CHAPTER TWO

Chapter two
Data communication

2.1. What is communication?

Communication is the act of transferring information from one place, person or group to another.
Data communication is a process of exchanging data or information. In case of computer networks
this exchange is done between two devices over a transmission medium. This process involves a
communication system which is made up of hardware and software. The hardware part involves
the sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices through which the data passes. The
software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be communicated, how it is to be
communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.

Characteristics of Data Communication

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the following four
fundamental characteristics:

1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without
introducing any errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the
accuracy of the delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any
delay; such a data delivery is called real time transmission of data. In the case of video and
audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that
they are produced, and without significant delay. The system must deliver data in a timely
manner. Data delivered late are useless.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness
of data being transmitted. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every
30ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30ms delay and others with 40ms delay, an uneven
quality in the video is the result
2.2. The platform for data communications system
A data communications system has five basic components:
 Message: This is most useful asset of a data communication system. The message
simply refers to data or piece of information which is to be communicated. Popular
forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
 Sender: To transfer message from source to destination, someone must be there who
will play role of a source. Sender plays part of a source in data communication system.

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The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
 Receiver: It is destination where finally message sent by source has arrived. The
receiver is the device that receives the message. Same as sender, receiver can also be
in form of a computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.
 Transmission medium: In entire process of data communication, there must be
something which could act as a bridge between sender and receiver, Transmission
medium plays that part. It is the physical path by which a message travels from sender
to receiver. Transmission medium could be guided (with wires) or unguided (without
wires). Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable,
fiber-optic cable, and radio waves, satellite, infrared.
 Protocol: To govern data communications, various sets of rules had been already
designed by the designers of the communication systems, which represent a kind of
agreement between communicating devices. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person
who speaks only Japanese.

2.3 Data transmission modes

Communication between two devices can be categorized into three mode of communication. Those
are:

1. Simplex
2. Half-duplex
3. Full-duplex

Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on the link can transmit: the other can only receive. Signals transmitted in one direction.
The simplex mode can use the entire capacity channel to send data in one direction.

e.g. television, radio

Simplex
Sender Receiver

Half duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is like a
one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When cars are traveling in one direction,
cars going the other way must wait. Both stations transmit, but only one at a time.

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e.g: walky-talky

Sender Receiver

Full duplex
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. The full-duplex mode
is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. One common
example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. Simultaneous
transmissions. e.g. telephone

Sender (receiver) Receiver

( Sender)

Analog and digital data transmission

Some of the terms are frequently used in data communication are: -
Data: A collection of facts in raw forms that become information after processing.
Signals: Electric or electromagnetic encoding/representing of data.
Signaling: the process of Propagation of signals across a suitable communication medium.
Transmission: Communication of data achieved by the processing of signals.
Computer networks are designed to transfer data from one point to another. During transit data is
in the form of electromagnetic signals. NICs, hubs and other devices generate signals which travel
along the network media. The signals are converted to data as they travel through the OSI layers.
Analog data refers to information that is continuous; ex. sounds made by a human voice. Digital
data refers to information that has discrete states. Digital data take on discrete values. For example,
data are stored in computer memory in the form of 0 s and 1s. The technique by which a digital
signal is converted to analog form is known as modulation and the reverse process, that is the
conversion of analog signal to its digital form, is known as demodulation. The device, which
converts digital signal into analog, and the reverse, is known as modem.

Signals can be of two types: Analog Signal have infinite values in a range. Digital Signal have
limited number of defined values.

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Fig.2 Analog signals

Fig.3 Digital signals

Many original communication systems used analog signaling (telephones), recent

technologies use digital signals because of their advantages with noise immunity,
encryption, bandwidth efficiency, and the ability to use repeaters for long-distance
transmission.

Advantages of Digital Transmission

Digital transmission techniques are widely used because of the following advantages:
 Data integrity
With the use of repeaters, the effects of noise and other impairments are not cumulative.
Thus it is possible to transmit data longer distances and over lower quality lines while
maintaining the integrity of the data.
 Capacity utilization
High bandwidth links become economical. High degree of multiplexing is easier with
digital techniques.

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 Security & Privacy

Encryption technique can be readily applied to digital data and to analog data that have
been digitized.

 Integration
By treating both analog and digital data digitally, all signals have the same form and can
be treated similarly. Thus economies of scale and convenience can be achieved by integrating
voice, video, and digital data.

Transmission Impairment

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal
impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the at
the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received.

For analog signal, these impairments cause various modifications that degrade the signal quality.
For digital signal, due to bit error a binary 1 maybe changed into binary 0 and vice versa. Three
causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

1. Attenuation
At Attenuation, signal strength falls off with distance. It happens exponentially with the
travelled distance. Attenuation affects the propagation of waves and signals in electrical
circuits, in optical fibers, as well as in air. If the signal attenuates too much, it becomes
unintelligible, which is why most networks require repeaters at regular intervals.
Amplifiers are used to compensate for this loss of energy by amplifying this loss of energy
to increasing the signal.
2. Distortion
Distortion is known as the alternation of the original signal. This may happen due to the
properties of the medium. When the distortion occurs, shape of waveform is changed.
Distortion only happens in mediums like cables, wires, fibers, etc. There are many types of
distortion such as amplitude distortion, harmonic distortion, and phase distortion.

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Distortion is critical for digital data since bits change into other bit. Can be solved by
equalizing circuits.
3. Noise
The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and
impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as
sending antenna and transmission medium act as receiving antenna.
Thermal noise is movement of electrons in wire which creates an extra signal.
Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other wire.
Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or power lines

2.3. Components of the network

End devices and their role on the network
The network devices that people are most familiar with are called end devices. These devices form
the interface between the human network and the underlying communication network. Some
examples of end devices are:

 Computers (work stations, laptops, file servers, web servers)

 Network printers
 VoIP phones
 Security cameras
 Mobile handheld devices (such as wireless barcode scanners, PDAs)

In the context of a network, end devices are referred to as hosts. A host device is either the source
or destination of a message transmitted over the network. In order to distinguish one host from
another, each host on a network is identified by an address. When a host initiates communication,
it uses the address of the destination host to specify where the message should be sent.

In modern networks, a host can act as a client, a server, or both. Software installed on the host
determines which role it plays on the network.

Servers are hosts that have software installed that enables them to provide information and
services, like e-mail or web pages, to other hosts on the network.

Clients are hosts that have software installed that enables them to request and display the
information obtained from the server.

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Intermediary Devices and their Role on the Network

In addition to the end devices that people are familiar with, networks rely on intermediary
devices to provide connectivity and to work behind the scenes to ensure that data flows across the
network. These devices connect the individual hosts to the network and can connect multiple
individual networks to form an internetwork. Examples of intermediary network devices are:

 Network Access Devices (Hubs, switches, and wireless access points)

 Internetworking Devices (routers)
 Communication Servers and Modems
 Security Devices (firewalls)

Hub
An unintelligent network device that sends one signal to all of the stations connected to it. All
computers/devices are competing for attention because it takes the data that comes into a port
and sends it out all the other ports in the hub.

Switch

Split large networks into small segments, decreasing the number of users sharing the same
network resources and bandwidth. Understands when two devices want to talk to each other,
and gives them a switched connection.

Bridge

Connects two LANs and forwards or filters data packets between them. Creates an extended
network in which any two workstations on the linked LANs can share data. Transparent to
protocols and to higher level devices like routers. Forward data depending on the Hardware
(MAC) address, not the Network address (IP).

Repeater
Used to boost the signal between two cable segments or wireless access points. Cannot connect
different network architecture. Does not simply amplify the signal, it regenerates the packets
and retimes them.

Router
A device that connects any number of LANs. Uses standardized protocols to move packets
efficiently to their destination. More sophisticated than bridges, connecting networks of
different types (for example, star and token ring). Forwards data depending on the Network
address (IP), not the Hardware (MAC) address. Routers are the only one of these four devices
that will allow you to share a single IP address among multiple network clients.

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Firewall
Provides controlled data access between networks. Firewalls can be hardware or software based
and are an essential part of a network’s security strategy.

Modem
Provides serial communication capabilities across phone lines. Modems modulate the digital
signal into analog at the sending end and perform the reverse function at the receiving end.

Wireless access points (WAPs)

Provides network capabilities to wireless network devices. A WAP is often used to connect to
a wired network, thereby acting as a link between wired and wireless portions of the network.
A WAP can operate as a bridge connecting a standard wired network to wireless devices or as
a router passing data transmissions from one access point to another.

The management of data as it flows through the network is also a role of the intermediary devices.
These devices use the destination host address, in conjunction with information about the network
interconnections, to determine the path that messages should take through the network. Processes
running on the intermediary network devices perform these functions:

 Regenerate and retransmit data signals

 Maintain information about what pathways exist through the network and internetwork
 Notify other devices of errors and communication failures
 Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a link failure
 Classify and direct messages according to QoS priorities
 Permit or deny the flow of data, based on security settings

Network Media

Communication across a network is carried on a medium. The medium provides the channel over
which the message travels from source to destination.

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GUIDED MEDIA
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these
media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial
cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric
current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other
is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two. In addition
to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect
both wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted
signals is not the same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or
crosstalk sources (e,g., one is closer and the other is farther). This results in a difference at the
receiver. By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example, suppose in one twist, one
wire is closer to the noise source and the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true.

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Coaxial Cable
➢ Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted
pair cable.
➢ Coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
➢ The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor,
which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the
whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors.
➢ The most common type of connector used is Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNe), connector.
➢ Three popular types of these connectors:
1. The BNC connector
2. The BNC T connector and
3. The BNC terminator.
✓ The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as a TV set.
✓ The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a connection to a
computer or other device.
✓ The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.
Performance
➢ We can measure the performance of a coaxial cable.
➢ The attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables than in twisted-pair cable.
➢ In other words, although coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the signal weakens
rapidly and requires the frequent use of repeaters.
Applications
➢ Television distribution
➢ Long-distance telephone transmission
➢ Short-run computer system links
➢ Local area networks

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➢ Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial network
could carry 10,000 voice signals.
➢ Used in digital telephone networks where a single coaxial cable could carry digital data up
to 600 Mbps.
➢ However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely been replaced today with fiber-
optic cable
Fiber optic cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. Optical
fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a
cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
Cable Composition
The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon. Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to strengthen
the cable. Kevlar is a strong material used in the fabrication of bulletproof vests.
Below the Kevlar is another plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at the center of the
cable, and it consists of cladding and core.

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type
of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast
through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
The part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900 THz, used for wireless
communication.
Radio Waves
There is no clear-cut demarcation between radio waves and microwaves, electromagnetic
waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves;
waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves,
they are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not
have to be aligned. A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
The omnidirectional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna
are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signals using the same frequency
or band. Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long
distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as AM
radio. Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage.

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Applications
The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting, in which
there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless
phones, and paging are example of multicasting.
Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between I and 300 GHz are called
microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they
can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without
interfering with another pair of aligned antennas. The following describes some characteristics of
microwave propagation: Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the
mounted antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very
tall. Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a
disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings. The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299
GHz. Therefore, wider sub bands can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible. Use of certain
portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
Applications
Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when unicast (oneto-one)
communication is needed between the sender and the receiver. They are used in cellular phones,
satellite networks, and wireless LANs.

Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770
nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies,
cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one
system and another; a short-range communication system in one room cannot be affected by
another system in the next room. When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere
with the use of the remote by our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared
signals useless for long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves
outside a building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication.
Applications
The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data transmission. Such a
wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate. The Infrared
Data Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared waves, has
established standards for using these signals for communication between devices such as
keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers. For example, some manufacturers provide a special port
called the IrDA port that allows a wireless keyboard to communicate with a PC. The standard
originally defined a data rate of 75 kbps for a distance up to 8 m.

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