved amongst the members through their interaction
Faster speed of communication
Disadvantages of Informal Organization
Greater focus on individual interests
No systematic working
Chances of spread of negative and informal information
Unspecified chain of implementation of actions may result in goals not being
fulfilled
Check Your Progress
1. State the factors that are essential to a social organization.
2. Which type of social organization has relatively more permanence?
3. Name the type of social organization which has leadership in place of
authority.Social Organizations
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11.3 BUREAUCRACY
Bureaucracy is a pyramidical hierarchy, which functions under impersonal, uniform
rules and procedures, and is defined as a formal organization which has formal
rules and departments to coordinate hierarchical areas of activities. Thus, in such
a formal organization to look for an informal structure is to recognize how the
relations within the bureaucracy are guided. Bureaucracy, as described by German
sociologist Max Weber, has a division of labour, authority structure, roles defined
for members and rules to guide activity. Robert K Merton emphasized that formal
relationships and formal structure of bureaucracy redefine informality, which to an
extent result in inefficiency. While formal rules and close control mean reliability of
bureaucracy, the very same stricture leads to lack of flexibility and an informal
tendency to turn means into ends. The pyramidical structure, in fact, induces
individual internalization, resulting in a goal displacement.
The formal structure becomes more important than achieving goals. Thus,
the structure might mean, the lower rung completely disowning responsibility while
the upper crust of the pyramid ascribing decisions to policies of the organization,
thus, hindering all efficiency.
Informal structure within bureaucracy refers to the cliques, as recognized
by American sociologist Melvile Dalton, and the struggles of such cliques for gaining
power and ensuring a greater share of organizational rewards. This clearly testifies
to what extent the members of bureaucracy can come together on an informal
level to consolidate and improve their position. Thus, cliques, lobbies and opinion
groups exist along with the formal hierarchy in bureaucracies, which account for
the informal structure.
Main Characteristics of Bureaucracy
The main characteristics of bureaucracy are as follows:
Indispensable for large organizations: In small organizations, work may
be done smoothly and efficiently through face-to-face communication. But
this is not possible in large organizations with large number of employees
and a large-size clientele. Such large organizations are bound to take the
help of bureaucracy.
Attainment of a specific goal: American sociologists Talcott Parsons argues
that one of the main features of bureaucracy is the primary orientation to the
attainment of a specific goal. Each department is assigned a specific goal,
and all its members try to attain it.
Monopoly over output:Bureaucracies have monopoly over outputs. They
enforce laws, policies or decisions. Though civil servants are expected to
enforce government’s policies and decisions under the control and supervision
of their political masters, in practice such control and supervision are almostSocial Organizations
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absent. The political executive has little skill, time and motivation to closely
watch what the bureaucracy is doing.
Hierarchy: The officials in a bureaucratic organization are arranged
hierarchically. In order of seniority, officials are placed in the organization–
senior officials at the top and junior officials lower down the ladder. The file
will move upward to the top for decision and once the decision is taken
there, the file is returned to the bottom where the file has been initiated with
order and instruction for implementation.
Duties defined:The duty of each official is well-defined. He is conscious
of his jurisdiction, and he will not go beyond it. He will be committing a
mistake and inviting punishment if he crosses the area of his jurisdiction.
Specialization:Although bureaucratic training produces generalists, they
develop some amount of specialization in the course of their work. When
an official works in a particular organization or department for some period,
he gains expertise on it.
Discipline and harmony: Each official in an organization has his specified
duty and defined jurisdiction. He is not expected to cross into the jurisdiction
of any other official. If all officials are bound by these norms and expectations,
there will be discipline and harmony in the organization.
Documents and files: Rules and regulations governing an organization
are in a written form. Its decisions are recorded and can be precedents for
future decisions of similar kind. There are piles of files and documents in
any bureaucratic organization. Quick disposal of file indicates the efficiency
of the organization. Unnecessary delay in handling files is known as ‘red
tapism’.
Promotion:The two factors influencing promotion are seniority and ability,
or merit. Seniority should be rewarded in respect of promotion. But exclusive
reliance on seniority for promotion would undermine efficiency. Like seniority,
efficiency should also be rewarded. Promotion is an incentive to meritorious
officials.
Training:Civil servants are selected on the basis of merit, normally through
competition. They are given intensive training both before service and during
service.
Impersonalization: Bureaucracy is characterized by impersonalization.
Civil servants are rigid in their interpretation of rules and regulations. They
are objective. The face of the client is immaterial. Decisions are taken in
accordance with rules, and not on the basis of the face value of the client.
Rules are applied ‘without regard for persons’.
Inhuman: Civil servants are obsessed with rules and regulations.
Bureaucracy lacks a human touch. It is not inclined to take any special
measures for the poor and oppressed if existing rules do not permit tham.Social Organizations
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According to German-American political and administrative scientist F.M.
Marx, bureaucracy is ‘literal and inhuman to the point of indifference towards
the effects achieved’.
Secrecy: Bureaucrats are adept at maintaining secrecy. They would not
easily divulge official secrets. Weber has said, ‘The monarch imagines it is
he who is ruling, when in fact what he is doing is providing a screen, behind
which the apparatus can enjoy the privilege of power without control of
responsibility’.
Types of Bureaucracy
There are, according to author A.K. Mukhopadhyay, five types of bureaucracy,
namely, representative bureaucracy, party-state bureaucracy, military-dominated
bureaucracy, ruler-dominated bureaucracy and ruling bureaucracy.
Representative bureaucracy: The members of representative
bureaucracy are not representative in the sense that they represent a
particular segment of the population. They have, however, a representative
character in the sense that the policies they help to formulate and implement
are influenced by competitive party politics and reflect the ideology of the
ruling party, and demands and desires of people in general. They are
responsible to their political masters and largely responsive to what the
latter stand for.
Party-state bureaucracy: This type of bureaucracy is found in the one
party system. In the absence of competitive politics, the members of the
sole political party ruling the country not only dominate the government, but
also dominate the bureaucracy. The bureaucracy is totally loyal to the party.
It has little freedom, and is bound by the party ideology and programmes.
One has to keep in mind the needs and interests of the political party. The
party is dominant while the bureaucracy is subordinate to it. The civil servants
play only a secondary role in the governance of the country.
Military-dominated bureaucracy: In a number of developing countries,
there are military governments which come to power through military coup.
It is an illegal way of capturing power, and the military rulers are aware of
this. They, therefore, try to do two things: to maintain law and order so that
dissatisfied elements do not rise in rebellion; and to do some developmental
works quickly so that people accept the military regime, though it is not
democratically elected. In these respects, the military rulers employ the civil
servants to do the needful. The civil servants, themselves afraid of the military
government, obey its order and direction even if that may violate the law of
the land. For bureaucracy, goal -attainment becomes the primary goal and
the propriety of means becomes secondary. The bureaucracy becomes quick
to enforce military virtues of hierarchy and discipline.
Ruler-dominated bureaucracy: In this system, the bureaucracy works
as the personal agent of a dictator or an autocratic ruler who is primarilySocial Organizations
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interested in improving his image and increasing his power. Civil servants
themselves become powerful and autocratic, if they are able to win the
confidence of the ruler. They neglect their original function and lay excessive
emphasis on satisfying the ruler- his whims and caprices.
Ruling bureaucracy: In some situations, bureaucracy becomes very
powerful and emerges too dominant to be controlled by the political
executive. In European colonies, the civil servants were very powerful. For
all practical purposes, they constituted the ruling class. In the eyes of the
people of colonies, the civil servants were the real rulers. As the mother
country was far away, the civil servants in a colony were allowed a lot of
powers, latitude and discretion. Even in independent countries, the
bureaucracy behaves like a ruling class if the elected representatives and
ministers, being highly corrupt and inefficient, become too dependent upon
it for governance and administration.
Sociologist Robert K. Merton and Harry M. Johnson have pointed to certain
sources of the dysfunctionality of bureaucracy. First, civil servants are inclined to
lay excessive stress on rules and standard procedures. Rules are a means; they
are meant to help the administration do justice and work smoothly. But obsession
with rules makes them end in themselves. To quote Johnson, ‘Undue attention to
the rules may result in their being treated as ends in themselves, and the bureaucrat
may at times lose sight of the practical purposes for which they are intended.’ He
further says, ‘To the bureaucrat, a client is a routine case; but to the client himself
his problem is unique, and to him the routine treatment may seem procrustean.’
Merton says that ‘As adherence to the rules originally conceived as a means
becomes transformed into an end in itself, there occurs the familiar process of
displacement of goals whereby an instrumental value becomes a terminal value’.
Second, some bureaucracies suffer from over centralization. If top officials
monopolize decision-making, lower officials, instead of making any comments,
just record relevant facts and pass on them to higher officials for decision. Decisions
can be taken by lower officials if they are authorized to do that. As decisions are
taken on all matters at the highest level, decision-making becomes unusually time
taking. Delayed decision is no decision, one may argue, and by the time a decision
in this process reaches the client, he might have died. Over centralization would
discourage lower officials from taking any initiative. They would develop a tendency
to ‘pass the buck’ or to do nothing, even when they have the technical authority to
act.
Third, many civil servants are ‘over-bearing’ or ‘arrogant’ in their dealings
with clients. Sometimes, a civil servant may not have been arrogant in his dealing
with the public, but his impersonal attitude is perceived as ‘arrogance’. Further,
there is the loss of morale in lower officials who feel that they are ill-treated by
their superiors. This is particularly true of the military where ill-treatment of
subordinate officials by their superiors is excessive.Social Organizations
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Fourth, civil servants develop a defence mechanism of an informal order.
They tend to stand united against any threat to their entrenched interests. They
develop a sense of common destiny and an esprit-de-corps.
In an article entitled, Bureaucratic Structure and Personality, Merton
observes that ‘the very elements which conduce toward efficiency, in general produce
inefficiency in specific instance, and that bureaucratic procedure may inhibit the
realization of organizational goals’. Against the backdrop of these general
observations, we may refer to specific weaknesses of bureaucracy as seen by
Merton. First: the bureaucrat’s are taught to conform and to obey, not to improvise
and explore alternative ways. This way of thinking is further strengthened by the
tendency of bureaucrats to play safe because disciplined action and conformity to
official regulations are rewarded by promotions. This kind of self-interest prompts
them not to deviate and make slight adjustments even when such actions are called
for in terms of realization of organizational goals. Second, the bureaucrats tend to
follow scrupulously the formal procedure, however, time-consuming it might be.
In a hierarchical organization, files and papers move from one official to another at
a snail’s pace because observance of formal procedure involves delay. This is
called bureaucratic ‘red-tape’, which stands in the way of providing efficient service
to the clients of the organization. Third, the emphasis on impersonal approach may
lead to misunderstanding, and even friction, between the bureaucrats on the one
hand and the clients on the other. It is so particularly in an organization, whether
public or private, which is primarily concerned with rendering some form of service
to its clients. The business-like and impersonal manner of carrying out their duties
might give a wrong impression about the bureaucrats. They will be seen by their
clients as cold, unsympathetic and even arrogant. The organizational goal of
establishing rapport with their clientele is thwarted thereby.
Organization And Bureaucracy: A Weberian Perspective
All contemporary societies are essentially organizational societies in the sense that
almost all our needs are met in organizational settings. If we look at any urban
area in India, either large or small, we can see how true the above statement is.
Our children in cities and towns born in hospitals, educated in schools, subsequently
employed in governmental or private organizations, enrolled as members of
professional or recreational organizations and myriad other associations. In course
of time, rural areas in India will also fall in like, as is the case in all advanced
societies. It is to be noted that: organizations differ from ‘social units’. Such as the
family, friendship or kin groups or the community, in that these are designed to
realize clearly defined goals.
As there is more specialized division of labour in society, organizations also
increase in number and variety, each organization performing one or a few
specialized function. In the interest of efficiency, these: organizations must develop
a hierarchy or authority and devise a system of rules designed toward the pursuit
of a specific goal. Thus, a particular form of organization, known as bureaucracy,Social Organizations
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emerges. Bureaucratic organization is increasingly becoming defining characteristic
of modern industrial society. Max Weber’s analysis of bureaucracy is a pioneering
study in this particular field in sociology.
Weber’s views on bureaucracy should be seen in the context of his general theory
of social action. It is Weber’s thesis that every man gives some meaning to his
conduct. Human action can, therefore, be understood and appreciated in terms of
the meanings and motives which lie behind it. Weber identified four types of social
action. These include the following:
Rational action in relation to a goal
Rational action in relation to a value
Affective or emotional action
Traditional action
The classification of types of action governs, to a certain extent, the Weberian
interpretation of the contemporary era. According to him, the characteristic of the
world we live in is rationalization. For example, economic enterprise is rational,
because it entails precise calculation of costs and careful weighing of the advantages
and disadvantages of the various factors involved in the enterprise. Bureaucratization
is the prime example of this process. A bureaucratic organization has a clearly
defined goal. It involves precise calculation of the means to attain this goal and
systematically eliminates those factors which stand in the way of the achievement
of its objectives. Bureaucracy is, therefore, rational action in an institutional form.
Bureaucracy is also a form of control. It implies a hierarchical organization
in which there are superiors and subordinates with clearly defined responsibilities
and powers. Some are required to issue orders and some others to carry those
orders. In a large-sized organization, there is also the need for coordination of
activities of the organization. All these imply control of those in the lower ranks of
the hierarchy by those in the higher. Such controls become effective as well as
smooth, if there is a minimum of voluntary submission to higher authority. People
voluntarily submit to authority when it is regarded as legitimate. Max Weber
identified three forms of legitimacy, which is derive from three kinds of social
action. Thus, it can derive from traditional meanings. Legitimacy of this kind, which
we may call traditional legitimacy, depends on belief in the sanctity of immemorial
traditions and the right of those established of the strength of tradition in positions
of authority to exercise it. Similarly, legitimacy be can derived from rational
meanings. Such legitimacy may be called rational legitimacy, which reflects belief
in the legality of patterns of formative rules and the right of those people designated
by the rules to exercise authority command. There is another type of legitimacy
called charismatic legitimacy (so termed after the Greek word for grace), which
depends on the devotion of followers to an individual who according to their
perception, is endowed by exceptional sanctity, heroism or other personal qualities.
Charismatic legitimacy, therefore, derives from affective or emotional action. Social Organizations
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The organizational structure derives its form from the type of legitimacy on
which it is based. While emphasizing this aspect, Max Weber observes as follows:
‘According to the kind of legitimacy which is claimed, the type of obedience, the
type of administrative staff developed to guarantee it and the mode of exercising
authority will all differ fundamentally. In order to understand bureaucracy, it is,
therefore, necessary to take into account the type of legitimacy on which bureaucratic
control is based.
The corresponding type of authority which emerges from his typology is as
follows: traditional authority, rational legal authority and charismatic authority. Weber,
however, points out that none of these ideal types were to be found in a pure form
in any historical instance. While analysing types of administrative organization,
Max Weber selects the ideal-type of bureaucracy. It is based on rational-legal
authority, which is the source of its legitimacy.
Weber brings out the following characteristics of a bureaucratic organization:
As an organization, bureaucracy implies a continuous performance of official
functions according to rules.
Complex tasks of an organization are broken down into manageable parts
with each official specializing in a particular area. Far example, governmental
functions are divided into various departments, such as health, education,
agriculture and defence. Within each department, every official has a clearly
defined sphere of competence and responsibility. They are given the
necessary authority to enable them to fulfil their duties.
This authority is differentially distributed so that a hierarchy of official
positions is formed, some officials having controlling and supervisory duties
with respect to others.
‘Bureaucratic administration’, says Weber, ‘means fundamentally the exercise
of control on the basis of knowledge. This is the feature of it which makes it
specially rational’. Certain specified qualifications are required of those who
are to exercise authority. They are appointed according to their possession
of formal qualifications, usually based on examinations.
The bureaucrats do not own the means of production of administration.
They are also not allowed to make use of their official position for private
purposes. Official quarters or other perquisites which are occupied or
enjoyed by the persons while in service cannot be appropriated by them
after superannuation or termination of service.
Acts of administrative kind are recorded in writing, thereby ensuring
continuity and consistency of the administrative process.
The officials are personally free agents. But they are required to act
impersonally according to rules which define their specific spheres of
competence. The activities of the bureaucrat are governed by the rules, not
by personal considerations, such as his feelings towards colleagues or clients.
His actions are, therefore, rational rather than affective.Social Organizations
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The bureaucrats are paid a salary, although this may be on a scale of pay,
increments being given according to age and experience, and they are paid
a pension after a fixed number of years of employment and at a given age.
Normally, bureaucrats have no other employment, and at all times during
their service career, the officials are subject to rules governing their conduct
in so far as it is related to their official duties.
According to Max Weber, bureaucracy is a defining feature of an industrial
society, irrespective of whether it is capitalistic or socialistic. The question as to
who owns the means of production is not relevant. Marx, however, looks upon
bureaucracy as an essential feature of a capitalist society. In such a society, a small
minority owns the forces of production. Bureaucracy is a tool in the hands of this
small minority to serve the interests of the ruling group. A socialist society, in which
the forces of production are communally owned, can, therefore, dispense with
bureaucracy in the form in which it prevails in a capitalist society. Lenin believed
that after the dictatorship of the proletariat was established in the USSR in 1917,
there would be a steady decline in state bureaucracy. He was conscious of the
fact that some form of bureaucracy was essential. But he wanted it to be remodelled
on the lines suggested by Marx and Engels. One such proposal was that
administrators would be directly appointed and subject to recall at any time. The
second proposal was that the salary of the administrators would be at par with
that of an ordinary worker. The third proposal was to simplify the work to a point
where basic literacy and numeracy were sufficient for their performance. Lenin
visualized a state of affairs in which there might be a mass participation in
administration, since all would possess the necessary skills to participate in the
administrative process. Since every one could be a bureaucrat for a time, none
would develop the bureaucratic style of functioning or the bureaucratic attitude.
Social Composition of Bureaucracy
Civil servants, in general, belong to the upper or middle class. Except those who
are recruited to civil service through reservations, most others are drawn from the
dominant and privileged section of the society. Because of their family background
and related socialization, they have upper class/middle class values. As a result,
they fail to understand the real problems of the poor, exploited and oppressed.
They tend to defend and protect the vested interests of the rich and powerful and
they are opposed to fundamental changes in the society. If in a poor country like
India, social inequality and injustice have been perpetuated fifty years after
independence, the fault lies, to a great extent, with the civil servants who tend to
oppose social change and the empowerment of the poor and weak. The political
executive, which is supposed to control the bureaucrats, is itself corrupt and
inefficient. It has little capacity and motivation to watch and control the bureaucracy.
Ministers and civil servants, in tandem, have exploited the poor and weak, and
this would continue unless and until an effective countervailing force has grown.
Civil servants are more arrogant and exploitative in developing countries than inSocial Organizations
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developed ones. This is due to the fact that the system of check and balance
works well in developed countries while it is largely absent in developing countries.
A Critical Analysis
Bureaucracy, primarily of upper class or middle class origin, is not generally
in favour of any radical social change. Being conservative in orientation, it is
pro-status quo.
There may be differences among civil servants themselves. But they stand
united, whenever, there is any threat to their entrenched interests. They
constitute a powerful pressure group.
They should be administratively neutral, and should not be politically aligned.
But many of them enter into clandestine relations with political parties or
political leaders. To further their personal interests, they do not hesitate to
indulge in unethical activities. If necessary, they divulge official secrets to
their allies in politics. Bureaucracy has become increasingly ‘politicized’.
Civil servants are generally arrogant. They suffer from a superiority complex.
They think that they are the cream of the society and they are all-knowing.
No wonder, they have little respect for the views of others.
Civil servants lack human touch. Due to their upper class/middle class origin,
they do not have genuine sympathy for the poor and deprived. They mistreat
them and neglect their interests.
The lag between the rapid expansion of bureaucratic machinery and the
development of the political system would inhibit the development of effective
politics. The existence of career bureaucracy without corresponding strength
in the political institutions does not necessarily lead to administrative
effectiveness.
Bureaucracy is a danger to democracy. The control of executive, legislature
and judiciary over it has become superficial. It is an irony that in many
democracies, the powers and dominance of civil servants have increased.
It is the duty of public servants to be responsive to public opinion. They
should try to understand the difficulties, concerns and problems of people.
Instead of being good students of public opinion, many of them behave like
party politicians.
Check Your Progress
4. State two main characteristics of bureaucracy.
5. What do you understand by the term ‘representative bureaucracy’?
6. State one essential source of dysfunctionality of bureaucracy.
7. How is bureaucracy an essential feature of the capitalist society according
to Max Weber?
8. How is bureaucracy considered to be ‘pro-status quo’?Social Organizations
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11.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
1. Three factors that are essential to the social organization are consensus,
mutual understanding and cooperation.
2. Formal organizations are the social organization which have relatively more
permanence.
3. Informal organizations have leadership in place of authority.
4. Two main characteristics of bureaucracy are as follows:
Indispensable for large organizations
Discipline and harmony
5. In representative bureaucracy, members are not representative in the sense
that they represent a particular segment of the population. They have,
however, a representative character in the sense that the policies they help
to formulate and implement are influenced by competitive party politics and
reflect the ideology of the ruling party, and demands and desires of people
in general.
6. One essential source of dysfunctionality of bureaucracy is that civil servants
develop a defence mechanism of an informal order. They tend to stand
united against any threat to their entrenched interests. They develop a sense
of common destiny and an esprit-de-corps.
7. According to Max Weber, bureaucracy an essential feature of the capitalist
society. In such a society, a small minority owns the forces of production.
Bureaucracy is a tool in the hands of this small minority to serve the interests
of the ruling group.
8. Bureaucracy, primarily of upper class or middle-class origin, is not generally
in favour of any radical social change. Being conservative in orientation, it is
pro-status quo.
11.5 SUMMARY
The interdependence and correlation between different groups in a society
is what is known as social organization. It can be said that social organizations
are essential for the existence and efficient working of social groups in the
society. Some sociologists refer to the concept of social organization as
social system. This study of social organization is considered very important
to understand the working of and the manner in which the individual groups
in the society are related to each other.
Characteristics of Social Organizations: The organizations are formed for
the fulfillment of a specific purpose. The interactions and the pattern willSocial Organizations
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only remain consistent if the goals are consistent, three factors are essential
to the social organization: consensus, mutual understanding and cooperation,
the organization assigns its members roles and status for undertaking different
functions, and the organization uses methods of social control to ensure that
functions assigned are carried out by the members in the organization.
Keeping in consideration the diverse interests of humans and societal needs.
The social organizations are divided in modern complex societies as: informal
and formal organizations.
The important elements of formal organizations are rationality, hierarchy of
power, division of labour, specific functions and very specific manner of
allocating and assigning of tasks and organizational roles. Another very
important factor differentiating formal organizations are that they mostly
follow centralized and systematic authority.
Informal organizations are those social organizations that do not have such
a rigid and strict structure. They are mostly referred to as human relationships
made for the fulfillment of certain causes. It has also been found that informal
organizations are also found to exist within the structure of formal
organizations.
Advantages of Formal Organization: Focused achievement of organizational
objectives, systematic working, clear chain of command, no duplication of
work, and coordination of different and large number of functions in a better
manner.
Disadvantages of Formal Organization: Single focus on achievement of results
and completion of work, very little consideration of member’s social well
being and the rigid chain of command makes it difficult to get work done
faster.
Advantages of Informal Organization: Fulfillment of social needs of the
members, realistic feedback is achieved amongst the members through their
interaction, and faster speed of communication.
Disadvantages of Informal Organization: Greater focus on individual interests,
no systematic working, chances of spread of negative and informal
information, and unspecified chain of implementation of actions may result
in goals not being fulfilled.
Bureaucracy is a pyramidical hierarchy, which functions under impersonal,
uniform rules and procedures, and is defined as a formal organization which
has formal rules and departments to coordinate hierarchical areas of activities.
Informal structure within bureaucracy refers to the cliques, as recognized
by American sociologist, elvile Dalton, and the struggles of such cliques for
gaining power and ensuring a greater share· of organizational rewards.Social Organizations
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The main characteristics of bureaucracy are as follows:
o Indispensable for large organizations
o Attainment of a specific goal
o Monopoly over output
o Hierarchy
o Promotion
o Training
There are, according to A.K. Mukhopadhyay, five types of bureaucracy,
namely, representative bureaucracy, party-state bureaucracy, military
dominated bureaucracy, ruler-dominated bureaucracy and ruling
bureaucracy.
Robert K. Merton and Harry M. Johnson have pointed to certain sources
of the dysfunctionality of bureaucracy.
All contemporary societies are essentially organizational societies in the sense
that almost all our needs are met in organizational settings.
Civil servants, in general, belong to the upper or middle class. Except those
who are recruited to civil service through reservations, most others are
drawn from the dominant and privileged section of the society.
11.6 KEY WORDS
Bureaucracy: It is a system of government in which most of the important
decisions are taken by state officials rather than by elected representatives.
Democracy: It is a system of government by the whole population or all
the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives.
Ruler-dominated bureaucracy: In this system, the bureaucracy works
as the personal agent of a dictator or an autocratic ruler who is primarily
interested in improving his image and increasing his power.
11.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. List the characteristics of social organizations
2. State the meaning and nature of bureaucracy.
3. Mention the main characteristic of bureaucracy.Social Organizations
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Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain the concept of formal organization.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of informal organization.
3. What are the types of bureaucracy? Discuss.
4. Identify the characteristics of a bureaucratic organization as stated by Weber.
5. Describe the social composition of bureaucracy.
11.8 FURTHER READINGS
Bottmore, T.B. 2008. Sociology — A Guide to Problems and Literature. Delhi:
S. Chand.
Davis, Kingsley. 1937. Human Society. New York: Macmillan.
Horton, Paul. B, and Chester, L. Hunt, 1968. Sociology. New York: McGraw
Hill.
Hadden W. Richard. 1997. Sociological Theory — An Introduction to the
Classical Tradition. Canada: Board View Press.Social Institutions
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UNIT 12 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Social Institutions: An Overview
12.2.1 Characteristics
12.2.2 Functions
12.3 Forms of Social Institutions
12.3.1 Family
12.3.2 Marriage
12.3.3 Political
12.3.4 Education
12.3.5 Economic
12.3.6 Religious Institutions
12.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
12.5 Summary
12.6 Key Words
12.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
12.8 Further Readings
12.0 INTRODUCTION
One can find social institutions all over the world. A social institution is an organized
collection of statuses, roles, values and norms that are designed to fulfil one or
many basic needs of the society. Social institutions vary from region to region.
Social institutions find a place in the society because the members of the society
feel a need to uphold certain social values. However, in the field of sociology,
where the origin of social institutions is clear, what motivates the formation of such
societies is debatable. Much like social groups, social institutions too, have varied
sub-divisions on the basis of the formation, and role in the society. While there can
be various social institutions, sociologists agree that there are certain primary areas
of life for which social institutions are generally formed. These are kinship, legitimate
use of power, distribution of goods and services, transmitting knowledge to
generations and regulating our relation to the supernatural. In this unit, we will
study the basic social institutions: characteristics, family and marriage, political,
education, economic and religious institutions.
12.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the concept of social institutions
Give a detailed account of the features and functions of social institutions
Discuss the various forms of social institutionsSocial Institutions
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12.2 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS: AN OVERVIEW
Generally, the terminstitution refers to a group of people who have some specific
purpose. But, the sociological understanding is quite different from common usage.
Every society is characterized by certain social norms. These norms are very
important in interactive social systems. These norms are in fact, institutionalized,
i.e., they are widely accepted among members of the society. In this context, it can
be said that an institution is neither a building, nor people, nor an organization. An
institution is a system of norms aimed at achieving some goal or activity that people
feel is important. It focuses on major human activities. Institutions are structured
processes through which people carry on their activities.
Institutions have been defined by MacIver, as ‘established forms or conditions
of procedure characteristic of group activity’. So, it can be said that social
institutions are the social structures and machinery, through which the society
organizes, directs and executes multiple activities that are required to fulfil human
needs. An institution is an organized system of social relationships which
embodies certain common values and procedures and meets certain basic needs
of the society (Horton and Hunt,1984).
Every organization is dependent on certain established norms that are
accepted and recognized by the society. These norms govern socio-cultural and
interpersonal relationships. These norms are institutions that are in different forms
like marriage, family, economy, polity, religion, etc. These institutions govern social
life.
12.2.1 Characteristics
A social norm is said to be institutionalized in a particular social system when three
conditions are fulfilled:
(i) Many members of the social system accept the norm.
(ii) Many of those who accept the norm take it seriously. In psychological terms,
they internalize it.
(iii) The norm is sanctioned. This means that certain members of the system are
expected to be guided by the norm in appropriate circumstances.
However, the process of institutionalization involves the following characteristics:
Institutions emerge as largely unplanned products of social living. People
struggle to search for practical ways of meeting their needs; they find some
patterns that work and become regular by repeated practice. These patterns
are converted into standardized customs. As time passes, these patterns
become part of customs and rituals which justify and sanction them. For
example, the system of lending has paved the way for banks to emerge as
institutions for borrowing, lending and transferring money in a standardized
manner.
Institutions are means of controlling individuals.Social Institutions
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Institutionalized role behaviour is guided by expectations of the role and not
by personal preferences. For example, all judges act in a similar manner
when they are practicing, but it is not necessary for them to behave in the
same manner in every situation as well.
Institutions have some proceedings, which are formed on the basis of certain
customs.
Institutions have certain cultural symbols. People adhere to certain symbols
which serve as convenient reminders of the institution. For example, the
citizen is reminded of loyalty to the government by the sign of the flag.
Similarly, national anthems, national songs, national flags, etc., strengthen
institutional ties.
Institutions have certain codes of behaviour. The people involved in certain
institutions are expected to carry out some roles which are often expressed
in formal codes, such as the oath of loyalty to ones country, marriage vows,
etc.
Every institution is based on certain ideological principles. An ideology may
be defined as any set of ideas that explain or justify social arrangements,
structures of power, or ways of life. These are explained in terms of goals,
interests or social position of the groups or activities in which they collectively
appear. The ideology of an institution includes both, the central beliefs of
the institution and a rational justification for the application of institutional
norms to the problems of life.
Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of members of the society
and they have social recognition.
12.2.2 Functions
A society is so complex and interrelated that it is impossible to foresee all
consequences of any action pertaining to it. Institutions have a list of functions,
which are the professed objectives of the institution. They also have latent functions,
which are unintended and may not be recognized. If they are recognized, then
they may be regarded as by-products.
Manifest functions of social institutions
These are functions which people assume and expect the institution to fulfil, for
instance, families should care for their children, economic institutions should produce
and distribute goods and direct the flow of capital where it is needed, schools
should educate the young, etc. Manifest functions are obvious, admitted and
generally applauded.
Latent functions of social institutions
These are unintended and unforeseen consequences of institutions. Economic
institutions not only produce and distribute goods, but sometimes also promoteSocial Institutions
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technological change and philanthropy. Sometimes they promote unemployment
and inequality. Latent functions of an institution may support manifest functions.
Apart from these functions, social institutions have some other common
functions like provision of food, power, maintenance of law and order, shaping of
personalities of individuals, manufacture and supply of commodities and services,
regulation of morals, provision of recreation, etc.
Malinowski has remarked, ‘Every institution centres round a fundamental
need, permanently unites a group of people in a cooperative task and has its
particular set of doctrines and techniques or craft. Institutions are not correlated
simply and directly to new functions, one need not receive satisfaction in one
institution’.
Check Your Progress
1. Give examples of cultural symbols of a social institution.
2. What are the type of functions of a social institution?
12.3 FORMS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
The various forms of social institutions are: marriage, family, education, economy,
polity and religion. These are discussed in detail below.
12.3.1 Family
The institution of family is the basic and fundamental institution in the life of an
individual. It is the basic primary group and an important agency of socialization.
Historically, the institution of family has undergone many changes. The term family
has been defined by many sociologists and anthropologists. Murdock (in 1949),
after studying about 250 multi-cultural societies, defined family as a social group
that is characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and
reproduction. It includes adults of both the sexes, at least two of whom maintain a
socially approved sexual relationship and one or more children are owned or
adopted by the sexually cohabiting adults.
A family, according to MacIver and Page, is a group defined by a sexual relationship
that is sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing
of children. They also bring out certain characteristic features of family:
It is a relationship that originates from and is bound by marriage. It is formed
when two individuals mate and produce offspring.
It is a system of finding the hierarchy of ancestry.
A family must have the financial sufficiency to achieve its economical wants
and necessities that pertain to the birth and upbringing of children.Social Institutions
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A family should have a habitat, home or a household which it may either
own solely or share with others.
Forms of families
Various sociologists have studied different forms of families. They have taken into
consideration different factors for the classification of families. Following are the
different types of families:
Marriage classifies families into: monogamous and polygamous categories.
Based on the location of their residence, families are categorized into two
main types, family of matrilocal residence and family of patrilocal residence.
On the basis of ancestry or descent, families are classified into matrilineal
and patrilineal types.
According to the type of authority, families may be identified as matriarchal
and patriarchal types.
In terms of size or structure, there may be two types of families, nuclear or
joint.
Families can be divided into conjugal and consanguineous types, based on
the relations between the members. In a conjugal family, relations between
the husband and the wife are private and their ties with the extended family
are voluntarily. A consanguine family consists of close relatives other than
parents and children.
12.3.2 Marriage
Marriage is a universal social institution. Marriage is a deep personal commitment
to another human being and a public celebration of the ideals of mutuality,
companionship, fidelity and family. Marriage is a socially approved way of
acquiring a family. It is only through the establishment of culturally controlled and
sanctioned marital relations that a family comes into being. The institutionalized
form of sexual relations is called marriage. Marriage and family are two sides of
the same social reality. From a broader and more collective perspective, marriage
ensures survival of the species of the group and its culture.
Forms of marriage
The forms of marriage are diverse in nature. A cross-cultural study of marriage
practices in different societies would include rules. These rules lay down
preferences, prescriptions as well as proscriptions in deciding the form of marriage.
On the basis of the number of mates, marriage is classified into two types,
monogamy and polygamy. Monogamy is the marriage between single partners
(i.e., a husband having one wife or a wife having one husband). Monogamy is a
prevalent form of marriage in most societies. It is also considered an ideal form of
marriage. Polygamy is the practice of having more than one partner in marriage.Social Institutions
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Polygamy may be of two types: polygyny and polyandry. When one man has two
or more wives at a time, the practice is known as polygyny. When two or more
sisters share one husband, the practice is known as sororal polygyny.
When one woman gets married to more than one man simultaneously, the
practice is known as polyandry. Polyandry may be of two types: fraternal or
adelphic polyandry and non-fraternal polyandry. When one woman marries
several brothers at the same time, the practice is known as fraternal polyandry.
This practice is prevalent among the Toda community in India. When a woman
has several husbands, none of whom are necessarily brothers, the practice is known
as non-fraternal polyandry.
One may consider this with reference to two types of polygamous marriages,
namely
(i) Levirate and Sororate
Marriage of a man with the childless widow of his deceased brother is known as
levirate marriage. When a levirate marriage prevails, on the death of a husband, it
is the duty of one of his brothers to marry his widow and any children that are born
as a result of this union are counted as progeny of the deceased man.
When a sororate marriage prevails, the husband of a childless woman marries
her sister and at least some of the children that are born as a result of this union,
are counted as children of the childless wife. The term sororate is also used with
reference to the custom whereby, upon the death of a wife, her kin provide her
sister as wife to the widower. However, any children that are born as a result of
this union are recognized as her own.
Levirate and sororate customs emphasize the acceptance of inter familial
obligations and recognition of marriage as a tie between two families and not
simply between two individuals.
12.3.3 Political
Every individual is involved in some kind of political institution, as member of the
society. Political systems have existed since ancient times. Our political institutions
are amalgamations of modern superstructure, historical delegation of authority,
decentralization and inculcation of the basic level of Panchayati system. These are
characterized by the traditional consensus pattern of decision making and are held
together by a charismatic leadership. The state has been an important governing
institution. No study of society is complete without study of the state or the governing
institutions of society, because the government occupies an important place in the
social lives of people.
The state
The relation between state and other associations has been a matter of debate
among scholars. Some scholars argue that the state is the supreme social institutionSocial Institutions
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and all other associations owe their origin to its initiative, acquiescence and support.
They exist because the state allows them to exist. On the other hand, the pluralists
recognize the special role of the state as a regulator of social life. Laski has argued
that the state does not exhaust the associative impulses of men. In his opinion, the
society should be regarded as essentially federal in its nature. The other associations
are real in the sense that the state is real. State is viewed as a community agency
that is charged with the responsibility of coordinating and adjusting the claims and
activities of various associations. This distinctive function gives the state its unique
character.
Nature of power
Power in general means the ability to carry out ones wishes despite opposition. In
any process of interaction, some participants usually have more power than others.
When we assert that someone has more power than someone else, we usually
imply the existence of a more or less extended field of potential conflict. We often
have to specify the field of potential conflict. However, it is often true that A has
more power than B in some situations, while B has more than A in others. Power
is a relative matter. Weber’s definition of power implies that those who hold power
do so at the expense of others. It suggests that there is a fixed amount of power
and therefore everyone does not have access to it. This view is sometimes known
as the constant sum of power. Since the amount of power is constant, power is
held by an individual or group to the extent that it is not held by others. Arguing
from a functionalist perspective, Talcott Parsons rejects the ‘constant-sum’ concept
of power. They view that power is employed in the furtherance of sectional interests.
A Marxian analysis of power provides a radial alternative to Parson’s functionalist
approach. From a Marxian perspective, the source of power in societies is the
economic infrastructure. In all stratified societies, the forces of production are
owned and controlled by the minority ruling class. This relationship to the forces
of production provides the basis for dominance. It therefore follows that the only
way to return power to the people involves communal ownership of the forces of
production. Since everyone will now bear some relationship to the forces of
production, power will be shared by all members of the society. From a Marxian
perspective, the use of power to exploit others is defined as coercion. It is seen as
an illegitimate use of power which forces the subject class to submit to a situation
which is against its interest. If the power of the ruling class is accepted as legitimate
by the subject class, it indicates false consciousness.
Power of random groups
Power is the capability of a person or a group to achieve its goals, irrespective of
any resistance from any other person or group. Weber recommends that the access
of power is based on the party. Party is a united category of organizational structure
that focuses on a common interest. This interest may be on the basis of a class, a
status or any similar type. Very few persons are able to act individually in order to
achieve their interests.Social Institutions
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Voting behaviour
Marx predicted that class struggle has turned the western society into an institution
that would end in the proletarian revolution. With the extension of franchise and
the proliferation of interest groups, members of the working class are drawn into
the political process. Their interests are represented by political parties and interest
groups such as trade unions. They are able to express their discontent with an
institutional framework and as a result, more violent expressions of class conflicts
are unlikely. S.M. Lipset sees national elections as an expression of class struggle
and competition between political parties as the institutionalization of class conflict.
He argues that more than anything else, the party struggle is a conflict among
classes and the most impressive thing about party support is that in virtually every
country it is economically sound. The lower-income groups vote mainly for parties
of the left front while higher income groups vote mainly for parties of the right
front. The voting behaviour does not strictly follow class lines.
Pressure groups and political parties
Pressure groups are associations or groups which have objectives that are different
from political parties. These pressure groups or interest group have important
political functions in all modern societies. These functions may either be useful or
harmful to the stability or progress of the society. Interest groups may be based on
economic, ethnic, linguistic, religious, regional or other considerations. Sometimes
they would convert themselves into political parties or win over some members of
the government and pressurize the government to give in to their demands. In this
case, the group could be considered as a pressure group. At times, when the
government introduces a bill or a budget proposal in the Parliament, the interest
groups will use their influence and lobby to pressurize the government to either
withdraw or to amend it to a form that is acceptable to them. Interest groups and
pressure groups use a number of strategies to influence the government and to get
their demands accepted. These strategies include threats of direct action like boycott,
threat of holding back essential services, protest closure of shops and agitations
such as street demonstrations and strikes.
Political parties are organized groups of citizens who hold common views
on public issues and act as political units. They seek to obtain control of the
government with a view to encourage the programme and policy, which they
profess. A political party is essentially a social group that has an associative type of
social relationship. A political party primarily strives to secure political power and
to hold it either singly, or in cooperation with other political parties. Political parties
are indispensable for the working of a democratic government. They are the
connecting link between people and the government. They are the vehicles which
individuals and groups use to secure and exercise political power. Political parties
are seen as representing diverse elements in a national tradition and as being
concerned to some degree with general, rather than class or sectional interests.Social Institutions
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Political participation
Political system functions on the basis of political participation. Lester Milbrath
has suggested that members of the society can be divided into four categories, in
terms of their degree of political participation. Firstly, the politically apathetic who
are literally unaware of the politics around them, secondly, those involved in spectator
activities, which include voting and taking part in discussions about politics, thirdly,
those involved is transitional activities, which include attending a political meetings
or making financial contributions to a political party, finally, those who enter the
political arena and participate in activities such as, standing for and holding public
and party offices. These levels of political participation are not uniformly distributed
throughout the population. In general, higher is an individual’s position in the class
structure, greater is his degree of participation. Studies have shown that political
participation is directly proportional to income level, occupational status and
educational qualification. It has also been associated with a variety of other factors.
For example, men are likely to have higher levels of participation than women,
married people than single people, middle-aged people than either young or old,
members of clubs and associations than non-members, long-term residents in a
community than short-term residents, etc. However, those with low levels of
participation often lack the resources and opportunities to become more directly
involved in politics. They lack the experience of higher education, which brings a
greater awareness of the political process and knowledge of the mechanics of
participation. Secondly, individuals are unlikely to participate in politics if they are
likely to be rewarded for their involvement. Robert Dahl argues that an individual
is unlikely to participate in politics, if he feels that the probability of his influencing
the outcome of events is low. Thirdly, levels of political participation appear to be
related to the degree of involvement and integration of an individual in the society.
Thus, an individual who is not likely to be involved in local or national politics,
does not feel a part of either the local community or the wider society. Finally,
Dahl suggests that individuals are not likely to have high levels of political participation
if they believe that the outcome of events will be satisfactory without their
involvement.
However, the significance of differential political participation varies. Pluralists
have argued that low participation may be an indication that interests of the politically
inactive are adequately represented. Lipset proclaims that the combination of a
low vote and a relative absence of organization among the low-status groups
means that they will be neglected by politicians who are receptive to the wishes of
the more privileged, participative and organized strata.
Democratic and authoritarian forms
Abraham Lincoln defined democracy as a government of the people, by the people
and for the people. Democracy is a mixture of the rational, legal and charismatic
types, with a touch of traditionalism in some instances. However, democracy is an
emotive term which means for many as freedom of the individual to participate inSocial Institutions
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those decisions which affect his life. This suggests that the individual should be
directly and regularly involved in the political process. From a pluralist’s perspective,
democracy is seen as a system of representative government, whereby many elites
represent a range of interests in the society. It implies that the representative
government is the only way in which the democratic ideal can be realized in a
contemporary society. Bottomore regards the western system of governance as
an imperfect realization of democracy, as it permanently excludes many from the
experience of governance. He argues that only when the democratic ideal becomes
an established feature of everyday life, a democratic system of national government
can be created. This would involve ‘social democracy’, where people directly
participate in the management of their firms. He further argues that a truly democratic
national government will only be possible when all major institutions of the society
operate on the principles of democracy.
Therefore, democracy can be seen as a system in which every individual
has an equal opportunity to participate in the political process and an equal say in
governance of the society. Democracy often means easy, egalitarian manners with
no expectation that anyone will show a marked deference to another. In a
democratic society, power is distributed among many groups. Democratic
governance is characterized by emphasizing on the autonomy of individuals and
subsystems. An important feature of the democratic government is rule by the law
and equal treatment by the law.
12.3.4 Education
Education means developing of and cultivating various physical, intellectual, aesthetic
and moral faculties of an individual. Durkheim defines education as ‘the action
exercised by the older generations on those who are not yet ready for social life.
Its object is to awaken and develop in the child, those physical, intellectual and
moral values which are required of him, both, by his society as a whole and by the
milieu for which he is specially destined. It is a social process. Education is imparted
by both, formal and informal means. It is an important means of socialization.
Aristotle’s famous concept of education says, ‘education develops man’s faculties,
especially his mind, so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of the
supreme truth, goodness and beauty, in which perfect happiness essentially
consists’. Durkheim further conceives education as socialization of the younger
generation. According to him, it is a continuous effort to impose on the child, ways
of seeing, feeling and acting which he could not have achieved spontaneously.
Education as a social process
Education is viewed as an integral fragment of socialization. Such a process of
social learning is continuous. Education is also considered an agent of cultural
transmission. The elements of culture are transmitted from one generation to another,
through education. Education not only helps in acquiring knowledge but also
inculcates the values of morality among individuals. Educational institutions areSocial Institutions
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instrumental in shaping the personality of individuals and also formulation of
ideologies. On the whole, education helps in reforming the attitudes of individuals
and encourages them by inculcating a spirit of competitiveness in them.
Primitive and ancient societies had no educational institutions. Children learnt
from their surroundings. Schools appeared when cultures became too complex
for the learning to be handled within the family. Thus, educational institutions grew
as time passed by. In India, the historical roots of educational institutions are referred
to in the guru-shishya tradition. In this tradition, students had the advantage of
being in personal contact with the teacher. The image of the guru was personified
and the students were obliged to the guru or teacher.
Sociological perspectives on education
From a functionalist perspective, it is preferred that education contributes to
maintenance of the social system. Emile Durkheim saw the major function of
education as transmission of society’s norms and values. He maintained that the
society can survive only if a sufficient degree of homogeneity exists among its
members. Education functions to strengthen this homogeneity by maintaining a
balance of these similarities in an individual, since his childhood. Due to these
similarities, the demands of life in all individuals are similar. Cooperation and social
solidarity would never have existed in the absence of these essential similarities,
would not be possible. Drawing conclusions from Dukheim’s concept, the
American sociologist, Talcott Parsons, gave a functionalist view of education.
Parsons put across the theory after the spread of primary socialization within a
family, the school assumes the role of a central socializing agency. School brings
the family closer to the society. It prepares the child for his role as an adult. Davis
and Moore shared Parson’s view with reference to education. They too considered
education to be useful in providing suitable roles to individuals. However, they
hold the educational system directly responsible for creating divisions in the society.
According to Davis, the education system has proved that it is able to select
people on the basis of their capacities and allocate appropriate positions to them.
Thus, the process of educational filtering organizes and categorizes individuals on
the basis of their skills and capacities. The people with the highest level of talent
get the highest level of qualification. Consequently, this leads them to better
occupations which are most important in terms of functions to the society.
However, the Marxian perspective provides a radical alternative to the
functionalist position. Louis Althusser presents a general framework for the analysis
of education, from a Marxian perspective. Being a section of the superstructure,
the infrastructure finally gives shape to education. According to him, education
benefits only the ruling class. For survival and prosperity, it is very important to
reproduce the power of labour. Two steps are involved in the process of reproducing
labour, the first step is reproduction of skills that are required for a capable labour
force. The second step is reproduction of the ideology of the ruling class and
socialization of workers. These processes combine to reproduce a technicallySocial Institutions
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efficient, submissive and obedient workforce. In a social structure that is dominated
by capitalism, education reproduces such a workforce. Althusser stresses that
reproduction of labour power not only requires reproduction of its skills, but also
a simultaneous reproduction of its submission to the ruling ideology. This submission
is reproduced by a number of ‘Ideological State Apparatuses’ which include the
mass media, law, religion and education. Ideological State Apparatus is a trademark
of the ideology of the ruling class which creates artificial class awareness. This
awareness maintains the subject class in its subordinate position to a large extent.
Education, according to Althusser, not only transmits ideologies of the general
ruling class (which justifies and legitimates the capitalist system), it also reproduces
the attitudes and behaviour that are required by major groups in the division of
labour.
Ivan Illich has been critical of both, functionalist and liberal views of education.
In Deschooling Society, that was published in 1971, he raises issues on the
incapability of schools in matching educational ideals. In his opinion, schools are
institutions that teach students about various means of exploitation. According to
him, schools instigate compliance to the society and create a belief in students, to
accept the interests of the powerful. However, real learning can never prevail
through a set of instructions. It can be inculcated only when an individual is involved
in every part of the learning process, on his own. To conclude, the majority of
learning processes require no teaching. Illich blames the educational system as the
main cause of all problems that have emerged in the modern industrial society.
School teaches the individual to delay authority, assume isolation, to absorb and
accept the services of the institution and neglect his own needs and wants. He is
instructed to view education as a precious product such that it should be taken in
large amounts. He, however also presents a solution. According to him, to resolve
this issue, it is important to abolish the present system of education, since schools
form the base of education. Deschooling is the primary step towards the liberation
of mankind. Finally, Illich confirms that deschooling will create a society where
every man can be truly liberated and can experience a sense of fulfillment.
Education as an instrument of social control and social change
The general character of formal education has undergone a rapid change through
modern science and technology. Technological development today is quite unlike
the development that took place in the 19th century. Unlike the present day society,
in ancient societies, education was considered as the learning related to a way of
life. However, in primitive societies, the terminology of science comprised the
production and distribution of labour. Formal education quickens the overall process
of education. However, it is incapable in transmitting any practical knowledge. In
societies of the recent times, the content of education more scientifically inclined
and less scholarly. Thus, it can be concluded that education in modern societies
inculcates freedom of thought and values that have an important role in streamlining
the attitude of an individual.Social Institutions
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It has been argued that education by itself does not bring about social change,
rather it is an instrument which performs the functions that are entrusted to it.
Innovations in the education system may lead to structural changes in the society.
The Indian society has deep-rooted customs and traditions which are strongly
embedded in the Indian lifestyle. Changes are resisted because they conflict with
traditional values and beliefs.
12.3.5 Economic
In considering the historical development of sociology, a few figures are taken
from a vast interplay of schools of social thought. Any division of labour which
leads people to pursue diverse and possibly conflicting lines of economic activity,
may generate conditions of social dislocation and inequity. Here, the social
arrangements that are aimed at establishing peaceful, cooperative and equitable
interchange among economic agents are taken into consideration.
Herbert Spencer marked a confluence of two great traditions of evolution
and classical economics. Spencer, from his evolutionary tradition saw many
similarities between biological and social organisms. Both are capable of growth;
both increase the complexity of the structure as they grow in size and both display
a close interdependence of parts. He viewed social evolution as similar to biological
evolution. Establishing his evolutionary scheme, he introduced a distinction between
two types of societies, the militant and the industrial. The militant society is integrated
by force and is characterized by compulsory cooperation. On the other hand, the
industrial society contrasts with the militant one on many fronts. The political
machinery is no longer subordinated to the single military principle. The principle
of integration of industrial society is based on voluntary cooperation.
In industrial society, men interact by forming contractual arrangements.
Spencer viewed industrial society like Smith viewed the competitive economy. So
his characterization of industrial society indicates that political regulation is almost
unnecessary in such a society, since social coordination is guaranteed by voluntary
cooperation among individuals.
Emile Durkheim: Solidarity as an active force in economic life
Most of the insights of Durkheim that concern economic integration are found in
his book, The Division of Labour in Society. In this book, he has analysed the
integration of social life. Durkheim set up a dichotomy between two types of
societies, segmental and complex. To him, a segmental society is a homogeneous
society with the presence of mechanical solidarity. There is a presence of repressive
law. It has subordination of the individual to the undifferentiated collective conscience
of the society. On the other hand, it differentiates complex societies as powerful
forms of integration. He is different from Spencer such that he stressed the increased
salience of integration in complex societies, rather than tending to regard it as a
by-product of individual interactions.Social Institutions
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Max Weber: The origins and sustaining conditions for capitalism
Max Weber made a comparative analysis of societies by using the method of
ideals. Weber mentioned a historically unique configuration such as rational
bourgeoisie capitalism. This refers to systematic and rational organization of the
production itself. While identifying the historical conditions that gave rise to industrial
capitalism, Weber rejected the belief that the rise of capitalism could be explained
by the increase of population. On the positive side, he considered the rise of
ascetic Protestantism, especially Calvinism. He established social and psychological
conditions that were conducive to this form of capitalism. To him, bureaucracy
also forms the most rational form of social organization for perpetuating industrial
capitalism. Weber also found out certain institutional structures that were permissive
for industrial capitalism. He found these structures in the political legal complex.
So Weber specified certain institutional conditions under which maximum mobility
is both, permitted and regulated. Weber also stressed the political legal regulation
of money and exchange. Above all, he believed that rational capitalism cannot
flourish unless the political authority guarantees the supply of money with relatively
stable values. As to the type of medium of exchange, Weber saw the advantage of
a generalized money currency since it allows for expansion of market and creation
of credit. However, unlike traditional economists, Weber was not interested in the
regularities that were produced within the capitalist system of production. He
believed in establishing an important background of institutional conditions, under
which the capitalist system and its regularities could exist.
Social aspects of division of labour and types of exchange
One of the best known works of Durkheim is his study of division of labour, in
which he analysed social functions of the division of labour. He also sought to
show how in modern societies, it is the principal source of social cohesion or
solidarity. In the course of his enquiry, Durkheim distinguished two kinds of
solidarities, mechanical and organic.He associated these with two types of laws,
which he called repressive and restitutive. He also analysed the abnormal forms of
division of labour, i.e., the anomic and the forced division of labour. By the first, he
meant a condition of extreme specialization of labour. In this condition, the individual
became isolated in his specialty and particularly a condition in which there was
permanent division between capital and labour. Durkheim proposed the fostering
of regular and prolonged contacts through professional associations and
corporations and through institutional arrangement for discussion and negotiation
between capital and labour. By the second form, Durkheim meant a condition in
which individuals did not freely choose their occupations, but were forced into
them. He regarded this discrepancy between the abilities of individuals and the
functions imposed upon them, as the principal source of class conflict. Durkheim
thought that modern societies could and would get rid of these abnormal forms of
division of labour.Social Institutions
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However, division of labour has not become so extensive in India, as in
advanced industrial countries. Division of labour affects the caste system. In the
caste system, the division of labour had the integrative functions, which Durkheim
emphasised. In the village economy, caste, like the medieval guilds, ensured the
performance of necessary functions (by passing on craft, skills, etc). These functions
were organized by the direct exchange of services between castes (the jajmani
system). In an industrial and money economy, the division of labour becomes far
more complex and the exchange of services is accomplished through the market
or by central planning. The caste system retains some integrative functions on the
cultural level. However, these are likely to be less important as social cohesion
comes to depend increasingly on the economic division of labour.
Types of exchange
The division of labour and possession by different individuals and groups makes
exchange necessary for higher levels of efficiency in production. It is equally true
that exchange makes division of labour possible. Exchange is found in every
economy, no matter how primitive. There are six possible kinds of exchanges,
according to the items exchanged, these are: goods for goods, services for services,
goods for services, money for goods, money for services and money for money.
The use of money occurs only in advanced economies. Interest was stirred in
comparative exchange by the appearance of a volume, edited by Polanyi, Arensberg
and Pearson, in the late 1950s. Going through the records of Babylon,
Mesopotamia, Greece, Mexico, Yucatan, the Guinea Coast and rural India, they
depicted how trading practices were separate from the familiar practices of free
market exchange. They criticized the traditional economic theory and suggested
an alternative framework for better comparative economics of exchange. Polanyi
and his associates identified three major patterns of exchange, reciprocative,
redistributive and exchange.
Reciprocative exchange is the most common form of exchange among
primitive people. It is illustrated by ritualistic gifting practice among families, clans
and tribes, as analysed by Malinowski and Mauss. Exchange of gifts like kula
exchange is ceremonial in nature. Another illustration is found among farmers of
many civilizations, who frequently work for one another, especially during the time
of harvest. Economic calculation, price payments and wages are typically absent.
Goods or services are given because it is traditional to do so. The only principle of
calculation is that giving and receiving should balance among exchanging parties in
the long run.
Redistributive exchange means that the produce of the group is brought
together, either physically or by appropriation. This is then distributed among the
members again. This brings economic goods and services to a central source that
is often governmental. It then redistributes them throughout the populace. Polyani,
Arensberg and Pearson identified several instances of this exchange pattern in
ancient Asian and African civilizations. Any system of redistribution involves someSocial Institutions
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economic exchange, but redistribution at the same time is political. Modern
illustrations of such type of exchanges are tax institutions which redistribute wealth
in the society. Potlatch, among the Trobriand islanders and jajmani system in
traditional India are also examples of redistributive exchange.
The third pattern, which is more familiar in the modern west, is termed
exchange. In this case economic goods and services are brought into the market.
Prices are not standardized on the basis of tradition, but as a result of bargaining
for economic advantage.
12.3.6 Religious Instituions
Since the days of the primitive society, religion has always existed in one form or
another. There are mysteries and perplexities of life for which there is no adequate
explanation. The elements of nature, sunshine, wind and rain affect man in a number
of ways. Religion is the expression of the manner and type of adjustment that is
effected by people in terms of their conception of the supernatural. In the words of
James Frazer, the author of the book The Golden Bough, religion has been
explained as ‘a belief in powers superior to man, which are believed to direct and
control the course of nature and of human life.’ According of Ogburn and Nimkoff,
‘Religion is the attitude towards superhuman powers’. Such attitude gives rise to
coherent systems of beliefs and practices that concern the supernatural order.
Thus religion is a more or less a coherent system of beliefs and practices that
concerns a supernatural order of beings, forces, places, or other entities: a system
that, for its adherents, has implications for their behaviour and welfare implications
that the adherents in varying degrees and ways take seriously in their private and
collective lives.
The origin and evolution of religion
The early sociological studies of religion had three distinctive methodological
characteristics, these were evolutionist, positivist and psychological. These are
shown in the works of Comte, Tylor and Spencer. According to Comte, sociology
is one of the fundamental conceptions of the so called law of three stages, according
to which human thought had passed through theological metaphysical and positive
stages. Comte treats theological thinking as an intellectual error which is dispersed
by the rise of modern science. He traces, within the theological stage, a development
from animism to monotheism and he explains religious belief in psychological terms
by reference to the perception and thought processes of early man. Later, Comte
propounded his own religion of humanity and thus recognized in some sense a
universal need for religion.
However, the works of Tylor and Spencer were rigorous as they were
concerned with explaining the origin of religion. They believed that the idea of the
soul was the principal feature in a religious belief. They set out to give an account,
in rationalist terms, of how such an idea might have originated in the mind of primitive
man. According to this, men obtained their idea of the soul from a misinterpretationSocial Institutions
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of dream and death. Spencer refers to that original theory of things as from which
the supposed reality of dreams, resulted a supposed reality of ghosts. E.B. Tylor
believes animism was the oldest practice of religion. He argues that animism was
a result of the efforts of mankind to answer two questions of the difference between
a living body and a dead one and what are those human shapes which appear in
dreams and visions. The soul is a spirit being which leaves the body temporarily
during dreams and visions. Animals were invested with spirits as were human
tribes, such as Australian aborigines. Tylor points out that religion, assumes the
form of animism with the purpose of satisfying the intellectual capacity of mankind
and meet his quest for knowledge about death, dreams and vision. Similarly,
naturism endorses the concept that the forces of nature are supernatural powering
nature. Max Muller believes this to be the earliest form of religion. He argues that
naturism came to exist as a result of man’s interaction with nature, typically as the
outcome of the reaction of nature on man’s emotions. According to him, animism
tries to find the source of religion in man’s intellectual requirements; naturism seeks
it in his emotional needs. Naturism is how man responds to the effect of power
and to the nature on his emotions.
However, there is a lot of criticism about the evolutionary approach. The
origin of religion is lost in the past. However, theories about the origin of religion
can only be based on speculation and intelligent guess work, according to some
critics. Moreover, the exact phases of the evolution of religion do not match with
the facts. Andrew Lang has highlighted that the religion of a large number of simplest
societies is monotheistic in nature, which according to Tylor was restricted to
modern societies.
The sacred and the profane
Durkheim held that the essence of religion is to sustain divisions into the phenomena
of sacred and profane ideologies. He does not believe that the essence of religion
lies in the belief of a transcendent God. He proclaims that the true aim of religion
is to establish the phenomena of the sacred and the profane in the society. The
‘sacred’ consists of a body of things, beliefs and rites. Supernatural entities are
always sacred, that is, they are worthy of being treated with respect whether they
are good or evil. Supernatural beings and forces are invisible and intangible, but
certain sacred objects are quite tangible and visible, for instance, the alter in a
Christian church. On the other hand, everything that is not holy is profane. Profanity
is using names without proper respect.
Functions and dysfunctions of religion
Religion has various social functions. Religion is an agency of social control. It
disciplines human behaviour in terms of sacred and profane. Performance of rituals
and ceremonies gives a sense of collectivity to the society. The law of karma, the
fear of retribution and such other prescriptions, always has a moderating and
civilizing impact on human action. The norms of conduct, once established, regulate Social Institutions
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social relations. Religion has unified the principles of every society. Religion is an
integrating and unifying force of the human society. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E.
Moore reason why religion is necessary and is apparently to be found in the fact
that human society achieves its unity through the possession by its members of
certain ultimate values in common. Although these values and ends are subjective,
the influence of behaviour and its integration enables the society to operate as a
system.
Though the direct impact of religion remains healthy, elevating and socializing,
its indirect effect may be dysfunctional for the society. In Europe, religion hindered
the growth of science and inquiry till decline of the organized church in the 19th
century. The superstitious superstructure that developed successively, caused
immense harm to the society at all levels. Religion inhibits protests and impedes
social changes. Religion has resulted in wars, devastations and genocides. While
fulfilling the identity function of religion, certain loyalties arise which may actually
impede the development of new identities that are more appropriate to new
situations.
Check Your Progress
3. What are the different forms of family on the basis of ancestry or
descent?
4. What is fraternal polyandry?
5. Which was the most common form of exchange among primitive
people?
6. What does redistributive exchange mean?
7. What according to E.B. Tylor, is the earliest form of religion?
12.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
1. The cultural symbols for social institutions can be understood through the
example that the citizen is reminded of loyalty to the government by the sign
of the flag. Similarly, national anthems, national songs, national flags, etc.,
strengthen institutional ties.
2. The types of functions of social institutions are: manifest social functions and
latent functions.
3. On the basis of ancestry or descent, families are classified into matrilineal
and patrilineal types.
4. When one woman marries several brothers at the same time, the practice is
known as fraternal polyandry.Social Institutions
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5. Reciprocative exchange was the most common form of exchange among
primitive people.
6. Redistributive exchange means that the produce of a group is brought
together, either physically or by appropriation.
7. E.B. Tylor believes animism to be the earliest form of religion.
12.5 SUMMARY
Institutions are structured processes through which people carry on their
activities.
The various forms of social institutions are: marriage, family, education,
economy, polity and religion.
The forms of marriage are diverse in nature; on the basis of the number of
mates, marriage is classified into two types, monogamy and polygamy.
The institution of family is the basic and fundamental institution in the life of
an individual.
Education means developing of and cultivating various physical, intellectual,
aesthetic and moral faculties of an individual.
Religion is the expression of the manner and type of adjustment that is
effected by people in terms of their conception of the supernatural.
12.6 KEY WORDS
Social Institution: A group of people who have some specific purpose.
Marriage: A socially approved way of acquiring a family.
Education: It means developing of and cultivating various physical,
intellectual, aesthetic and moral faculties of an individual.
Power: The ability to carry out ones wishes despite opposition.
Pressure groups: Associations or groups which have objectives that are
different from political parties.
Religion: The expression of the manner and type of adjustment that is
effected by people in terms of their conception of the supernatural.
12.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. What does an institution mean?
2. What is an ideological state apparatus?Social Institutions
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3. What are pressure groups?
4. Discuss the forms of families.
5. Briefly state Max Weber’s theory of the origins and sustaining conditions
for capitalism.
6. Write a short note on the origin and evolution of religion.
7. What is the difference between sacred and profane?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain the meaning of an institution. Enumerate some features of an
institution.
2. Discuss the functions of institutions.
3. Analyse the various types of institutions.
4. Discuss the nature of power.
5. Examine the sociological perspectives on education.
12.8 FURTHER READINGS
Bottmore, T.B. 2008. Sociology — A Guide to Problems and Literature. Delhi:
S. Chand.
Davis, Kingsley. 1937. Human Society. New York: Macmillan.
Horton, Paul. B, and Chester, L. Hunt, 1968. Sociology. New York: McGraw
Hill.
Hadden W. Richard. 1997. Sociological Theory — An Introduction to the
Classical Tradition. Canada: Board View Press.
Mac Iver, R.M, and Charles Page. 1962. Society, an Introductory Analysis.
New Delhi: Macmillan Publishers India.
Spencer, H. 1961. Study of Sociology. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.Social Stratification
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BLOCK - V
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL
UNIT 13 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Social Stratification: An Overview
13.2.1 Characteristics
13.2.2 Functions
13.3 Theories of Social Stratification
13.4 Social Stratification and Social Mobility
13.5 Types of Social Stratification
13.5.1 Slavery Class Systems
13.5.2 Social Class
13.5.3 Social Caste
13.5.4 Estate
13.5.5 Status
13.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
13.7 Summary
13.8 Key Words
13.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
13.10 Further Readings
13.0 INTRODUCTION
Man has always desired an egalitarian society where all human beings are equal
but this noble ideal has never been fully achieved in recorded history and certainly
not in modern societies which are more concerned about equality than any other
societies. The indicators of development devised by national and international
organizations show that inequalities have, in fact, increased within countries and
between the countries during the last century. A number of agencies at different
levels are engaged in reducing economic and social equalities. The modern state
has taken the major responsibility of reducing social inequalities. International
organizations like UNDP, World Bank, and Asian Development Bank also play a
major role in policy formulation and mobilization of resources to reduce poverty.
Voluntary organizations are increasingly involved in the implementation of
development programmes whose major purpose is to reduce poverty and empower
people. Needless to say these efforts have been only partially successful.
Every complex society is faced with the difficult task of assigning roles to its
members which are necessary for the society to survive. These roles must be filledSocial Stratification
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as harmoniously and efficiently as possible. The people should be willing to perform
jobs (roles) even though they do not have a lot of status or prestige. A community
requires not only people who are doctors, lawyers, and teachers but also those
who collect trash, direct traffic and put out fires. Although these roles are not as
prestigious, they are nonetheless very important for the efficient functioning of
society.
In this unit, you will learn about the concept of social stratification, its
characteristics and functions and the types of social stratification.
13.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Define the meaning and concept of stratification
Explain the practical applications of theories of stratification
List the roles and functions of stratification
Analyse the contribution of education towards social mobility, the concept
of social stratification, class, caste and its various dimensions.
Explain the various types of social mobility
13.2 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: AN OVERVIEW
Differentiation is the law of nature. This is true in the case of human society. Human
society is not homogeneous but heterogeneous. Men differ from one another, in
many respects. Human beings are equal so far as their bodily structure is concerned.
But the physical appearance of individuals, their intellectual, moral, philosophical,
mental, economic, religious, political and other aspects are different. No two
individuals are exactly alike. Diversity and inequality are inherent in society. Hence,
human society is everywhere stratified.
All societies assign their members to roles in terms of superiority, inferiority
and equality. This vertical scale of evaluation, and placement of people in strata, or
levels, is called stratification. Those in the top stratum have more power, privilege
and prestige than those below.
Society Compares and Ranks Individuals and Groups
Members of a group compare different individuals, as when selecting a mate, or
employing a worker, or dealing with a neighbour, or developing friendship with an
individual. They also compare groups such as castes, races, colleges, cities, athletic
teams. These comparisons are valuations, and when members of a group agree,
these judgments are social evaluations.
All societies differentiate members in terms of roles and all societies evaluate
roles differently. Some roles are regarded as more important or socially moreSocial Stratification
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valuable than others. The persons who perform the more highly esteemed roles
are rewarded more highly. Thus stratification is simply a process of interaction of
differentiation whereby some people come to rank higher than others.
Definitions
1. Ogburn and Nimkoff: The process by which individuals and groups are
ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification.
2. Gisbert: Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups
of categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and
subordination.
3. Melvin M. Tumin: Social stratification refers to arrangement of any social
group or society into a hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard
to power, property, social evaluation, and/ or psychic gratification.
4. Lundberg: A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences
among people that are evaluated by them as being lower and higher.
5. Raymond W. Murry: Social stratification is a horizontal division of society
into high and lower social units.
The Universality of Social Stratification
Social stratification is ubiquitous. In all societies population is socially differentiated
on the basis of age, sex and personal characteristics. The roles and privileges of
children differ from those of adults; and those of good hunters or warriors differ
from those of the rank and file. It is not customary to speak of a society as stratified
if every individual in it has an equal chance to succeed to whatever statuses are
open. Strictly speaking, there are no purely equalitarian societies, only societies
differing in degree of stratification. Even Russia which dreamt of a ‘classless society’
could not, any more than any other society, escape the necessity of ranking people
according to their functions. The criterion of rank has changed along with values
of society. P.A. Sorokin wrote in his ‘Social Mobility’ that an ‘uncertified society
with real equality of its members is a myth which has never been realized in the
history of mankind.’
Social Differentiation And Stratification
As it is clear from the above, all societies exhibit some system of hierarchy whereby
its members are placed in positions that are higher or lower, superior or inferior, in
relation to each other. The two concepts — ‘social differentiation’ and ‘social
stratification’ — are made use of to refer to such classification or gradation and
placement of people in society. In differentiation,society bases status on a certain
kind of trait which may be (i) physical or biological such as skin colour, physical
appearance, or sex, (ii) social and cultural such as differences in etiquette, manners,
values, ideals, ideologies, etc. Thus, differentiation serves as a sorting process
according to which the people are graded on the basis of roles and status.Social Stratification
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Stratification tends to perpetuate these differences in status. Hence, through
this process people are fixed in the structure of the society. In some cases, (as it is
in the case of caste) status may become hereditary. Differentiation may be
considered the first stage preceding stratification in society, sorted and classified
into groups. It does not, however, mean that all differentiation leads to stratification
in society.
13.2.1 Characteristics
According to M.M. Tumin the main attributes of stratification are as follows:
Social
Stratification is social in the sense it does not represent biologically caused
inequalities. It is true that strength, intelligence, age and sex are also factors that
serve as distinguishing features, but this still doesn’t explain why some strata of
society receive more power, property, and prestige than others. Biological
characteristics also do not determine social superiority and inferiority until they are
socially recognized and given importance. For example, the manager of an industry
attains a dominant position not by his physical strength, nor by his age, but by
having socially defined traits. His education, training skills, experience, personality,
character, etc., are found to be more important than his biological equalities.
Further, as Tumin has pointed out, the stratification system is:
(i) governed by social norms and sanctions, (ii) is likely to be unstable because it
may be disturbed by different factors, and (iii) is intimately connected with the
other systems of society such as the political, family, religious, economic, educational
and other institutions.
Ancient
The stratification system is quite old. According to historical and archaeological
records, stratification was present even in the small wandering bands. Age and sex
were the main criterion of stratification then. ‘Women and children last’ was probably
the dominant rule of order. The difference between the rich and poor, powerful
and humble, freemen and slaves existed in almost all the ancient civilizations. Ever
since the time of Plato and Kautilya, social philosophers have been deeply
concerned with economic, social and political inequalities.
Universal
The stratification system is a worldwide phenomenon. The difference between the
rich and the poor or the ‘haves’ and the ‘have nots’ is evident everywhere. Even in
the ‘not literate’ societies, stratification is very much present. As Sorokin has said,
all permanently organized groups are stratified.Social Stratification
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Diverse forms
The stratification system has never been uniform in all the societies. The ancient
Roman society was stratified into two sections: the patricians and the plebeians,
the ancient Aryan society into four Varnas: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas
and the Shudras, the ancient Greek Society into freemen and slaves; the ancient
Chinese society into the mandarins, merchants, farmers, soldiers and so on. Class,
caste and estate seem to be the general forms of stratification to be found in the
modern world. But the stratification system seems to be much more complex in
the civilized societies.
Consequential
The stratification system has its own consequences. The most important, most
desired, and often the scarcest things in human life are distributed unequally because
of stratification. The system leads to two main kinds of consequences: (i) ‘life
chances’ and (ii) ‘lifestyles’. ‘Lifechances’ refer to such things as infant mortality,
longevity, physical and mental illness, childlessness, marital conflict, separation
and divorce. ‘Lifestyles’ include such matters as – the mode of housing, residential
area, one’s education, means of recreation, relationships between the parents and
children, the kind of books, magazines and TV shows to which one is exposed,
one’s mode of conveyance and so on. Lifechances are more involuntary, while
lifestyles reflect differences in preferences, tastes and values.
13.2.2 Functions
The glimpse of the cultures of the world reveals that no society is ‘classless’, that
is, uncertified. All the known established societies of the world are stratified in one
way or the other. According to Wilbert Moore and Kingsley Davis, the stratification
system evolved in all the societies due to the functional necessity. As they have
pointed out, the main functional necessity of the system is: ‘…..the requirement
faced by any society of placing and motivating individuals in the social structure…….
Social inequality is thus an unconsciously evolved device by which societies ensure
that the most important positions are conscientiously filled by the most qualified
persons’. As analysed by H.M. Johnson certain things here can be noted about
the ‘functional necessity’ of the class stratification system.
Encourages hard work
One of the main functions of class stratification is to induce people to work hard to
live up to the values. Those who best fulfil the values of a particular society are
normally rewarded with greater prestige and social acceptance by others. It is
known that occupations are ranked high if their functions are high important and
the required personnel is very scarce. Hard work, prolonged training and heavy
burden of responsibility are associated with such occupational positions. People
undertaking such works are rewarded with money, prestige, comforts, etc. StillSocial Stratification
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we cannot say that all those positions which are regarded as important are adequately
compensated for.
Ensures circulation of elites
To some extent, class stratification helps to ensure what is often called ‘the
circulation of the elite’. When a high degree of prestige comforts and other rewards
are offered for certain positions, there will be some competition for them. This
process of competition helps to ensure that the more efficient people are able to
rise to the top, where their ability can best be used.
Serves an economic function
The competitive aspect has a kind of economic function in that it helps to ensure
the rational use of available talent. It is also functionally necessary to offer differential
rewards if the positions at the top are largely ascribed as it is in the case of the
caste system. Even in the caste system, the people at the top can lose their prestige
if they fail to maintain certain standards. Hence differential rewards provide the
incentives for the upper classes to work at maintaining their positions.
Prevents waste of resources
The stratification system prevents the waste ofscarce resources. The men in the
elite class actually possess scarce and socially valued abilities and qualities, whether
these are inherited or acquired. Because of their possession of these qualities their
enjoyment of some privileges such as extra comfort and immunity from doing
menial work, are functionally justified. It becomes functionally beneficial for the
society to make use of their talents without being wasted. For example, it would
be a waste to pour the resources of society into the training of doctors and engineers,
and then make them work as peons and attendants. When once certain individuals
are chosen and are trained for certain difficult positions it would be dysfunctional
to waste their time and energy on tasks for which there is enough manpower.
Stabilizes and reinforces the attitudes and skills
Members of a class normally try to limit their relations to their own class. More
intimate relationships are mostly found between fellow class-members. Even this
tendency has its own function. It tends to stabilize and reinforce the attitudes and
skills that may be the basis of upper-class position. Those who have similar values
and interests tend to associate comfortably with one another. Their frequent
association itself confirms their common values and interests.
Helps to pursue different professions or jobs
The values, attitudes and qualities of different classes do differ. This difference is
also functional for society to some extent because society needs manual as well as
non manual workers. Many jobs are not attractive to highly trained or ‘refined’
people for they are socialized to aspire for certain other jobs. Because of the early Social Stratification
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influence of family and socialization the individuals imbibe in them certain values,
attitudes and qualities relevant to the social class to which they belong. This will
influence their selection of jobs.
Social control
Further, to the extent that ‘lower class’ cultural characteristics are essential to
society, the classes are, of course, functional. In fact, certain amount of mutual
antagonism between social classes is also functional. To some extent, upper-class
and lower-class groups can act as negative reference groups for each other. Thus
they act as a means of social control also.
Controlling effect on the ‘shady’ world
Class stratification has another social control function. Even in the ‘shady’ world
of gamblers and in the underworld of lower criminals, black-marketers, racketeers,
smugglers, etc., the legitimate class structure has got respectability. They know
that money is not substitute for prestige but only a compensation for renouncing it.
Hence instead of continuing in a profitable shady career, such people want to gain
respectability for their money and for their children and they try to enter legitimate
fields and become philanthropists and patrons of the arts. Thus the legitimate class
structure continues to attract the shady classes and the underworld. This attraction
exerts a social control function.
13.3 THEORIES OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Since the second half of the 19th century, four broad sociological theories have
been used to explain and interpret the phenomenon of social stratification. They
are:
(i) Natural superiority theory
(ii) Functionalist theory
(iii) Marxian class conflict theory
(iv) Weberian multiple hierarchies theory
1. Natural Superiority Theory
Natural superiority theory, also referred to as social Darwinism, was a popular
and widely accepted theory of social stratification in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth century. The main advocate of social Darwinism was Herbert Spencer,
an English sociologist, who saw social organization as an environment. It is believed
that certain individuals and groups had the requisite skills or attributes to compete
and to rise in that environment. Others, not so skilled or less competitive, would
fail. The social Darwinists believed that their theory was part of the law of nature.
Some other sociologists believed that the social inequality arising out of stratification
is biologically based. Such beliefs are often heard in the case of racial stratification Social Stratification
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where, for example, whites claim biological superiority over the blacks. Even in
terms of gender stratification, the underlying principle is that the men are biologically
superior to women. However, the question of a relationship between the biologically
based inequality and socially created inequality is difficult to answer. Rousseau
refers to biologically based inequality as natural or physical, because it is established
by the nature, particularly with respect to the age, health, bodily strength, and the
qualities of the mind. In comparison, socially created inequality consists of different
privileges, which some men enjoy to the prejudice of others, such as that of being
richer, more honoured, or more powerful. However, biologically based inequalities
between men are treated as small and relatively unimportant where as socially
created inequalities provide the major basis for systems of social stratification.
2. Functionalist Theory of Social Stratification
The functionalist theory is a theory that is most concerned with how societies
maintain order. Generally, the functionalist theorists have tended to stress stability,
consensus, and integration in society.
Functionalists assume that the society is similar to that of a human body,
comprising several parts which form an integrated whole. Like the human body,
the society’s institutions must function properly to maintain the stability of the entire
social system.
Further, certain functional prerequisites must be met if the society is to function
effectively and in order. Social stratification therefore becomes a tool to see how
far it meets these functional prerequisites. Talcott Parsons, the leading proponent
of functionalist model, differentiated societies as falling on a continuum between
ascribed-status-based societies and achievement based societies. Societies in which
individuals were value based on their family position, sex, race, or other traits of
birth are viewed as the traditional end of the continuum. On the other end is the
modern society, in which a system of rewards is used to aid in fulfilling a complex
division of labour. According to Parsons, more difficult positions that demanded
considerable responsibility required a system of rewards to motivate individuals to
take them. In his view, stratification — which is, by definition, social inequality —
was both necessary and agreeable. Parsons believed that stratification was necessary
to provide rewards for people who would take on the additional responsibility
tied to difficult positions, and in his view, stratification was desirable because it
allowed the social system to function smoothly. Parsons’s ideas on social
stratification were further developed by two American sociologists, Kingsley Davis
and Wilbert Moore in their essay ‘Some Principles of Stratification’, published in
American Sociological Review in 1945. They shared the common notions with
Parsons in so far as stating that the social stratification is universal, functional, and
integral to fulfilling the division of labour in society.
According to Davis and Moore, no society is classless or un-stratified.
Davis and Moore argued that it was necessary and functional for the society to
have a varied set of rewards in relation to the varied levels of sacrifices required Social Stratification
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by some jobs. In other words, there are some jobs that require individuals to
possess special talents or to develop special skills. These jobs may also require
that the individual filling the position works with utmost care. Therefore, Davis and
Moore find it logical that societies developed a system of rewards whereby those
jobs requiring the greatest preparation and responsibility are rewarded more highly
than are other positions. The social order has developed a differentiated system of
rewards, which as led to social stratification.
Thus, Davis and Moore argue that one of society’s most important functional
prerequisites is effective role allocation and performance. Namely, all roles must
be filled by persons best able to perform them, who have the necessary training
for them and who will perform these roles conscientiously. If the duties associated
with various positions would be equally present to everyone and all would depend
on the same talent and ability, then it would make no difference as to who got into
which position. However, it does make a great deal of difference mainly because
some positions are inherently more agreeable than others. Davis and Moore suggest
that the importance of a position in a society can be measured in two ways, i.e,.
the degree to which the position is functionally unique, there being no other position
that can perform the work satisfactorily (e.g,. a doctor’s role is more important
than that of a nurse) and then by the degree to which other positions are dependent
on the one in question.
In sum, both Parsons and Davis and Moore present a view of structured
inequality as being necessary to maintain social order and therefore society’s survival,
and as being based on general agreement among the members of society.
3. Marxian Theory of Social Stratification
The Marxist perspectives generally regard modern society as being divided
primarily into two classes — the bourgeoisie and the proletariat – on the basis of
property ownership or non-ownership of property. Marx understood classes to
be economically determined by the difference between owners of the means of
production and non-owning direct producers. Class differences therefore are
determined by the mode of production.
Marx and Frederich Engels have divided history into five distinct epochs of
production: primitive communism, Asiatic, ancient Greece and Rome, feudal society,
and capitalism of these, only the ancient, the feudal and the capitalist phases received
special treatment by both Marx and Engels. Ancient society was based on slavery;
feudal society was based on serfdom, and capitalism on wage labour. Each of
these societies was divided into two major classes: the oppressors and the
oppressed or the exploiters and the exploited. In every case the exploiters are
made up of those who own the means of production but do not produce. The
exploited are those who do not own the means of production but are the direct
producers of social goods and services. Because the exploited do not own the
means of production, they are forced, in order to live, to work for those who ownSocial Stratification
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and control the productive conditions of life. The exploiters live by means of the
surplus produced by the exploited. As a result, the social mode of production also
reproduces the social relations of production. Thus the relationship between the
exploiters and the exploited is constantly renewed and conserved. The Marxists
therefore in contrast to the functionalists regard stratification as a divisive rather
than an integrative structure and the focus was on social strata rather than social
inequality in general.
Marx also spoke of the hostilities between the two classes. Three terms—
class consciousness, class solidarity and class conflict — are important in
understanding the dynamics of class conflict in the Marxist approach to the study
of stratification. Class consciousness is the recognition by a class, such as workers,
of the role its members play in the productive process and their relation to the
owning class. Class solidarity refers to the degree to which workers collaborate to
achieve their political and economic targets. Class conflict is divided into two: (1)
the involuntary conflict between the workers and the capitalists for shares in the
productive output at a time when class consciousness is not developed and (2) the
conscious, deliberate and collective struggle between the two classes when the
workers become aware of their historic role. According to Marx, social change
occurs as a sequel to class struggle. Marx said that the revolution of the proletariat
will bring an end to the class conflict, i.e,. the conflicting interests between the
ruling class (bourgeoisie) and the subject class (proletariat).
4. Weberian Theory of Social Stratification
The work of the German sociologist Max Weber represents one of the important
developments in the stratification theory. According to Weber, stratification is based
on the three types of social formation, namely class, status and power or party.
Property differences generate classes, power differences generate political parties
and prestige differences generate status groupings or strata.
Like Marx, Weber sees class in economic terms, classes as a group of individuals
who share the same position in the market economy. Weber distinguishes four
class groups in the capitalist society:
(i) Propertied upper class
(ii) Property-less white collar workers
(iii) Petty bourgeoisie
(iv) Manual working class
In his analysis of class, Weber differs from Marx on some important grounds.
For instance, Weber says that the factors other than ownership or non-ownership
of property are significant in the class formation and he rejects the Marxist view of
the inevitability of the proletariat revolution. Weber also disagrees with the Marxist
view that political power is derived from the economic power. He says that groups
form because their members share a similar status situation. While ‘class’ refers to Social Stratification
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the unequal distribution of economic rewards, ‘status’ refers to the unequal
distribution of social honour. Weber also looks at ‘parties’ or groups which are
specifically concerned with influencing policies and making decisions in the interests
of their membership.
Check Your Progress
1. List three characteristics of social stratification.
2. Name some of the theories of social stratification.
3. Which are the two class groups that Weber has classified capitalist society
into?
4. What are the two functions of social stratification?
13.4 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL
MOBILITY
Individuals are normally recognized through the statuses they occupy and the roles
they enact. Not only is the society dynamic but also the individuals are dynamic.
Men are constantly striving to improve their statuses in society, to rise upwards to
higher positions, secure superior jobs. Sometimes, people of higher status and
position may also be forced to come down to a lower status and position. Thus,
people in society are in constant motion on the status scale. This movement is
called ‘social mobility’.
‘Social mobility’ may be understood as the movement of people or groups
from one social status or position to another status or position. For example, the
poor people may become rich, the become a big industrialist and so on. At the
same time a big businessman may become a bankrupt and the ruling class may be
turned out of office, and so on.
Types of Social Mobility
Social mobility is of three types, namely 1. Vertical social mobility, 2. Horizontal
social mobility, and 3. Spatial mobility.
1. Vertical mobility refers to the movement of people of groups from one
status to another. It involves change in class, occupation or power. For
example, the movement of people from the poor class to the middle class,
from the occupation of the labourers to that of the bank clerks, forms the
power position of the opposition to that of the ruling class. By vertical social
mobility, we refer to the relations involved in the transition of individuals
from one social stratum to another. According to the direction of transition,
there are two types of vertical mobility — ascending and descending or
social sinking and social climbing. The ascending type exists in two principalSocial Stratification
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forms as infiltration of individuals of a lower stratum into a higher one, the
insertion of such a group into higher stratum, instead of going side by side
with existing groups of the stratum. The descending has also two principal
forms. The first consists of dropping of individuals from one higher position
into lower existing one, without degradation or disintegration of the higher
groups to which they belonged. The second is manifested in its degradation
of social group as a whole. An example of vertical mobility is that in which
the scheduled castes move upward by getting modes of education, new
techniques, skills and adopting the ritual and manners of higher status caste
groups, changing their caste names, home culture and occupation and
maintain the higher position. The theory of ‘lagging emulation’ under the
framework of reference groups is employed to understand this type of
mobility both in the field of hierarchy and occupation. However, this type of
mobility takes place from lower stratum to higher stratum.
2. Horizontal mobility refers to the transition of an individual or social object
from one social group to another situated at the same level. Horizontal shifting
occurs usually without any noticeable change. If we take occupation, shifting
from one job or factory or occupation to another of the same kind would
be referred to as horizontal mobility. An example of horizontal mobility is
the citizenship shifting or shifting of individuals from one state to another.
That does not mean the changing of citizenship, but it is called shifting of
citizenship. It indicates a change in position, within the range of the status.
For example, an engineer working in a factory may resign from his job and
join another factory as an engineer and may work in more or less the same
capacity. Similarly, a teacher may leave one school to join another as a
teacher.
3. Spatial mobility refers to inter-generational mobility which is an outcome
of migration or shifting of places, for example, it may happen as a result of
migration from rural to urban community or social improvement of individuals
within the family and hence provide the chances for change in culture. In this
context, some of the scholars of change and mobility have discussed the
units of mobility in the form of individual financial groups and corporate
mobility. The study of mobility can be subsumed under the above pattern.
So we can say that the social mobility is a part of the broader concept of
social change. In a transitional society, modern education, industrialization,
growth of cities, factories, bureaucracy and change in the occupational
patterns are the main variants for the social mobility.
Factors Affecting Social Mobility
There are various factors, which are responsible for the social mobility.
1. The supply of vacant status
The number of statuses in a given stratum is not always or even usually constant.
For example, the expansion in the proportion of professional, official, marginalSocial Stratification
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and white-collar positions and decline in the number of unskilled labour positions
require a surge of upward mobility. These positions retain their relative social standing
at times. Demographic factors also operate to facilitate mobility, when the higher
classes do not reproduce themselves and hence create a demographic vacuum
(Sorokin, 1959).
2. The interchange of rank
Any mobility that occurs in a given social system which is not a consequence of a
change in the supply of positions and actors must necessarily result from an
interchange. Consequently, if we think of simple model for every move up, there
must be a corresponding move down. Interchange mobility will be determined in
a large part by the extent to which a given society gives the numbers of lower
strata which means complete with those who enter social structure at a higher
level. Thus the lesser the emphasis a culture places on the family background as a
criteria for marriage, the more will be the class mobility that can occur both up and
down through marriage. The occupational success is related to educational
achievements which are open to all and hence the greater occupational mobility
(Lipset and Zetterberg, 1966).
3. Modern education
Education has particularly created new incentives and motivation to initiate and
adopt the ideals, practices, behaviour patterns and style of life of the higher castes
which M. N. Srinivas (1965) translates and explains under the process of
sanskritization and westernization. Sanskritization is a process through which
the lower castes imitate the traditions and cultural practices of the upper castes
and sometimes even the nomenclature to push their case for a higher status in the
society. There are many instances of the lower castes that have adopted the practices
of higher castes in order to be upwardly mobile which is otherwise not possible in
the traditional Hindu society. The process of westernization in terms of adoption
of the western ideals in life is also a most potential force in social mobility, especially
in the urban and industrial centres. The new value orientations, motivation,
behaviour patterns, formal relations, individualism, monetised attitude to social
status and western technology are popular among the people. This popularity for
status upliftment, encourages the migration to places where economic opportunities
in terms of urban trade, industrial occupations and jobs in different governments
are available.
4. Migration
Migration to urban areas also contributes to the change in the social status of
socially mobile individuals and groups. The traditional occupations slowly disappear
and the modern industrial occupations are sought after. All these factors help in the
improvement of the social position of the people. Normally, the higher the income
of a particular occupation, the greater is the importance of education. However,
though money makes the base of living, education decides the quality and mode of
life and living. As a result, lots of changes have come in the living arrangements ofSocial Stratification
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the people in the modern societies. The changes also occur in the behaviour and
manners of the people, which may be the outcome of social mobility.
Education And Social Mobility
As discussed earlier, education in the present day context is the most important
and dynamic force in the life of individual, influencing his social development. It
functions more as an agent of social change and mobility in social structure. It
leads to economic development by providing ways and means to improve the
standard of life. The positive attitude towards education leads to socio-economic
mobility among the individuals and groups. That means, a person who is born in an
agricultural family can, by means of education, become an administrator or any
other government employee. Secondly, education leads to the changes in the
lifestyles of people. It modifies the attitudes, habits, manners and their mode of
social living. Thirdly, the education is responsible for inter-generational mobility
among the individuals and groups. Through inter-generational mobility, the social
groups are able to maintain their status and the status of their family. Therefore, it
can be said that education plays an important contributory role in the mobility of
individuals and groups regarding their social position, occupational structure, styles
of life, habits and manners.
Social Mobility And Social Stratification
The nature, form, intensity and magnitude of social mobility depend on the nature
and the type of social stratification. Class and caste are the two main types of
stratification. In both the systems the same kinds of opportunities are not provided
for social mobility. Because, in both the societies, the factors that determine the
statuses of the individuals differ radically. There is a close link between the way in
which individuals obtain their statuses and the nature of social mobility. In the caste
system, the status is determined by birth. Since birth cannot be changed, the status
which is determined on the basis of birth cannot be changed. For example, a
Harijan cannot attain the status of aVokkaliga, orLingayat orBrahmin. Similarly,
a Brahmin, is born a Brahmin and dies a Brahmin. Caste statuses cannot be
changed. Hence, the caste as a form of social stratification does not facilitate
vertical society, the ‘immobile’ society.
In a class system, opportunities are provided for social mobility. Here, the
status is determined mainly by the talents, intelligence, wealth and achievements of
the persons. The status is not ascribed by birth but ‘achieved’’ by individual attempts.
For example, by his endless efforts and struggles a labourer may become the
owner of a factory, a salesman of a business house, the owner of a business firm,
and so on. There is scope for the improvement of the social status in the class
system. Hence, the class system is called an ‘open system’, and the open-class
society, the ‘mobile’ society.
As and when the society becomes more and more complex, and the life of
its members improves, individuals may find better opportunities for the expressionSocial Stratification
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of their abilities and talents. But in no society can all the deserving individuals
obtain statuses of their liking, desires and expectations. As Sorokin has pointed
out in his ‘Social Mobility’, only in an ideal society all the individuals get
employments and statuses in accordance with their capacities. At the same time, it
is not possible to confine people to their status when once they occupy or assume
a status without going away from it, or changing it in any manner. For example,
even in a so called ‘immobile’ society like India, though a Harijan cannot change
his caste-status, he can change his educational, economic, employment and political
status. In this sense, there are no completely open and mobile societies and
completely ‘closed’ and ‘immobile’ societies.
Check Your Progress
5. Differentiate between vertical and horizontal mobility.
6. List two factors that affect social mobility.
13.5 TYPES OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
This section will examine three major systems of social stratification — slavery,
Social castes, and the social classes. These systems can be seen as ideal types for
analytical purposes. It may be pointed out that any social stratification system may
include elements of more than one type.
13.5.1 Slavery Class Systems
The most radical, legalized, social inequality for individuals or groups is slavery.
The most unique feature of this crushing system of stratification is that one human
being owns another. These individuals are treated as possessions, just like
household pets or appliances. Slavery has been practised in different forms. In
ancient Greece, the main source of slaves consisted of captives of war and piracy.
Though the slave status could be inherited, it was not permanent. Aperson’s status
might be changed depending on the outcome of the military conflict between
kingdoms. On the other hand, in the United States and Latin America, racial and
legal barriers were established to prevent the freeing of slaves. In other words, in
whatever form it existed, it had required extensive use of coercion in order to
maintain the privileges of slave owners.
13.5.2 Social Class
A social class is a group of individuals who have more or less a similar wealth.
The possession of wealth enables the individual to obtain those goods and services
that are scarce and are valued by others. These goods and services differ from
society to society. In traditional society, the wealthy person may buy land and gold
while in modern society he may invest in the stock market or buy luxurious cars orSocial Stratification
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go aboard for vacations. Wealth allows the person to create more wealth if he
invests it prudently. Most modern societies have class based stratification. However
many features of traditional stratification may be observed in modern societies
such as elements of caste system and feudalism found in India. But with economic
development, class based stratification is becoming increasingly important.
Class is a relatively open stratification system
Any society is said to be relatively open or closed depending on the number of
opportunities available to its members for upward social mobility. Equally important,
is the attitude of the society towards the mobility of its members. If the society
offers a large number of opportunities and encourages members to achieve higher
positions then the society can be called an open stratification society. On the other
hand, if the society has a limited number of opportunities for upward mobility and
its normative values prohibit its members from achieving higher positions, that
society is called a closed stratification society. Along with development, the system
of stratification becomes open and achievement oriented.
The class system is a form of open stratification system. An individual with
his achievements can gain entry to a higher class and acquire prestige. There are
examples of individuals who by their hard work and achievements rose from poverty
and became millionaires. Modern society appreciates such individuals as they are
seen as models for others.
Social mobility in modern societies is based on intelligence, merit, competence
and achievement of individuals. However, in every society, inspite of the openness,
factors like socio-economic background, parental status and resources, social
networks and various ascribed factors play an important role in determining
individual motivation, achievement and the availability of opportunities. Since these
factors are not in control of the individual and cannot be easily modified to his
advantage it cannot be said that modern societies are fully achievement oriented
and open.
That is why we have said class based societies are relatively open, that is, in
relation to other societies. We will shortly study the caste system, which is a relatively
closed stratification system.
Social hierarchy in traditional societies is formed by ascription while in class
based societies achievement plays an important role. In other words the difference
between traditional and modern social hierarchies, lies in the difference between
(status ascribed and status achieved being) the bases social stratification. Traditional
social hierarchies are based on ascribed states, while modern social hierarchies
are based on achieved status.
The level of competition in modern society is high and only the fittest can
survive.
Social workers have to remember two consequences of an achievement
based society. Since achievement is stressed, failures of an individual are lookSocial Stratification
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down upon by others and they lose their self-esteem. You may have read in
newspapers about school children committing suicide after failing in school exams.
It is the desire for high achievement and fulfilling the high expectations of others
that pressurize vulnerable students to take this extreme step Secondly, an
achievement based society should provide the minimum facilities of health, education
and housing to individuals to make them fit for competition. In countries like India,
we find that these essential facilities are not provided to all and many people are
unable to compete with others on an equal basis. This makes the social situation
unfair to these people. The government and voluntary organisations implement
welfare and development programmes to enable disadvantaged people to enter
the mainstream of society.
Impact of class system in India
Membership of particular class groups influences the behaviour of its members. It
makes them conscious about their position in society. But in the Indian context
more importance is given to caste and related issues rather than class factors. The
class character in India is quite different from western societies. Here class and
caste categories co-exist in India and class categories like upper, middle and lower
are parallel to caste categories. They jointly determine the class status, power and
prestige of the individual in the society. Studies have shown that the upper classes
predominantly belong to the upper castes which are an ascribed status. There
have been significant changes in the last decades but the pattern still continues.
The accumulation and distribution of resources including education is determined
by the social position of the individual. Those who are higher in terms of the class
and caste terms control available resources to a great extent, leaving behind a
section of the Indian population below and around the poverty line The forces of
globalization and liberalization seem to have widened the gap between the haves
and have-nots, between the rich and the poor, between urban people and rural
people and the upper caste and the lower class and lower caste.
13.5.3 Social Caste
Caste is a much debated topic in India. The word caste refers to the Spanish
word ‘Casta’ which means ‘breed’ in Spanish. In the Indian context it represents
caste and its related social practice. The caste system influences the social life of
the Indian in a number of ways, as it assigns ascribed status to its members.
According to the Rig Veda the oldest and most important of all the four Vedas,
there are four Varnas which are placed in a hierarchical order — the Brahmans,
the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the Shudras. The profession of Brahmans is
that of priests and teachers. TheKshatriyas are warriors and rulers. TheVaisahyas
are traders and other common people. The Shudras occupy the lowest position
in the hierarchy and perform the menial tasks. According to some historians, there
is a fifthVarna, the untouchables, and they are not considered as a part of society.
The tribes and people of other religions are also considered outside the VarnaSocial Stratification
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system. Individuals are born into a caste and membership of a caste is determined
by birth. An individual cannot change his or her caste. But there are instances
where castes as a whole, after an improvement in economic status and changes in
lifestyles have claimed a higher status in society. Such claims may or may not be
accepted. The dominant castes might react adversely to the claim. But even if the
claim is accepted the caste system remains intact. However the process of
Sanskritization, inter-caste marriage and advancement of education has changed
the degree of the rigidity of the caste system in India.
According to G.S. Ghurye, a noted anthropologist, caste has six characteristics:
1. Hierarchy:Hierarchy is superior-subordinate relationship between various
individuals and groups. Hierarchy in one form or another exists in every
society but the principle of determining the hierarchy differs from society to
society. In India caste is the main basis of social hierarchy. The degree of
ritual purity and impurity associated with a particular caste determines its
position in the hierarchy. Wealth and power are not the determining factors.
For example, a Brahmin whose economic status is lower than a Rajput is
accorded a superior position because of his higher ritual status.
In reality, however, political and economic factors do play a significant role
in determining the position of the caste. Sociologists have pointed out a that
high ritual status does not actually translate into a higher social status. For
example, while a Rajput may not have as important a role in ritual matters
as theBrahmins, it is unlikely that he will give a higher status to theBrahmin
in other matters. According to sociologist, MN. Srinivasan, a dominant caste
is that caste in the community that has a sufficiently high ritual status, numerical
strength and material resources like land, wealth and access to power. It is
the combination of these factors which keeps a caste high in the hierarchy.
The dominant caste often has a major role to play in the village politics and
its social life.
2. Segmented division of society: Castes are well-developed groups with
membership based on birth and not by selection. The rights and duties of
the individuals are controlled by caste councils, which exist in every caste.
These councils have large powers to regulate the social life of its members.
They can enforce order by punishing offenders for a variety of offences.
Offences include adultery, causing injury to others; killing and punishments
can include the imposition of fines, ordering corporal punishment and even
the death sentence. Many castes have their own gods and goddesses that
are not a part of the larger religious tradition. Thus, caste has a sufficient
degree of autonomy in dealing with the issues related to its members, and is
independent of the controls by the government.
3. Restrictions on feeding and Social intercourse: The exchange of
cooked food between various castes is based on specific rules and
conditions. Certain castes accept only certain kind of foods from membersSocial Stratification
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of other castes. Food items are divided into pakka and kucha food. Pakka
is cooked in ghee and are considered superior to kucha food which is
cooked in water. ABrahmin can take only pakka food from Kshatriyas
and Vaishyas but not from Shudras and untouchables. On the other hand,
Kshatriyas will take kucha food from a Brahmin but only accept pakka
food from the Vaishyas who are lower than them. The distinctions in the
offering and taking of food are based on the positions of the caste involved.
Such kinds of differences are seen in the maintenance of social distance
between different castes. The physical distance between castes reflects the
caste positions.
For example in traditional Kerala society, a Nayyar may approach a
Nambudri but cannot touch him whereas a member of theTiya caste (lower
than the Nayyar caste) has to maintain a distance of 36 steps from the
Nambudri.
4. Civil and religious disabilities and privileges of different castes:
Different castes in the hierarchy have different rights and privileges. The
result is that social life is segregated on the basis of caste. In north Indian
villages impure castes are segregated while pure castes live together. In
South India all castes tend to be segregated. In Tamil Nadu for example,
we find that the place where caste Hindus live are called Ur and where
dalits live are called Cheri. The Cheri is situated at a distance from the
village.
Ghurye gives a number of instances from the late 19th century and early
20th century to show how these disabilities were enforced. For instance in
Viakomom, a town in the princely state of Travancore, Shudras were not
allowed to walk on the temple streets. A nationwide agitation by prominent
leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Periyar against these discriminatory
practices changed the situation.
Similarly in Pune, a Shudra could not enter the city in the morning and
evening as their long shadows would pollute the high caste members. We
also find differential treatment in the punishments for committing similar
crimes. For example if caught stealing aBrahmin had to pay only a fine but
for the same crime, a Shudra had to undergo corporal punishment. There
are a number of places even today in India where Shudras are not allowed
to offer prayers in the temples.
The religious practices reinforced this hierarchy and Shudras had liabilities
that were attached to their caste status. They could not enter the most inner
part of the temple, the sanctum sanctorum. OnlyBrahmins were allowed
this privilege. In rural areas, even now, there is discrimination against lower
caste members. We often hear of caste violence after lower caste members
were disallowed by higher caste members to take out a marriage procession
or funeral procession on the main street.Social Stratification
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5. Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation: Membership of the caste is
hereditary and each caste had a traditionally assigned occupation. Regardless
of the individual’s aptitudes and skills he had to adopt the occupation of his
caste. In the same way every occupation was linked to a specific caste. So
each caste has one occupation and that occupation was the presence of
that caste only. For example, only aBrahmin could become a priest because
of his birth in a Brahmin family. Education was imparted on the basis of
caste. Young members would be attached to older members to train them in
the occupational skills of the caste. There was no universal and common
education. However, sociologists have pointed out that inspite of such
restrictions on occupations there were certain occupations like weaving,
agriculture and military that were open to all castes.
In pre-modern times the economic relations between the various castes
was in the form of the jajmani system. Each service caste performed a
particular function for the landlords. They used to receive payment in kind
and commonly on an annual basis. The service castes and the higher castes
had a client-patron relationship. In modern times their relation has undergone
a change.
6. Endogamy:Endogamy refers to the marriage practice in which the members
of a group marry from within the group members. Endogamy is an important
characteristic of the caste system. In many castes, there is endogamy at the
sub-caste level. For example, Iyers and Iyengars may not marry between
each other even though both are Tamil Brahmins.
There are however exceptions to the rule. These exceptions pertain to
hypergamy and hypogamy. When a higher caste man marries a low caste women
it is called hypergamy and when a lower caste man marries a higher caste woman
it is call hypogamy. Hypergamy is allowed whereas hypogamy is strictly forbidden.
It is a matter of prestige for the lower caste family if their daughter had been
accepted by a higher caste’s man and family. An example of this practice is marriage
between a male Nambudri and a Nayyar woman.
Caste in other religions
Among the major religions of the world, caste exists only in Hinduism. But in India
adherents of virtually all religions seem to have caste-like divisions. The Muslims,
the Christians, the Buddhists and Sikhs, all seem to follow the principle of inclusion
and hierarchy in different ways. Islam and Christianity believe in radical equality
between its members. However, The existence of caste-like practices shows that
in some aspects the social milieu in which a religion is practiced influences it more
than its theology. This is the case of Sikhism and Buddhism also.
Caste-like differences may be observed in religions other than Hinduism. In
Sikhism, there are groups like Jat Sikhs andMazhabi Sikhs. They do not intermarry.
In Islam four groups were identified that can be compared to castes: Syeds, Sheikhs,Social
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Material
Pathans andMughals. Syeds claim that they are the direct descendants of Prophet
Muhammad while Sheikhs claim that they are descendants of the tribe of Prophet
Muhammad. Pathans and Mughals are considered to be the warrior class
comparable to Kshatriyas in Hinduism. Other groups in Islam are based on
professions they pursue like weavers butchers, water carriers, etc. These groups
are considered lower in status than Syeds, Sheikhs, Pathans and Mughals. Most
of these groups are endogamous. There is limited social intercourse between these
members. However, anyone from any social group, if competent in religious
knowledge, can become a priest or moulvi.
Christianity is also an egalitarian religion and has encouraged conversions
of people from all castes during different periods of history. Many of these castes
have retained their caste identities even after their conversion to Christianity and
this has influenced their social behaviour. However, Islam and Christianity have no
concept of pollution and purity, which is central to Hinduism. Hence these religions
were less influenced by caste than Hinduism.
13.5.4 Estate
The system of estates was prevalent in many traditional civilizations including
European feudalism. The feudal society was divided into three different
estates. The first estate included clergy, the second included aristocracy
and gentry, and the third included common people. Each estate had different
obligations and rights.
According to Bottomore, some of the characteristics of estates are as
follows:
(i) Feudal estates were political groups.
(ii) Each estate had a defined legal status based on its privileges and
obligations.
(iii) There was clear division of labour among these estates. Each estate had to
perform certain functions. The nobility had to defend all estates from enemies,
the clergy had to pray for all estates, and the commoners had to produce
food for all estates.
Growing industrialization weakened the estate system in Europe.
13.5.5 Status
The anthropologist Ralph Linton first coined the terms ‘ascribed status’ and
‘achieved status’ in his book The Study of Man. Ascribed status is the social
status which is assigned to a person on his birth and remains fixed throughout his
life. Thus, in societies which are based on ascription groups, people have little
freedom to move to another group or status, whereas, in a society based on
achievement, an individual can work his way up the social ladder through his
talents, abilities and skills.Social Stratification
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(i) Ascribed or biological bases of stratification
These are the attributes that a person is born with. The position of a person in the
society is decided by these attributes. Some of these attributes are sex, race and
caste. Now, let us study these bases of ascribed stratification:
Race/Caste stratification: Discrimination on the basis of race or caste is
the prime example of ascribed stratification. Here, race refers to the aspects
of your physical appearance that make you a part of a particular group
which is recognized by the society. Throughout history, people’s caste and
the colour of their skin have determined their social status. Today, racism
and casteism are considered extreme forms of discrimination.
Gender stratification: Gender is also an important basis of social
stratification. In many societies, men are considered more powerful and
authoritative than women. Women are considered victims of social inequality.
Some feminists point out that women do not form a homogenous group as
their social status is also determined by their race, age, sexual preference
and class. However, there are other feminists who believe that irrespective
of these differences, there are some common characteristics among women
across the world.
Professor Lesley Doyal (University of Bristol, the UK) states that the
women’s physique is the real constraint in their lives; and she explains this
statement by saying, ‘this is evidenced by the fact that the fight for bodily
self-determination has been a central feature of feminist politics across very
different cultures.’
(ii) Achieved or socio-cultural bases of stratification
Social stratification is not only based on biological bases but on socio-cultural
bases as well. A person can control some of the attributes like power, prestige,
wealth and education. According to Max Weber, three Ps form the base of social
stratification. These are Property (wealth), Power (influence) and Prestige (status).
Generally, these three Ps occur together, that is, people who are wealthy tend to
be powerful and have a prestigious status in the society. Yet, this is not always true.
For example, a petty contractor may make more money than a school teacher but
cannot have a prestigious status like him. Now, let us study the three Ps in detail.
(a) Power: Weber sees power as the capacity of an individual to influence
others. Favouring Weber, the American sociologist Talcott Parsons believes
that poweris the universalized capacity of social system and is exercised to
achieve collective goals. Power is classified into two categories:
1. Individualistic power situations
2. Organizational power situations
Individualistic power relationships are exercised by individuals, and they
become organizational when these are exercised by social organizations.Social Stratification
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Material
Generally, all power relations have individualistic as well as organizational
elements. If the head of the family decides where to marry off his daughter,
it is an individualistic power; but as a social unit, family exercises organizational
power. Power is also classified as purposive and purposeless, and direct
and indirect.
Activities which are intended to affect social order or cultural system come
under purposive power. If an activity is not deliberately done to influence
the society; but it still influences the society, it would be purposeless power.
In case of direct use of power, power flows directly from bearer to the
affected individual or group. In case of indirect use of power, other people
exist between the bearer of power and the affected individuals or group.
(b) Property or wealth:It refers to material possessions and other things owned
by people which help in producing income. Some of the examples of material
possessions are money, land, building, jewellery and livestock. Income refers
to money that people receive over a certain period of time, including salaries,
rent, interest and wages. In advanced capitalist societies, money plays an
important role in people’s lives.
(c) Prestige:It is also an important basis of social stratification. However, it is
subjective in nature unlike property and power. It is because prestige is
intangible and depends on other people’s perceptions and attitudes. It refers
to social honour and respect. Prestige has several aspects. It may result
from a person’s social roles, socio-political activities, leadership qualities,
physical attributes or a property. Social prestige is also related to authority,
respect and influence.
Occupation is also an important means of social prestige. For example,
doctors and managers enjoy better social prestige than peons or sweepers.
Weber believed that one of the most important factors in the rise of capitalism
was the religious belief that wealthy people were smiled upon by God. In
the modern capitalist societies, most people believe that people with more
wealth have worked harder and are more deserving than people with less
wealth.
Besides the three Ps, there are some other bases of social stratification as
well. These are as follows:
Social network:Social networks help a person in many social situations.
Thus, a person with a good and large social network is considered
more powerful than others. People make social network through their
classmates, colleagues, acquaintances and neighbours.
Education: Education helps a person in moving up the social ladder.
When people attend school or college, they not only earn degrees but
also make social network and learn a number of off-course things. All
these things help people later in their lives. This is one of the reasonsSocial Stratification
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why most countries force children to attend school and strongly encourage
adults to attend college.
Human capital: Human capital refers to useful skills that a person has
learned. Some of the examples of human capital are knowledge about
how to use a computer programme, ability to fix a car, knowledge of
medical treatments, understanding of a country, state, or city’s legal
system and knowledge of sociology. Specialized skills are valuable in
the job market.
Cultural capital:The term ‘cultural capital’ was coined by a sociologist
named Pierre Bourdieu. It refers to the knowledge of and a liking for
high-status culture. According to Bourdieu, some of the examples of
cultural capital are knowledge of classical music, ability to identify
compositions with their composers, interest in art, and knowledge of
fine wine and gourmet food.
He states that none of this knowledge has much practical usage, but it
shows that the person was raised by relatively wealthy and well-educated
parents.
(iii) Closed and open stratification systems
Corresponding to the ascribed and achieved social stratification, there are two
types of stratification systems, namely closed and open systems. Most sociologists
agree that there is no stratification system which can be considered perfectly open.
This implies that there is no system which is totally based on achieved statuses and
where ascribed statuses do not help or hurt people in the long run.
When sociologists look at societies which have open stratification systems,
they want to determine the extent to which the society is more open than closed.
Sociologists determine the openness of a society’s stratification system by finding
out its permissible social mobility. These ideas can be understood with the help of
following flow charts.
Many sociologists believe that inequality exists in all societies, but the degree of
inequality varies from society to society. It implies that inequality is more severe in
some societies than in others. David B. Grusky, a leading expert in inequality,
notes that social stratification systems vary along a number of dimensions. These
dimensions are as follows:
Type of assets: Using this dimension, sociologists look at the main attribute
that people high in the stratification order have more than others. In some
societies, this attribute is money, and in others, it is human capital. Some
societies respect people with political power, while others respect people
with cultural prestige.
Classes: Under this dimension, major classes in the society are observed.
In a capitalist society, as German philosopher and economist Karl Marx
said, there exist two classes namely bourgeoisie and proletariat. OtherSocial Stratification
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Material
societies may have class classification such as slaves and slave-owners, or
nobles and commoners.
Degree of inequality: While studying this dimension, sociologists observe
the extent of inequality between the people in the highest classes and those
in the lowest classes. In medieval feudal society, inequality was very high,
and in prehistoric tribal society, inequality was relatively low. According to
David B. Grusky, Professor of Sociology at Stanford University, in our
advanced industrial society, the degree of inequality is in between those
two extremes.
Rigidity: In this case, rigidity refers to the permissible social mobility.
Traditional caste society allows virtually no mobility unlike modern societies.
Importance of studying social stratification
The study of social stratification is extremely important for sociologists. The
importance of studying social stratification can be summed up as follows:
It helps in understanding the type of life people live. Knowing what type of
life individuals in a given social group or stratum live is very important for
sociological analysis.
It helps in understanding the bases on which a society is stratified.
It helps in understanding the kind of interaction and relationship that exist
between individuals of different strata.
It assists in investigating the relationship between individuals or groups
belonging to the same hierarchy.
It helps in understanding which type of social system gives rise to a particular
type of hierarchy. It implies that the type of social stratification varies across
cultures, times and types of social systems.
Check Your Progress
7. List the three types of social stratification.
8. Define a closed stratification society.
9. List the two characteristics of caste.
10. Mention the socio-cultural bases which can be controlled.
13.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
1. Social stratification is social, it is ancient and it is universal.
2. Natural superiority theory, Functionalist theory, Marxian class conflict theory,
Weberian multiple hierarchies theory are three theories of social stratification. Social Stratification
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3. Capitalist society is classified into: propertied upper class and manual working
class.
4. The three types of social stratifiction are:
(i) Slavery
(ii) Caste
(iii) Social Class
5. Vertical mobility is the movement of people of groups from one status to
another, e.g., the poor rise to middle class. Horizontal mobility is the transition
of a group from one social group to another, both situation at the same
level, e.g. a teacher moving from one college to another at the same level to
another state.
6. The interchange of rank and modern education are two factors that affect
social mobility.
7. Three major types of social stratification are: slavery, Social castes, and the
social classes.
8. If the society has a limited number of opportunities for upward mobility and
its normative values prohibit its members from achieving higher positions,
that society is called a closed stratification society.
9. Hierarchy and restrictions on feeding and social intercourse are the two
characteristics of caste.
10. Socio-cultural bases such as power, prestige, wealth and education, etc.,
can be controlled.
13.7 SUMMARY
Differentiation is the law of nature. This is true in the case of human society.
Human society is not homogeneous but heterogeneous. Men differ from
one another, in many respects. Human beings are equal so far as their bodily
structure is concerned.
All societies assign their members to roles in terms of superiority, inferiority
and equality. This vertical scale of evaluation, and placement of people in
strata, or levels, is called stratification.
All societies differentiate members in terms of roles and all societies evaluate
roles differently. Some roles are regarded as more important or socially
more valuable than others. The persons who perform the more highly
esteemed roles are rewarded more highly. Thus stratification is simply a
process of interaction of differentiation whereby some people come to rank
higher than others.
Social stratification is ubiquitous. In all societies population is socially
differentiated on the basis of age, sex and personal characteristics. TheSocial Stratification
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Material
roles and privileges of children differ from those of adults; and those of
good hunters or warriors differ from those of the rank and file. It is not
customary to speak of a society as stratified if every individual in it has an
equal chance to succeed to whatever statuses are open.
The two concepts — ‘social differentiation’ and ‘social stratification’ —
are made use of to refer to such classification or gradation and placement
of people in society. In differentiation,society bases status on a certain kind
of trait which may be (i) physical or biological such as skin colour, physical
appearance, or sex, (ii) social and cultural such as differences in etiquette,
manners, values, ideals, ideologies, etc. Thus, differentiation serves as a
sorting process according to which the people are graded on the basis of
roles and status.
The functional necessity of the class stratification system argues that it:
encourages hard work, ensures circulation of elites, serves an economic
function, prevents waste of resources, stabilizes and reinforces the attitudes
and skills, helps to pursue different professions or jobs, ensures social control
and has a controlling effect on the ‘shady’ world.
Since the second half of the 19th century, four broad sociological theories
have been used to explain and interpret the phenomenon of social
stratification. They are:
(i) Natural superiority theory
(ii) Functionalist theory
(iii) Marxian class conflict theory
(iv) Weberian multiple hierarchies theory
Social mobility’ may be understood as the movement of people or groups
from one social status or position to another status or position.
Social mobility is of three types, namely 1. Vertical social mobility,
2. Horizontal social mobility, and 3. Spatial mobility.
The three major systems of social stratification — slavery, Social castes,
and the social classes.
The most radical, legalized, social inequality for individuals or groups is
slavery. The most unique feature of this crushing system of stratification is
that one human being owns another. These individuals are treated as
possessions, just like household pets or appliances.
A social class is a group of individuals who have more or less a similar
wealth. The possession of wealth enables the individual to obtain those
goods and services that are scarce and are valued by others. These goods
and services differ from society to society.
Caste is a much debated topic in India. The word caste refers to the Spanish
word ‘Casta’ which means ‘breed’ in Spanish. In the Indian context itSocial Stratification
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represents caste and its related social practice. The caste system influences
the social life of the Indian in a number of ways, as it assigns ascribed status
to its members.
The system of estates was prevalent in many traditional civilizations including
European feudalism. The feudal society was divided into three different
estates. The first estate included clergy, the second included aristocracy
and gentry, and the third included common people. Each estate had different
obligations and rights.
The anthropologist Ralph Linton first coined the terms ‘ascribed status’ and
‘achieved status’ in his book The Study of Man. Ascribed status is the
social status which is assigned to a person on his birth and remains fixed
throughout his life. Thus, in societies which are based on ascription groups,
people have little freedom to move to another group or status, whereas, in
a society based on achievement, an individual can work his way up the
social ladder through his talents, abilities and skills.
13.8 KEY WORDS
Stratification: It refers to the vertical scale of evaluation, and placement of
people in strata, or levels.
Social differentiation: It serves as a sorting process according to which
the people are graded on the basis of roles and status.
Functionalists: It refers to the theory that assumes that the society is similar
to that of a human body, comprising several parts which form an integrated
whole. Like the human body, the society’s institutions must function properly
to maintain the stability of the entire social system.
Marxist perspectives: This approach generally regards modern society
as being divided primarily into two classes — the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat – on the basis of property ownership or non-ownership of property.
Social mobility: It refers to the movement of people or groups from one
social status or position to another status or position.
Social class: It is a group of individuals who have more or less a similar
wealth. The possession of wealth enables the individual to obtain those
goods and services that are scarce and are valued by others.
Social caste: It refers to the Spanish word ‘Casta’ which means ‘breed’ in
Spanish. In the Indian context it represents caste and its related social practice.
The caste system influences the social life of the Indian in a number of ways,
as it assigns ascribed status to its members.Social Stratification
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13.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. What are the dimensions of social stratification according to Weber?
2. Write a short note on the two types of social mobility.
3. Which are the types of social stratification?
4. What are the functions of social stratification?
5. What is estate?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Analyse the characteristics of social stratification.
2. Explain the factors that affect social mobility.
3. Briefly identify education as a factor in social mobility.
13.10 FURTHER READINGS
Bilton, Tony, et al. 1987. Introductory Sociology. London: MacMillan.
Ghurye. 1986. Caste and Race in Modern India. Popular Prakashan, Bombay.
Giddens, Anthony. 1990. Sociology. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Gupta, Dipankar. 1991. Social Stratification. New Delhi: Oxford University
Press.Social Control
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UNIT 14 SOCIAL CONTROL

Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Social Control: An Overview
14.2.1 Types of Social Control: Formal and Informal
14.2.2 Agencies of Social Control
14.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
14.4 Summary
14.5 Key Words
14.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
14.7 Further Readings
14.0 INTRODUCTION
Social control is a rather simple concept of sociology. It can be explained as the
process wherein it is made mandatory for people to follow the standards and
ideals of a society or social group. A spontaneous approach towards social control
is by taking instances from the daily routines of life. People always have opinions
about a number of things. Opinions are helpful in providing us with the knowledge
to act and react in different scenarios. A large number of these opinions are a
result of social mechanisms. In this unit, we will learn about the concept of social
control in sociology. This will include a discussion on the meaning and definition of
social control, the types of social control: formal and informal and the agencies
which help in the process of exercising social control over the social relationships
and interactions that happen in the society.
14.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Define the concept of social control
Discuss the types of social control
Examine the agencies of social controlSocial Control
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14.2 SOCIAL CONTROL: AN OVERVIEW
Social control is the most significant characteristic of modern social and political
sciences. There are many writings on how different types of societies are based
on fluctuations in the order of institution and specifically the gradual destruction of
traditional methods. These were the constituents of modernity. Paradoxically, the
extent of freedom directly affects the need to control. In a world where the common
belief is that customs, relationships and the links of social structures of the society
are persistently delicate and structured, our cognitive and affective response is to
try to gain a higher level of social control.
In contemporary usage, social control generally refers to some form of
organized reaction to unexpected activities. Stan Cohen calls social control ‘those
organized responses to crime, delinquency and allied forms of deviant and/or
socially problematic behaviour, which are actually conceived of as such, whether
in the reactive sense (after the putative act has taken place or the actor has been
identified) or in the proactive sense (to prevent the act)’. E.A. Ross defines social
control as ‘the mechanisms by which society exercises its dominion over its
component individuals and enforces conformity to its norms, i.e., its values’.
However, social control is not only the exercise of control on individuals, but it is
also the practice of control by individuals.
Thus, it is generally accepted that social control is a set of methodologies that is
used to improve people who are believed to be destructive, crime-oriented, or
destructive in one or more ways, by others. Reviewing the literature pertaining to
sociology, Meier (1982) proposes the theory that social control is available in
three key contexts:
(i) As a means to describe the basic social process or condition. This
methodology relates to classical sociological theory and thus, was the most
popular way to define it in the first half of twentieth century.
(ii) As a mechanism to ensure compliance with norms.
(iii) As a means to study social order.
In the more recent times, Horowitz (1990) has proposed that, ‘Social control
emerges out of and serves to maintain the ways of life and social practices of
groups’.
14.2.1 Types of Social Control: Formal and Informal
Social control is broadly categorized into two types: formal and informal. According
to Black (1976),formal social control refers to an activity where the imposition
of control has a legal base. Activity apart from this directly or indirectly implies the
power to control can be defined as informal control. However, formal social controlSocial Control
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involves enactment of laws, rules and regulations against lack of cooperation. It is
usually enforced by the government and organizations that use methods to enforce
law and other formal sanctions such as, fines and imprisonment. Societies where
the control is democratic get a large degree of support and voluntary compliance
from the population. The reason for this is that the goals and methodologies of
formal social control are ruled by elected representatives.
On the other hand, informal control means signifying the role of customs,
traditions, norms and other usages that an individual inherits. The society executes
this without a clear statement of rules. This is done through customs and norms
that originate from informal sanctions like, criticism, disapproval, guilt and shame.
14.2.2 Agencies of Social Control
Social control is carried out through series of agencies, many of which are discussed
below as both formal and informal agencies of control. The regular channels of
social control are as follows:
Law
Law constitutes one of the primary mechanisms through which social control is
enacted. Simple societies are characterized by homogeneity among individuals
and operation of informal social control. However, when societies grew in size
and complexity, they were compelled to formulate rules and regulations which
defined certain behaviour patterns. Due to increased differentiation and division of
labour, there has been interdependence between different individuals who portray
heterogeneous relations. In a society that is marked by extreme differentiation, the
old informal means of control like folkways, mores, etc., seem to be insufficient to
exercise control. So there is a need to regulate individual behaviour by formulating
a set of common laws which are backed by the political machinery of the state.
For Black (1976), law is ‘governmental social control’, being the rules and
processes that the state uses to intervene in social conflicts between both organized
and individual interests. Law is a body of rules that is enacted by legally authorized
bodies and enforced by authorized agencies. It is enforced with the help of the
police, the court and even the armed forces. Law is an instrument of control that
eliminates and suppresses the homicidal activities of individuals. It also motivates
individuals to pay attention to the rights of others and act in cooperation with
others. Law has become the most pervasive and indispensable agency of social
control in the contemporary society.
Education
Apart from law, education is also an important agency of social control. Durkheim
conceived of education as socialization of the younger generation. He also statedSocial Control
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that ‘it is actually a continuous effort to impose on the child ways of seeing, feeling
and acting’. Education does not restrict itself only to the transfer of a way of life. In
modern times, a large section of it is dedicated to communicate empirical knowledge.
Through education, the new generation learns about the social norms and about
the penalties that can be awarded for violating them. Education converts social
control into self-control. In the absence of a well-organized educational system,
social control would remain merely as an arbitrary pressure, which may not last
long.
Coercion
Coercion is the practice of attaining a specific goal by using compulsion or power.
Whenever people are refrained from doing a particular work, whenever limits are
imposed on the range of their choices through the use of force, or through threat of
its consequences, it may be defined as coercion. This emerges as the final method
to achieve social control when every other method fails. State is the only association
which is empowered to use coercion in social control. No other association is
vested with this power. State resorts to coercion to combat anti-social tendencies.
Coercion may or may not be of a physical nature. Physical coercion can also
comprise of bodily harm, captivity or capital punishment. Physical coercion is the
most degrading means of social control and societies should avoid using it unless
it becomes a necessity. Non-violent coercion, on the other hand, consists of strike,
boycott or non-cooperation.
Human experience has revealed that coercion or force is necessary as a
guarantee of political laws. Its service is best rendered when it is used to the
minimum. Where a common rule is considered necessary or beneficial for the
common good, some degree of compulsion is involved. Hence force becomes
necessary for common rule. But only when the use of force is limited, it becomes
subjugated to the liberties of the people.
Informal means of social control are exercised by informal institutions like
family, peer group, neighbourhood, etc. These are discussed below:
Folkways
Folkways are informal means of social control in the sense that they are some
customary norms which individuals conform to. These are actually ways of thinking,
feeling and acting in a human group that has certain prescribed modes of conduct.
William Graham Sumner (1906), in his book Folkways: A Study of Mores,
Manners, Customs and Morals, defined folkways as ‘folkways are a societal
force’. They are instinctive in nature. The folkways simultaneously serve every
need of life. In one group, they are consistent and global, crucial and constant. As
time passes by, folkways become increasingly random, constructive and inevitable.Social Control
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The process of producing folkways comprises of activities that are repeated
continuously, when faced with the same need. It inculcates habits in the individuals
and customs in the group. Through the use of habit and custom, every individual
within its domain feels the stress. Thus, it emerges as a force of the society. Folkways
are not a creation of human purpose or wit. They are like products of natural
forces which men, unconsciously set in operation and are handed down by tradition.
As a consequence of this, the life of the entire mankind, in all ages and stages of
culture, is mainly governed by a large collection of folkways. These folkways are
transferred from the primitive races and undergo changes by human philosophy,
ethics and religion.
Mores
Mores are established practices of the society rather than written laws. They are
basically in the form of social regulations and have a significant impact on social
conduct. Sumner used the concept of mores for folkways which were very
significant to groups and highly important for their welfare. According to Sumner,
mores comprise of popular usages and traditions when they include a judgment
that they are conducive to social welfare and when they exert coercion on the
individual to conform to them. They are not coordinated by any authority. Sumner
believed that mores represent the living character of the group. They are always
considered right by the people who share them. Mores help an individual in realizing
that living in a community or a group is possible only when one conforms to the
norms of that community or group. A distinction is always made between folkways
and mores. Sumner says that when folkways work on the ideology of correct
living and are directed to the wellbeing of life, then they are converted to mores.
Thus, in this context, it can be said that mores are important means of social
control. They determine much of our individual behaviour, such that they compel
behaviour and also forbid it. In a society, many mores like monogamy, democracy,
prohibition, etc., operate. These mores also identify an individual with a group and
help in maintaining social bonds. Moreover, violations of these mores entail some
punishment in the form of penalties. Therefore mores are considered one of the
strongest means of informal social control.
Customs
Custom is also an informal means of social control. According to Kingsley Davis,
customs refer primarily to practices that have been often repeated by a multitude
of generations. These practices tend to be followed simply because they have
been followed in the past. The socially accredited ways of acting are the customs
of the society. Many of our daily activities are regulated by customs. Custom is a
broader term that comprises of both, folkways and mores. Customs are social
habits, which through repetition become the basis of an order of social behaviour.Social Control
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Customs are long established habits and usages of people. Whenever there
is a widespread habit, there is a corresponding custom as well. According to
Lundberg, they are folkways that persist over relatively long periods of time. Thus,
they attain a degree of formal recognition and are passed down from one generation
to another. A particular characteristic of custom is that it exists only as a social
relationship and an external sanction for the individual. Customs not only regulate
social life but also bind it together. Customs guide human behaviour and enlighten
man in social life.
Customs are conformed most unconsciously. Man learns about them since
early years of socialization and diligently follows them. They are rarely opposed
and mostly adhered to. Customs form the base to collective human life and are
found in almost every society. They are more influential and dominant in the primitive
society rather than in modern societies. In the struggle for existence, only those
societies survive which are able to evolve through customs that bind them together,
assimilate their actions to the accepted standards, compel control of the purely
egoistic impulses and exterminate individuals who are incapable of such control.
Custom is obeyed more spontaneously because it grows slowly. People
follow similar behaviour patterns. Thus, customs play an important part in regulating
our social behaviour. They determine our culture, preserve it and transmit it from
one generation to the next.
Religion
Religion implies man’s faith on some supernatural power or force. According to
MacIver and Page, ‘religion encompasses relationships among men and also those
between man and supernatural forces. Religion regulates the activities of people in
its own way. It regulates human conduct through religious code. Religion fulfills
social, psychological, emotional and spiritual needs of human beings. Religion
conserves the norms and values of life through agencies like family, church and
school. Religion inculcates the values of life in the minds of growing children. Religion
has its own methods to deal with those individuals who violate religious norms and
conduct. Various religious institutions like church, temples and monasteries also
help to control the disobedient. Religion has its own ways and means to re-integrate
people into a social group. Moreover, religious sanctions are widely used to support
ethical codes and moral practices.
Check Your Progress
1. Who executes formal social control?
2. What are the ways through which nonformal social control is enforced?
3. What does non-violent coercion consist of?
4. What is the source of folkways?Social Control
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14.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
1. Formal social control is usually enforced by the government and organizations
that use methods to enforce law and other formal sanctions.
2. Informal social control is enforced through customs and norms that originate
from informal sanctions like, criticism, disapproval, guilt and shame.
3. Non-violent coercion consists of strike, boycott or non-cooperation.
4. Folkways are not a creation of human purpose or wit. They are like products
of natural forces which men, unconsciously set in operation and are handed
down by tradition.
14.4 SUMMARY
Social control is a rather simple concept of sociology. It can be explained
as the process wherein it is made mandatory for people to follow the
standards and ideals of a society or social group. A spontaneous approach
towards social control is by taking instances from the daily routines of life.
Social control is the most significant characteristic of modern social and
political sciences. There are many writings on how different types of societies
are based on fluctuations in the order of institution and specifically the gradual
destruction of traditional methods.
It is generally accepted that social control is a set of methodologies that is
used to improve people who are believed to be destructive, crime-oriented,
or destructive in one or more ways, by others.
Social control is broadly categorized into two types: formal and informal.
According to Black (1976), formal social control refers to an activity where
the imposition of control has a legal base. Activity apart from this directly or
indirectly implies the power to control can be defined as informal control.
Formal social control involves enactment of laws, rules and regulations against
lack of cooperation. It is usually enforced by the government and
organizations that use methods to enforce law and other formal sanctions
such as, fines and imprisonment.
Informal control means signifying the role of customs, traditions, norms and
other usages that an individual inherits. The society executes this without a
clear statement of rules. This is done through customs and norms that originate
from informal sanctions like, criticism, disapproval, guilt and shame.Social Control
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Due to increased differentiation and division of labour, there has been
interdependence between different individuals who portray heterogeneous
relations. In a society that is marked by extreme differentiation, the old
informal means of control like folkways, mores, etc., seem to be insufficient
to exercise control. So there is a need to regulate individual behaviour by
formulating a set of common laws which are backed by the political
machinery of the state.
Through education, the new generation learns about the social norms and
about the penalties that can be awarded for violating them. Education converts
social control into self-control. In the absence of a well-organized educational
system, social control would remain merely as an arbitrary pressure, which
may not last long.
Coercion is the practice of attaining a specific goal by using compulsion or
power. Whenever people are refrained from doing a particular work,
whenever limits are imposed on the range of their choices through the use of
force, or through threat of its consequences, it may be defined as coercion.
Informal means of social control are exercised by informal institutions like
family, peer group, neighbourhood, etc.
Folkways are informal means of social control in the sense that they are
some customary norms which individuals conform to. These are actually
ways of thinking, feeling and acting in a human group that has certain
prescribed modes of conduct.
Mores are established practices of the society rather than written laws.
They are basically in the form of social regulations and have a significant
impact on social conduct. Sumner used the concept of mores for folkways
which were very significant to groups and highly important for their welfare.
Many of our daily activities are regulated by customs. Custom is a broader
term that comprises of both, folkways and mores. Customs are social habits,
which through repetition become the basis of an order of social behaviour.
Religion implies man’s faith on some supernatural power or force. According
to MacIver and Page, ‘religion encompasses relationships among men and
also those between man and supernatural forces. Religion regulates the
activities of people in its own way. It regulates human conduct through
religious code. Religion fulfills social, psychological, emotional and spiritual
needs of human beings. Religion conserves the norms and values of life
through agencies like family, church and school.Social Control
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14.5 KEY WORDS
Social Control: It refers to some form of organized reaction to unexpected
activities.
Formal Social Control: An activity where the imposition of control has a
legal base.
Coercion: The practice of attaining a specific goal by using compulsion or
power.
Folkways: It refers to the informal means of social control in the sense that
they are some customary norms which individuals conform to.
Mores: It refers to the established practices of the society rather than
written laws. They are basically in the form of social regulations and have a
significant impact on social conduct.
Customs: It refers primarily to practices that have been often repeated by
a multitude of generations.
14.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. Differentiate between formal and informal means of control.
2. What is the difference between folkways and mores?
3. State the concept of coercion.
Long-Answer Questions
4. Discuss the various formal agencies of social control with suitable examples.
5. Discuss the informal agencies of social control.
14.7 FURTHER READINGS
Black, D. 1976. The Behaviour of Law. New York: Academic Press.
Cohen, S. 1985. Visions of Social Control. New York: Cambridge Polity Press.
Horton, Paul and Chester Hunt. 1984. Sociology. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book
Company.Social Control
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Material
Horowitz, A. 1990. The Logic of Social Control. New York: Plenum Press.
Johnson, Harry M. 1960. Sociology: A Systematic Introduction. New Delhi:
Allied Publishers Limited.
MacIver, R.M and C. Page. 1962. Society: An Introductory Analysis. New
Delhi: Macmillan Publishers.
Newman, William H. 1973. American Pluralism. New York: Harper and Row
Publishers Inc.
Sumner, William. 1906. A Study of Mores, Manners, Customs and Morals.
New York: Cosimo books.