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 Chapter 3

Superabsorbent

Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy

Additional information is
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chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74698

Abstract

Superabsorbent hydrogel (SAH) is a cross-linked polyelectrolyte polymer that has the

capability to absorb a lot of water by keeping it in a three-dimensional (3D) structure. The
network’s structure of SAH has the high elasticity that gives the ability of pores to expand
in an aqueous media into up to 150–1500 times their own size in a dry state. The size of
pores is the major factor that controls the swelling degree of the hydrogel. In contrast, the
swelling degree is related to cross-linked density and the number of polarizable func-
tional groups that immobilize on the polymer backbone. The hydrogels could be made
by radical-initiated polymerization of hydrophilic monomers, and/or linear polymers
dissolve in an aqueous solution. Free radical polymerization of the hydrogel can be done
physically or chemically. Advantages and disadvantages of each method will be elabo-
rated in this chapter. The advances in radiation cross-linking methods for the hydrogel
preparation are particularly addressed besides other different techniques, e.g., (freezing/
thawing and chemical initiation). This chapter will review the preparation methods of
superabsorbent hydrogels from synthetic and natural hydrophilic polymers with other
new phases such as wax, gum, and rubber. Methods to characterize these hydrogels and
their proposed applications (internal curing agent for cement, agricultural proposal, bio-
medical proposal, and environmental proposal) are also reviewed.

Keywords: SAH, swelling, cross-linking, polyelectrolyte, hydrogel

1. Introduction

A cross-linked polyelectrolyte polymer that has the capability to absorb water up to 150–
1500 times of their own size in a dry state and keep water in a three-dimensional (3D)
structure is called superabsorbent hydrogel (SAH) (Figure 1). Several descriptions are used
to express superabsorbent hydrogel (SAH): (I) SAH has synthetic three-dimensional swol-
len networked structures. The product from covalently cross-linked to certain synthetic

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
46 Hydrogels

Figure 1. Hydrogel is a hydrophilic monomer that would be cross-linked.

monomer or nature polymer [1–3]. (II) SAH is a fine white powder-like sand or tiny gran-
ule-like sugar and has a high ability of water absorption. (III) SAH is the diffusion of the
solvent (typically water) into the hydrogel network when the hydrogel is placed in contact
with water; the water molecules begin to diffuse inside the solid hydrogel network. (IV) By
another way, at equilibrium swelling hydrogel contains small fractions of solid and large
fractions of water so it can be described as a hydrogel that begins to diffuse into the water.
The diffuser of the water outlet of the hydrogel is a deswelling process. Over time, when the
maximum swelling of hydrogel soaked in water is achieved, the bonds of the network will
relax by evolving apportion of the water molecules (deswelling) and absorb of water mol-
ecules again (swelling) with the time interval. This deswelling/swelling process affecting by
the pressure of water molecules on the bonds of hydrogel networks that given the swelling
curve line saw shape (zigzag), this phenomenon so-called hydrogel breath. Figure 2 is a
representation of the 3D structure of a swollen and dried hydrogel.

From Figure 2 it can be said that the hydrogel chains are in close and function groups tightly
interacting with each other due to H bonds. As water diffuses inside the hydrogel network,
the function groups begin to hydrate, and the interactions such as H bonds will terminate.
With further water molecules absorbed, the chains will gain pressure with a gain swell. At
appropriate conditions, the hydrogel will reach a state where the pores are fully filled with
water and chains reach the maximum expanded. Responding to many external stimulus con-
ditions, expansion and shrinkage of hydrogel are controlled [4].

2. Kinetics of water absorbed (swelling) in hydrogel

The swelling process of a hydrogel is a transition from solid state to fluid state without disso-
lution or dissociation. The two interfaces become one interface called “gel.” Eq. (1) was used
to determinate the nature of diffusion of water molecules into the hydrogels:
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Figure 2. Illustration in the left hydrogel in a dry state or deswelling state (shrinking).

Mt
____
r

M∞
= K tn (1)
r

where Mt and M∞ are the amount of water diffusion into the hydrogel at the time (t); at the
infinite time, respectively, K is a constant related to the structure of the network; and n is a
characteristic exponent of the transport mode of the water solvent [5]. Depending on the relative
rates of water diffusion and hydrogel network relaxation, three cases of diffusion mechanisms
are distinguished. The Fickian diffusion may be described by Case I which appears when the
Tg of hydrogel is below the water medium temperature. In this case, the hydrogel chains have
a high mobility and relaxation, and the water penetrates more easily into the relaxed network.
Therefore, the water diffusion rate, Rdiff, is much less than the hydrogel chain relaxation rate Rrelax
(n = 0.50) (Rdiff << Rrelax). Case II is the non-Fickian diffusion, in which diffusion is very rapid com-
pared to the relaxation processes (0.50 < n < 1), which appears when the Tg of hydrogel is well
above the experimental temperature. In this situation, the hydrogel chains are not adequately
48 Hydrogels

mobile to permit urgent penetration of water into the hydrogel (Rdiff >> Rrelax). Case III is the
anomalous diffusion. It is observed when the diffusion and relaxation rates are comparable
(Rdiff ≈ Rrelax) [6]. To detect the diffusion mechanisms, the swelling curves are fitted to Eq. (1)
which becomes:

log(____
M )
M t
= logK + nlogt (2)
∞

The diffusional exponent n is calculated from the slopes and K (kinetic rate of swelling) from
the intercept.

3. Swelling properties of superabsorbent hydrogels

3.1. Natural polymer

The natural polymers copolymerized with synthetic polymers provided these natural poly-
mers to have a suitable functional group and gain mechanical strength more than individual
[7]. A variety of natural polymers such as chitosan, heparin, pectin, chitin, hyaluronic acid,
agarose, dextran, and alginate are excellent to covalently cross-link and polymerize to form
hydrogel. They have been explored as biocompatible, biodegradable hydrogels for biomedi-
cal applications [8–13]. Polysaccharide hydrogel is a biopolymer with high permeability
for nutrients, oxygen, and other water-soluble metabolites, making it attractive scaffolds
for use in cell encapsulation [14–16]. In addition, polysaccharides have been copolymer-
ized with proteins such as laminin, gelatin, collagen, and fibrin to form an interpenetrating
network polymer (IPN) or composite hydrogels [17–21]. This insoluble cross-linked bio-
polymer hydrogel allows immobilization of biomolecules and active agents. Owing to their
high water retender, hydrogels resemble natural soft tissue more than any other type of
polymeric biomaterials [22]. The water retention in SAH-based natural polymer promotes
cell migration, growth, proliferation, differentiation, and adhesion, leading to tissue regen-
eration scaffolds [23].

3.2. Gum and wax

Hydrocolloid materials such as wax and gum and a few others such as surfactant or acidic
oils have been copolymerized with hydrogel and novel systems of hydrocolloid hydro-
gel matrices with attractive properties. Emulsion polymerization is an efficient method for
the production of new wax-hydrogel such as cetyl alcohol: stearic acid-based acrylamide
hydrogel by using triethylamine (TEA) as an emulsifier [24]. A cross-linking reaction is
performed at a dose of 20 kGy. This wax-hydrogel matrix bearing of acid and amide groups
shows high swelling value behavior at different pH values.

Figure 3 shows the SEM images of wax-hydrogel matrices of CtOH-StA/PAAm. It was

observed that the perfect miscibility was between wax and hydrogel networks as one phase
with the absence of a separation zone. Figure 3a shows the equilibrium swelling at pH 6
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Figure 3. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images show the porous structure of CtOH-StA/PAAm (a) swelled at
pH 6 and (b) swelled at pH 10.

Figure 4. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of (PAAm-g-XG) (A) swelled at pH 1.2 and (B) swelled at pH 7.4.

and the interconnected porous structure. At pH 10 (Figure 6b), an alveolate morphology and
highly uniform pores are observed.

Another example of pH-sensitive gum (xanthan) based on acrylamide hydrogel is given

(PAAm-g-XG) by radical polymerization [25]. Figure 4 shows SEM images of the pH-sensitive
swelling behavior reflecting the surface morphology of (PAAm-g-XG) exposed to acidic and
alkaline pH. Figure 4A at pH 1.2 surface of (PAAm-g-XG) shows no pores as there was mini-
mum swelling. In Figure 4B, at pH 7.4, the surface morphology of PAAm-g-XG reveals highly
porous structure compared with the surface of PAAm-g-XG incubated in pH 1.2. As shown
above, the swelling in alkaline medium is higher than in the acidic one due to the CONH2 in
acrylamide groups and hydrolysis to COO− affected by NaOH. The electrostatic repulsion of
the ionized groups COO− leads to increase the pore size.

3.3. Rubber

Rubber could be used for improving the elasticity of many materials due to their flexibility
and softness that has glassy transition temperatures bringing down the ambient temperature
50 Hydrogels

Figure 5. SEM image of SBR/PVP/MAA. The porous structure affected by elasticity of SBR chains.

Figure 6. The mechanisms for PVA hydrogel formation from PVA solution by a freezing–thawing method: (a) PVA-
water system. (b) PVA-ice system and frozen of chains. (c) PVA-ice-water system obtained by the gradual thawing of the
PVA solution causing coiling of PVA chains together to form node (helix hydrogel). (d) Cross-linked network of PVA
hydrogel was obtained.
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[26, 27]. Water-swollen composite rubber-hydrogel materials are highly permeable to vari-
ous applications. For example, rubber-hydrogel of SBR/PVP/MAA composite was prepared
by mixing styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) and copolymer hydrogel (polyvinylpyrrolidone-
co-methacrylic acid) cross-linked by gamma irradiation. A high miscibility was observed
between the MAA/PVP hydrogel and the matrix of SBR with swelling degree of 25 (g/g) after
4 h. Figure 5 shows a SEM image of SBR/PVP/MAA revealed to a uniform of surface morphol-
ogy indicating a high compatibility between the hydrogel and rubber matrices [28].

4. Preparation methods of SAH (freezing/thawing, ionizing

radiation, and chemical initiation)

Superabsorbent hydrogels are prepared from either natural or synthetic polymers. The syn-
thetic polymers are mechanically robust and stiffer compared to natural polymers. Their
mechanically strength results in a slow degradation rate providing the durability as well,
but mechanical strength of natural polymers is highly poor. These two inverse properties
should be adjusted through ideal design [29]. The following section describes the physical
and chemical methods reflecting the synthesis of hydrogels.

4.1. Freezing: thawing process

Freezing–thawing process is a physical method for creating a strong and highly elastic hydro-
gel [30]. The general advantage of physically forming hydrogel is the need for the addition
of cross-linking and initiator entities. PVA is a common polymer that suitable cross-links by
freezing–thawing techniques. Cross-linked PVA hydrogel is obtained when an aqueous solu-
tion of PVA highly crosslinked by the “repeated freezing-and-thawing cycles.” The steps in
this method were as follows. First, an aqueous solution of PVA was frozen at a low tem-
perature 0°C, and then the frozen PVA solution stands to thaw at room temperature or at a
temperature of 60°C. These cycles were repeated, with increasing the cycle of freezing the
resultant PVA hydrogel with much cross-linked density, and the water resistance has also
been increased [31]. Figure 6 reveals why the “freezing–thawing” process is well involved in
the preparation of hydrogel for the PVA aqueous solution [32]. Figure 6a shows the H bond
formation of PVA chains dissolved in water. Once the PVA solution was frozen (Figure 6b),
ice crystals were formed within all PVA molecules, and the chains were freezing (low motion).
During the “thawing” process, the ice will melt gradually from free chains before bonding
chains (H bonds). A free space with water allowing free chains to cling together (tangle) and
form node is seen on the left of Figure 6c. The “repeated freezing-and-thawing” method
cross-linked PVA hydrogel with superporous structure that is formed (Figure 6d).

4.2. Chemical cross-linkage

Moreover, physically cross-linked hydrogels have limitations in which a few kinds of poly-
meric materials could be cross-linked by this method. Chemically, cross-linkage could
be carried out in the wide kinds of polymeric matrials in thr presence of initiators and
52 Hydrogels

Figure 7. SEM images of morphologies of synthetic hydrogels. The changes in cross-linking method lead to the
spontaneous formation of various porous structures. Physical hydrogels are not homogeneous, since clusters of molecular
entanglements, or hydrophobically or ionically associated domains, can create homogeneities. Free chain ends or chain
loops also represent transient network defects in physical gels. Physical hydrogel (a) chemical hydrogel (b) PVA hydrogel
crosslinked (c) physically and (d) chemically (e) and (f) shows the chitosan hydrogel crosslinked physically as tubular
porous structure and chitosan hydrogel crosslinked chemically using (g) succinic acid and (h) glutaric acid.
 Superabsorbent 53
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cross-linking agents. In another known difference, the physically cross-linked hydrogels

are not homogeneous networks, the chain entanglements forming irregular porous struc-
ture, while chemically cross-linked hydrogels are covalently cross-linked networks forming
regular porous structure [33]. Figure 7 shows the morphologies of synthetic PVA hydro-
gels by two different processes (physically and chemically). The change in the parameters
during cross-linking leads to the spontaneous formation of various porous structures.
Figure 7c shows SEM image of PVA hydrogel prepared which underwent eight freezing–
thawing cycles [34] given irregular porous structure. While Figure 7d shows a SEM image
and PVA cross-linked chemically by adding H3BO3 [35], as seen in Figure 7d, the porous
structure is more regular compared with the one in Figure 7c. Figure 7e and f shows an
image of tubular chitosan prepared using the freezing–thawing method [36, 37]. Figure 7g
and h shows SEM images of the chitosan cross -inked chemically by adding succinic acid
[38] and by adding glutaric acid [39], respectively. Open-pore structure with a high degree of
interconnectivity can be observed. It is indicated that the mechanism of cross-linking accom-
panied by reaction-induced phase separation leads to diverse morphologies of the resulting
porous structure of cross-linked hydrogel.

4.3. Ionizing radiation

Cross-linking by irradiation occurs using a high-ionizing energy, such as gamma rays (Co-
60), x-ray, or electron beam (e-beam). Gamma irradiation is more economically rather than the
rest of the other irradiation techniques [40, 41]. Gamma irradiation is a promising tech-
nique to fabricate a wide scale of different materials especially polymeric materials
[42–44]. Particularly, at the first step, a polymer radical is formed with regard to water
radiolysis by ionizing radiation follow-up polymerization reactions. Water radiolysis
generates six reactive species (•H, •OH, ehy, H2, H2O2, and O•). All •H and •OH radicals
beside ehy produced upon radiolysis of water are transferred by the polymeric solute to
form carbon chain macroradicals. The average number of macroradical centers formed in
a pulse would then be determined simply from the radiation chemical yield of hydroxyl
radicals and the dose per pulse. For example, radiation cross-linkage of acrylic acid
(AAc) monomer and polymer radicals preferably undergoes intra-cross-linking and
inter-cross-linking reactions producing a porous structure. Macroporous structures are
produced when inter-cross-linking predominates and intra-cross-linking would cause
nano-porous structures [45]. Radicals are generated from the radiolysis of AAc aque-
ous solutions; the predominance of the inter-cross-linking reactions is achieved due to
the large number of carbon–carbon double bonds. The beginning of intra-cross-linking
under these conditions is confirmed by the macroporous formation. Also, higher yield of
C-centered free radicals along the PAAc chain enhances the intra-cross-linking reactions.
Dimmers are formed by combination of two macroradical molecules. In the same manner,
a 3D cross-linked hydrogel will be obtained of PAAc polymer. Figure 8 shows covalently
cross-linked hydrogels. First, macroradicals are combined together, and then cellular struc-
ture consisted of small compartments or pores as rooms are filled with water. The network
expansion probably takes place by means of an own pores are filled with water. At a certain
water pressure bonds of the networks, walls contract and relax.
54 Hydrogels

Figure 8. (Left) The proposed radical polymerization mechanism induced by gamma irradiation on the preparation of
polyacrylic acid. (Right) The framework of SAH network structure has a preferential spatial orientation.

5. Design of the polymerization reaction according to appropriate

monomer

A construction of 3D frameworks of superabsorbent hydrogel is random and amorphous of

nature. But this does not prevent inspiration for the molecular architecture of hydrogels. The
fabrication of various architectures for SAH is demonstrated in Figure 9a and b According
to the IUPAC definitions [46], semi-IPN networks are composited of one linear polymer
entrapped within the network of another polymer, while IPN networks comprise more than
one polymer network structures interlaced on a molecular scale. Figure 9c is an image of a
multilayer hydrogel (MLH) [47] in which single networks are stacked one onto the other,
interpenetrating network films with the mixture of two networks in the same layer. Figure 9f
is an image of hydrogel fibers [48–50]. The synthesis of hydrogel depends on the concentra-
tion of monomer, initiator, and cross-linked agents.
The polymerization reaction may occur by two growth polymerizations such as step and
chain growth polymerizations individually or of both [51]. In case of chain growth, the polym-
erization reaction is very fast, whereas in step growth, the reaction is gradual and monomer
concentration decreases gradually. In case of chain growth, the polymerized hydrogel con-
version is high, while pore size and swelling are low. Whereas in step growth the hydrogel
conversion is poor, pore size and swelling are high [52]. Figure 10 shows the framework
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Figure 9. Predominated shape design of hydrogels.

Figure 10. The two routs of polymerization reactions.

56 Hydrogels

of both growths of polymerization reaction. As shown, the polymerization occurs which by

chain growth would proceed by random dimerization of the neighboring monomers and then
oligomerization formation until the cross-linked network is obtained. Step growth polym-
erization reaction has formed dimers, trimers, tetramers, etc., until short chains are formed
within the combination of them to form cross-linked hydrogel.

6. Types of porous structure obtained

Another attractive feature is the development of new complex hydrogel films with tar-
geted architecture. Porous materials are materials having different pore size structures
(from nanometer to millimeter). Hydrogel has a porous structure in size of the micrometer
called superporous structure. Figure 11 shows the pores with different shapes with differ-
ent accessibility. Almost, the surfaces of pores are hydrophilic, and the void begins to open
due to group’s repletion of the same charge. The swelling process shows variability of pore
structure obtained as (a) closed pores, (b) one side opened pores like cylinder, (c) two sides
opened pores like tunnel, (d) one side opened pores like ink bottle shaped, (e) two side
opened pores like funnel shaped, (f) pores with rough surface, (g) separated closed pores,
(h) interconnected pores, (k) collected pores or density pores, and (p) pores like internal
tunnel. In maximum swelling we reach to superporous hydrogel when the pores predomi-
nate than the solid network.
Further compression properties of the superporous hydrogel are α-elastin fabricated under 60
bar CO2 pressure which was comparable with 1 bar. SEM image in Figure 12 shows the pore size
of the hydrogels which was enhanced 20-fold when the pressure was increased from 1 to 60 bar.

Figure 11. Given the different type of pores where white region is hydrophilic region filled with water and blue region is
hydrophobic region or covalent bond of cross-linkage. Shape: a, k, g, and h (closed pores: (b) cylindrical open shaped, (c
and p) tunnel shaped, (d) ink bottle shaped, (e) funnel shaped, and (f) roughness). Accessibility: a, p, h, g, and k (closed
pores: c, e, d, f, and p).
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Figure 12. SEM images of (a) the α-elastin hydrogel fabricated at 60 bar CO2 pressure which was highly porous structure.
Comparison of SEM images (b) of α-elastin hydrogel produced under atmospheric CO2 conditions (1 bar) indicated that
a high-pressure CO2 increased the pore size of the fabricated hydrogels [53].

7. Factors affecting superabsorbent hydrogel

7.1. Density of cross-linking

Increasing the ratio of cross-linked portion leads to slow down the movement of chains,
resulting in the decrease in free volume, the pore sizes, and the swelling degree which are
also decreasing. This can be observed by SEM analysis or DSC where increased cross-linking
causes increase of glassy temperature (Tg) of the polymer [54, 55]. However, in some cases, a
decreased cross-linking leads to a decrease of Tg, where nonfreezing (bounded) water mol-
ecules are attached to function groups causing a decrease of Tg [56].

7.2. The ratio of hydrophobic/hydrophilic surface area of the hydrogels

The ionization power and number of hydrophilic functional groups along the hydrogel chains
and its counterion type play an important role in the degree of swelling. A high proportion
of superabsorbent hydrogels are present as acrylates with carboxylic acid functional groups,
which in the salt form undergo dissociation upon contact with water. In the dissociated state,
the hydrogel network will have a series of functional groups that have the same electric
charge and thus repel each other. This leads to expansion of the hydrogel network structure
with the further absorption of water molecules. Furthermore, the number of hydrophilic moi-
eties when increasing the swelling could be increased and vice versa.

7.3. Applications of superabsorbent hydrogel

According to the required application, the hydrogels have been tailored and designed to
achieve the purpose of applications. The presented section demonstrates the research con-
cerning the characterization of hydrogels on various bases, physical and concoction qualities
of these items, and specialized practicality of their usage.
58 Hydrogels

7.4. Internal curing agent for cement

Cross-linking of superabsorbent hydrogels based on poly(acrylamide-co-sodium alginate) by

γ-radiation shows higher swelling capacities in basic than in acidic media [57]. This property
proposes the use of (PAM-co-NaAlg) hydrogel as an internal curing agent for cement. The
cement with (PAM-co-NaAlg) hydrogel mixture improves the compressive strength of cement
at 0.1 and 0.2 wt%. Intermediate values are found when using 0.1, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5 wt% of
hydrogel. Thus, the maximal improvement percentage on the compressive strength is 0.2%
with respect to the hydrogel. This would indicate that using 0.2 wt% of hydrogel is a critical
value. Under this value, the hydrogel shows less ability for water retention than what is needed
for cement curing. Above this value, the higher amount of hydrogel is contributing to increase
voids that cause decreased compressive strength. Figure 13 demonstrates the procedure for
mixing of cement-hydrogel samples in the laboratory for compressive strength test. Mixing of
cement and hydrogel samples was carried out with a known w/c ratio at 0.4. The setup of prep-
aration steps is as follows: (1) The known weight of dried PAM-co-NaAlg is added to 100 ml
water, and (2) during a specified time period, the hydrogel is allowed to swell, and water
uptake is liberated slowly during the hydration of the cement. Then, 40 g of cement (3) is added
to the swollen hydrogel, and the slurry of cement is obtained (4). The slurry is stirred well for
3 min and then poured in the aluminum mold (4 × 4 × 4) cm3 (5). After a period of time (24 hr)
which corresponds to the time required obtaining dried cement samples, the mold is removed.

Figure 13. The procedures of preparing cement hydrogel mixture for compressive strength test.
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Figure 14a and b shows the SEM images of the cement-hydrated (cured) product par-
ticles. It is clear that the particles in Figure 14b for 0.3 wt% hydrogel are smaller than
the particles in Figure 14a (without hydrogel). This indicates that the slow absorption of
water during cement curing helps the formation of small particles and leads to decreased
permeability. Moreover, without hydrogels, the poorly hydrated system is reflecting the
compressive strength results.

7.5. Agricultural proposal

Many studies report the use of superabsorbent hydrogel (SAH) in agricultural field (Figure
15). Using superabsorbent hydrogel increases soil ability to hold water, so plant growth
increases and it can resist drought for a long time [58–60]. Also, adding superabsorbent
hydrogel (SAH) to soil improves plants through supplying the plant roots with water,
providing soil with potassium ion which is important to retain a K+/Na+ homeostasis,
and components of polymers held the ions of salt in the drying soil [61]. Superabsorbent
hydrogels (PVP/CMC) based on polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)/carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC) were prepared by using gamma radiation as an initiator of polymerization reac-
tion [62]. Water and fertilizers are vital factors for producing high-yield agricultural crops.
Fertilizers are composed of phosphate (P), potassium (K), and nitrogen (N) nutrients for
plants in the form of water-soluble salts which are loaded into (PVP/CMC) hydrogel. The
hydrogels show adsorption desorption of the three fertilizers; also, the results revealed
that the presence of CMC in the hydrogel improves their water retention capability with
high swelling ratio. This indicates that the addition of PVP/CMC hydrogels to soil could
improve the water-holding capacity of the soil which has the excellent water absorbing
capacity. So, the soil could hold much more water during the irrigation period or raining
time than the soil without it and could efficiently reduce irrigation water consumption. It
can be concluded that PVP/CMC hydrogel had good water retention capability suggest-
ing their possible use of the prepared superabsorbent hydrogel as a soil conditioner in
agriculture applications.

Figure 14. SEM image of a fracture surface of cement: (a) blank sample without hydrogel and (b) 0.3 wt% of hydrogel.
60 Hydrogels

Figure 15. Used SAH as soil conditioner to support plant growth safely.

7.6. Biomedical proposal

Hydrogels have become very popular due to their unique properties such as high water con-
tent, biocompatibility, flexibility, and softness. Natural and synthetic polymers can be a resem-
blance to the living tissue that opens up several opportunities for applications in biomedical
and medicine fields. Currently, hydrogels are used for manufacturing hygiene products, con-
tact lenses, scaffolds, tissue engineering, wound dressings, and drug delivery systems. More
developments are expected in drug delivery and tissue engineering. A hydrogel based on
poly-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate (PHEMA) as a synthetic biocompatible material is used as
contact lens applications [63, 64]. Wound dressing is an effective hydrogel dressing that relies
on an understanding of the healing process. Healing can be hindered by many factors such as
infection, abnormal bacterial presence or desiccation, maceration, necrosis, pressure, edema,
and trauma [65]. The “ideal” wound management product should absorb excess toxins and
exudate, keep a good moisture between the wound and the dressing with increasing collagen
production, preserve the wound from external sources of infection, prevent excess heat at the
wound, have good permeability to gases, be supplied completely sterile, and be easy to remove
without further trauma to the wound [66]. Their high water content allows vapor and oxygen
transmission to the wounds such as pressure sores, leg ulcers, surgical and necrotic wounds,
lacerations, and burns. They seem to play an important role as emergency burn treatment
alone or in combination with other products, thanks to their cooling and hydrating effect [67].
Hydrogels have attracted noticeable interest for their use in drug delivery due to their unique
physical properties [68]. The high porosity that characterizes SAH can easily absorb and desorb
drugs easily by adjusting the density of cross-links in their matrix and the affinity to water.

Tissue engineering is the application of the principles and methods of engineering and life
sciences toward fundamental understanding of the structure–function relationship in nor-
mal and pathological mammalian tissues and the development of biological substitutes for
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Figure 16. SEM image of hydrogel in funny situation.

the repair or regeneration of tissue or organ function [69]. Tissue engineering is a more recent
application of hydrogels, in which they can be applied as space-filling agents, as delivery
vehicles for bioactive substances or as three-dimensional structures that organize cells and
present stimuli to ensure the development of a required tissue. Space-filling agents are the
most commonly used group of scaffolds, and they are employed for bulking, to prevent
62 Hydrogels

adhesion, and as biological “glue.” Drugs can be delivered from hydrogel scaffolds in numer-
ous applications including promotion of angiogenesis and encapsulation of secretory cells.
Additionally, hydrogel scaffolds have also been applied to transplant cells and to engineer
many tissues in the body, including the cartilage, bone, and smooth muscle [11].

7.6.1. Environmental proposal

Hydrogel is an eco-friendly material that has many uses as water purification and air purifi-
cation. Hydrogel as a new type of adsorbent for water purification is a composite with gra-
phene oxide [70]. These materials usually exhibit high-capacity adsorption toward water
pollutants and air pollutants [71]. Due to their highly developed porous structure, hydrogel
fabricated with other materials such as graphene oxide and zeolite exhibits a high capac-
ity for gas adsorption and selectivity for gas separation. Researches are still on developing
the efficiency of hydrogel gas adsorbents with a good stability, recyclability, and substantial
capacity. Because of their porous structure, and their environment stability, hydrogel is a
good candidate for gas adsorption.

7.6.2. Gallery of hydrogel

Figure 16 shows funny imaginary SEM pictures of swollen hydrogel (a) PVP/PAAc, (b) PVP/
PAAc after swelled in 1 M KCl, and (c) CMC/PVP loaded with three kinds of salts.

Author details

Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy

Address all correspondence to: [email protected]
Hydrogel Lab, Radiation Research of Polymer Department, National Center for Radiation
Research and Technology (NCRRT), Atomic Energy Authority, Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt

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