ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND E -WASTE MANAGEMENT

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ECOSYSTEM AND SUSTAINABILITY
Ecology is the scientific study of the relationship between different
components in the environment and ecosystem. It deals with the interaction
between organisms and their environment.

In the word “ecosystem”, “eco” means environment, and “system,” refers

to connected processes or elements. Ecosystems are made up of both biotic (or
alive) and abiotic (or nonliving) components. It is a biological community where
living and non-living components of the planet interact with each other.
Ecosystem varies in the size and number of organisms they consist of. When the
ecosystem is land-based it is called a terrestrial ecosystem and when it is water-
based it is called an aquatic ecosystem.
Structure of Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is made of two main components: biotic and
abiotic components. The biotic component interacts with the abiotic components
to maintain the flow of energy. The energy is distributed in the environment. The
ecosystem includes 2 main components for a working ecosystem:
 Biotic Component
 Abiotic Component

Biotic Components:

Plants, animals, microorganisms, aquatic plants, and all other living creatures are
the biotic components of the ecosystem. These biotic components can be
classified into:

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Producers: They are mainly the green plants, which can synthesize their food
themselves by making use of carbon di oxide present in the air and water in the
presence of sunlight by involving chlorophyll, the green pigment present in the
leaves, through the process of photosynthesis. They are also known as photo
autotrophs (auto=self; troph=food, photo=light).
There are some microorganisms also which can produce organic matter to some
extent through oxidation of certain chemicals in the absence of sunlight. They
are known as chemosynthetic organisms or chemo-autotrophs. For instance, in
the ocean depths, where there is no sunlight, chemoautotrophic sulphur bacteria
make use of the heat generated by the decay of radioactive elements present in
the earth’s core and released in ocean’s depths. They use this heat to convert
dissolved hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic
compounds.

Consumers: All organisms which get their organic food by feeding upon other
organisms are called consumers, which are of the following types:
Herbivores (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers and hence also known
as primary consumers. e.g. rabbit, insect, man.
Carnivores (meat eaters): They feed on other consumers. If they feed on
herbivores they are called secondary consumers (e.g. frog) and if they feed on
other carnivores (snake, big fish etc.) they are known as tertiary
carnivores/consumers.
Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals. e.g. humans, rat, fox, many
birds.
Detritivores (Detritus feeders or Saprotrophs): They feed on the parts of dead
organisms, wastes of living organisms, their cast-offs and partially decomposed
matter e.g. beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms etc.

Decomposers: They derive their nutrition by breaking down the complex organic
molecules to simpler organic compounds and ultimately into inorganic nutrients.
Various bacteria and fungi are decomposers.
In all the ecosystems, this biotic structure prevails. However, in some, it is the
primary producers which predominate (e.g. in forests, agroecosystems) while in
others the decomposers predominate (e.g. deep ocean).

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Abiotic Components :

It involves all the non-living things present in the environment. Some of

the abiotic components are sun, soil, water, minerals, climate, rocks,
temperature, and humidity. These components’ functioning together enables the
ecosystem’s energy and nutrition cycles. The sun’s rays are the primary energy
source. An ecosystem’s temperature changes have an impact on the types of
plants that may flourish there. The availability of nutrients and soil nature
determines the type and abundance of vegetation in an area. All the abiotic
factors are essential factors that determine the number and type of organisms
present in a region.

FUNCTIONAL FEATURES :

Every ecosystem performs under natural conditions in a systematic way. It

receives energy from the sun and passes it on through various biotic components
and in fact, all life depends upon this flow of energy.

The major functional attributes of an ecosystems are as follows:

(i) Food chain, food webs and trophic structure.
(ii) Energy flow.
(iii) Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles).
(iv) Primary and Secondary production.
(v) Ecosystem development and regulation.

Tropic structure: The structure and functions of the ecosystem are interrelated
and influence each other. The flow of energy is mediated through a series of
feeding relation ships in a definite sequence or pattern which is known as Food
chain. Nutrients too move along the food chain. The producers and consumers
are arranged in an ecosystem in a definite manner and their interaction along
with the population size is expressed together as Trophic structure. Each food
level is known as Trophic level and the amount of living matter at each Trophic
level at a given time is known as standing crop or standing biomass.

The most important gases used by plants and animals are oxygen, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen. Oxygen is used by all living organisms during
respiration. Carbon dioxide is used by green plants during photosynthesis.
Nitrogen is made available to plants by certain bacteria and through the
action of lightning.

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Plant and animal habitats vary from entirely aquatic environments to very
dry deserts. Water is essential for life and all organisms depend on it to
survive in especially desert areas. Plants can be classified into 3 groups
according to their water requirements. Hydrophytes are plants which grow
in water e.g. water-lilies and rushes. Mesophytes are plants with average
water requirements e.g. roses, sweet peas. Xerophytes are plants which
grow in dry environments where they often experience a shortage of water
e.g. cacti and often succulents.

Light energy (sunlight) is the primary source of energy in nearly all

ecosystems. It is the energy that is used by green plants (which contain
chlorophyll) during the process of photosynthesis; a process during which
plants manufacture organic substances by combining inorganic substances.
Visible light is of the greatest importance to plants because it is necessary
for photosynthesis. Factors such as quality of light, intensity of light and the
length of the light period (day length) play an important part in an
ecosystem.

FOOD CHAINS
 The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food
chain.
 All organisms, living or dead, are potential food for some other
organism and thus, there is essentially no waste in the functioning of a
natural ecosystem.
Some common examples of simple food chains are:

Grass  grasshopper  Frog  Snake  Hawk (Grassland ecosystem)

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Each organism in the ecosystem is assigned a feeding level or trophic level

depending on its nutritional status. Thus, in the grassland food chain,
grasshopper occupies the Ist trophic level, frog the IInd and snake and hawk
occupy the IIIrd and the IVth trophic levels, respectively.

The decomposers consume the dead matter of all these trophic levels. In nature,
we come across two major types of food chains.

Grazing food chain: It starts with green plants (primary producers) and
culminates in carnivores. All the examples cited above show this type of food
chain. Another example could be

Detritus food chain: It starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores and
decomposers consume. Partially decomposed dead organic matter and even the
decomposers are consumed by detritivores and their predators.

FOOD WEB
Food chains in ecosystems are rarely found to operate as isolated linear
sequences. Rather, they are found to be interconnected and usually form a
complex network with several linkages and are known as food webs. Thus,
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“food web is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are
connected at different trophic levels, so that there are a number of options of
eating and being eaten at each trophic level.”

Significance of food chains and food webs

Food chains and food webs play a very significant role in the ecosystem
because the two most important functions of energy flow and nutrient cycling
take place through them.
 The food chains also help in maintaining and regulating the
population size of different animals and thus, help maintain the
ecological balance.
 Food chains show a unique property of biological magnification of some
chemicals.

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ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Graphic representation of tropic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting
with producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is
knows as an ecological pyramid.
Ecological pyramids are of three types:

Pyramid of numbers: It represents the number of individual organisms at each

trophic level. We may have upright or inverted pyramid of numbers, depending
upon the type of ecosystem and food chain as shown in below Fig.
Top carnivores
Top carnivores lion, Tiger
Snakes, Foxes, Lizards
Herbivores
Insects
Trees

Grasses

Hyper parasites
Fleas, microbes
Lice, bugs
Herbivores Birds

Trees

(c)

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A grassland ecosystem (Fig. a) and a

pond ecosystem show an upright
pyramid of numbers. The producers in
the grasslands are grasses and that in a
pond are phyto planktons (algae etc.),
which are small in size and very large in
number. So the producers form a broad
base. The herbivores in a grassland are
insects while tertiary carnivores are
hawks or other birds which are
gradually less and less in number and
hence the pyramid apex becomes
gradually narrower forming an upright
pyramid.

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 In a forest ecosystem (Fig. b), big trees are the producers, which are less in
number and hence form a narrow base. A larger number of herbivores including
birds, insects and several species of animals feed upon the trees (on leaves,
fruits, flowers, bark etc.) and form a much broader middle level. The secondary
consumers like fox, snakes, lizards etc. are less in number than herbivores while
top carnivores like lion, tiger etc. are still smaller in number. So the pyramid is
narrow on both sides and broader in the middle.

 Parasitic food chain shows (Fig. c) an inverted pyramid of number. The producers
like a few big trees harbour fruit eating birds acting like herbivores which are
larger in number. A much higher number of lice, bugs etc. grow as parasites on
these birds while a still greater number of hyper parasites like bugs, fleas and
microbes feed upon them, thus making an inverted pyramid.

Pyramid of biomass: It is based upon the total biomass (dry matter) at each trophic
level in a food chain. The pyramid of biomass can also be upright or inverted.
Carnivores

Squirrel, rabbit,
Herbivores

Producers Grasses, Herbs

(a)

above Fig. (a, b) shows pyramids of biomass in a forest and an aquatic ecosystem. The
pyramid of biomass in a forest is upright in contrast to its pyramid of numbers. This is
because the producers (trees) accumulate a huge biomass while the consumers’ total
biomass feeding on them declines at higher trophic levels, resulting in broad base and
narrowing top.
Tertiary Carnivores
Big fish
Small Fish Carnivores

Insects Herbivores

Phytoplanktons

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The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass (Fig. b). The total biomass
of producers (phytoplankton’s) is much less as compared to herbivores (zooplanktons,
insects), Carnivores (Small fish) and tertiary carnivores (big fish). Thus the pyramid
takes an inverted shape with narrow base and broad apex

a) Pyramid of Energy: The amount of energy present at each trophic level is considered
for this type of pyramid. Pyramid of energy gives the best representation of the trophic
relationships and it is always upright.

Top carnivores
Carnivores

Herbivores

Producers

At every successive trophic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form
of heat, respiration etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes
on. Hence, there is a sharp decline in energy level of each successive trophic level as
we move from producers to top carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always
upright as shown in Fig.

Types of Ecosystem

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Aquatic Ecosystem:

This Ecosystem consists of water as the main habitat.

Aquatic Ecosystem classification

These are not biomes but categorized on basis of salinity, nutrients, and temperature.
There are two main types of aquatic ecosystems.
Freshwater ecosystem:
 lotic (moving like the river) ecosystem includes freshwater streams, springs etc.
 lentic (stagnant like a pond) ecosystem includes pools etc. In this ecosystem, salinity is
less than 5 ppt.
 Wetlands ecosystems are intermediate ecosystems between terrestrial & water
habitats (floodplains, littoral, etc). It is a land area that is saturated with water, either
permanently or seasonally.
 They vary considerably in physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.

Marine Ecosystems: These cover approximately 71% of the Earth's surface and form

approximately 97% of the planet's water. Marine ecosystems generate 32% of the
world's net primary production. They are distinguished from freshwater ecosystems
by the presence of dissolved compounds, especially salts, in the water. Marine
ecosystems can be divided into oceanic shelf, salt marshes, coral reefs and
hydrothermal vents. Classes of organisms found in marine ecosystems include brown
algae, dinoflagellates, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms, and sharks.

Terrestrial Ecosystem:
 An estimated 148 million km2 (29%) of the earth’s surface is taken up by terrestrial
ecosystems. They cover a wide range of habitats, including icy polar regions, scorching
tropical deserts, and lush temperate and tropical rainforests.
 Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial (land ecosystem) and non-terrestrial(non-land
ecosystem) categories by their geographical location. The three non-terrestrial habitats
are aquatic, marine, and wetlands, whereas the five main terrestrial ecosystems are
desert, forest, grassland, taiga, and tundra. Forest Ecosystem

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A forest is a highly complex, constantly changing environment encompassing

variety of living and non-living things. The word forest is derived from the Latin word
Foris. Forest cover approximately occupies 9.4% geographical portion of the earth.

Forests Ecosystem sub- Classification includes Tropical Rainforests, Sub-Tropical

Forests, Mediterranean Forests, Temperate Forests, Coniferous Forests, Montane
Forests, Plantation Forests, Deciduous Forest and Evergreen Forest.

Functions of Forest Ecosystem

Regulatory functions

✔ It helps regulate water cycle.

✔ The ecological benefit apart from cleansing of air, water includes carbon
sequestration, and reducing Global warming.
✔ It helps regular global ambient air temperature.
✔ It provides raw material for paper and pulp industries.

Habitat functions
✔ Provides a reproduction habitat to wild plants and animals
✔ Contributes to in-situ conservation of biological and genetic diversity and
the evolutionary process

Production functions

✔ Through the process of photosynthesis and nutrient uptake by

autotrophs converts energy, carbon dioxide, water and nutrients into a
wide variety of carbohydrate structures which are then used by
secondary producers to create an even larger variety of living biomass.
Desert Ecosystem

Deserts are terrestrial ecosystems found around the tropic of Cancer and tropic
of Capricorn in Northern and Southern Hemispheres. They have mega-thermal
climate, as per Koppen climate classification. The desert is the hottest biome
on Earth and occupies about one fifth of the Earth's land surface. Sahara
Desert, Arabian Desert, Gobi Desert, Kalahari Desert and Thar Desert are few of
famous deserts around the world.

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Hot deserts

✔ Temperature is very warm entire year, with summers being extremely hot.
✔ More flora and fauna can be found here compared to cold desert.
✔ Water is very scarce.
✔ Temperature is very high during day and very low at night.
✔ Xerophytes have modifications like pulpy stem to store water and wax
covered thorny leaves to reduce transpiration. The roots are very long to
reach the water table.
✔ Animals such as reptiles, rodents, wolves display nocturnal behaviour.

Cold deserts

✔ This type of desert has short and warm summers, and Long, cold winters
✔ Found in places near the north and south poles
✔ Less flora and fauna can be found compared to hot desert.

Functions of Desert Ecosystem

✔ Deserts contain valuable mineral deposits like silica, gypsum, borates are found
here.
✔ Due to consistent dryness, deserts are ideal places for natural
preservation of artifacts and fossils.

Structure of Desert Ecosystem

✔ The abiotic factors include sunlight, oxygen, carbon-di-oxide, ground

water, temperature, humidity, pH.
✔ The producers mainly include shrubs, bushes, some grasses and few trees

Abiotic Factors of Desert Ecosystem

✔ The thin soils frequently attacked by sand storm and wind with lack of
humus makes them infertile.
✔ The moisture lost through evaporation is much greater than that gained during
rainfall.
✔ The rainfall is extremely irregular.
✔ The drought period is usually longer than a year.

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Biotic Factors of Desert Ecosystem – Fauna

✔ Hundreds of different animals thrive in deserts.

✔ Most of these are found only at dawn or dusk, when climate is much cooler.
✔ The fauna include snakes, owls, mice, armadillo lizards, fennec foxes,
bats, vultures and camels.

Biotic Factors of Desert Ecosystem – Flora

✔ There are several varieties of plants that are able to survive in the desert.
✔ Most plants survive due to their tap roots that are able to reach underground
water.
✔ The vegetation of the Desert Biome is mostly characterized by
dominance of annual plants, often annual grasses.
✔ These plants have special parts and adaptations that help them save water.

Wetlands:
Wetland ecosystems are unique environments that are characterized by the presence of
water, either permanently or seasonally, and support a diverse range of plant and animal
life. Here are some key functions of wetland ecosystems.

1. Water Filtration

Wetlands act as natural filters, trapping pollutants and sediments from runoff. They help
improve water quality by breaking down harmful substances through biological and
chemical processes.

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2. Flood Control

Wetlands absorb excess rainwater and snowmelt, reducing the risk of flooding in
surrounding areas. They act as sponges, slowing down water flow and allowing for gradual
release.

3. Habitat for Biodiversity

Wetlands provide critical habitat for a wide variety of species, including fish, birds,
amphibians, and insects. Many species depend on wetlands for breeding, feeding, and
shelter.

4. Carbon Sequestration

Wetlands play a vital role in carbon storage, capturing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
and storing it in plant biomass and soil. This helps mitigate climate change.

Riverine ecosystem:
Riverine ecosystems are dynamic environments found along rivers and streams,
characterized by the interplay between aquatic and terrestrial habitats. They support a
diverse array of plant and animal species and play crucial roles in ecological processes. Here
are some key functions of riverine ecosystems:

1. Water Quality Improvement

 Filtration: Riverine ecosystems filter pollutants and sediments, enhancing water

quality as it flows downstream.

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 Nutrient Cycling: They recycle nutrients, promoting biological productivity and

maintaining ecosystem health.

2. Habitat Provision

 Biodiversity: Riverine habitats support a wide range of species, including fish,

amphibians, birds, and invertebrates. The varied environments provide critical
breeding, feeding, and migratory habitats.

3. Flood Regulation

 Flood Mitigation: Riverine ecosystems can absorb excess rainfall and slow water
flow, reducing the impact of floods and protecting surrounding areas.

Oceanic ecosystems:

Oceanic ecosystems encompass the vast and diverse environments found in the world's
oceans, including open water (pelagic zones), coastal areas, and deep-sea habitats. These
ecosystems are crucial for maintaining global biodiversity and providing numerous benefits.
Here are some key functions of oceanic ecosystems:

1. Biodiversity Support

 Habitat for Marine Life: Oceans are home to a vast array of species, including fish,
marine mammals, corals, and invertebrates. This biodiversity is essential for
ecosystem stability and resilience.

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2. Carbon Sequestration

 Carbon Dioxide Absorption: Oceanic ecosystems play a critical role in the carbon
cycle by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, helping to regulate global
climate.

3. Nutrient Cycling

 Nutrient Provision: Oceans recycle nutrients, supporting primary production (like

phytoplankton), which forms the base of the marine food web.

4. Oxygen Production

 Photosynthesis: Marine plants, particularly phytoplankton, produce a significant

portion of the Earth's oxygen through photosynthesis, contributing to the
atmosphere's oxygen levels.

5. Climate Regulation

 Temperature Control: Oceans help moderate the Earth’s climate by absorbing heat
and distributing it around the globe through ocean currents.

6. Food Source

 Human Nutrition: Oceanic ecosystems provide a major source of food for millions of
people worldwide, including fish, shellfish, and seaweed.

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