Exam on Countrystudy

1. Tell about Germanic family of languages

Germanic languages, branch of the Indo-European language family. Scholars often divide the
Germanic languages into three groups: West Germanic, including English, German, and
Netherlandic (Dutch); North Germanic, including Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, Norwegian, and
Faroese; and East Germanic, now extinct, comprising only Gothic and the languages of the
Vandals, Burgundians, and a few other tribes. In numbers of native speakers, English, with 450
million, clearly ranks third among the languages of the world (after Mandarin and Spanish);
German, with some 98 million, probably ranks 10th (after Hindi, Bengali, Arabic, Portuguese,
Russian, and Japanese).
Germanic developed a preterite tense (called weak or regular) with a dental suffix, -d or -t (e.g.
fish, fished, etc.). Germanic languages thus have two types of verbs, weak (regular) and strong
(irregular). Strong verbs indicate tense by an internal vowel change (e.g. swim, swam, swum).
2. The Earliest Period of Germanic History.
The history of the Germanic group begins with the appearance of what is known as the Proto-
Germanic (PG) language (also termed Common or Primitive Germanic, Primitive Teutonic and
simply Germanic). PG is the linguistic ancestor or the parent-language of the Germanic group. It is
supposed to have split from related IE tongues sometime between the 15th and 10th c. B.C. The
would-be Germanic tribes belonged to the western division of the IE speech community.As the
Indo-Europeans extended over a larger territory, the ancient Germans or Teutons (both names
correspond to R ‘германцы’, ‘древние германцы’; to be distinguished from Germans ‘немцы’ )
moved further north than other tribes and settled on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea in the
region of the Elbe. This place is regarded as the most probable original home of the Teutons. It is
here that they developed their first specifically Germanic linguistic features which made them a
separate group in the IE family. PG is an entirely pre-historical language: it was never recorded in
written form. In the 19th c. it was reconstructed by methods of comparative linguistics from
written evidence in descendant languages. Hypothetical reconstructed PG forms will sometimes
be quoted below, to explain the origin of English forms.It is believed that at the earliest stages of
history PG was fundamentally one language, though dialectally coloured. In its later stages
dialectal differences grew, so that towards the beginning of our era Germanic appears divided into
dialectal groups and tribal dialects. Dialectal differentiation increased with the migrations and
geographical expansion of the Teutons caused by overpopulation, poor agricultural technique and
scanty natural resources in the areas of their original settlement.
3. East Germanic languages
The only East Germanic language of which texts are known is Gothic, although a wordlist and
some short sentences survive from its relative Crimean Gothic. Other East Germanic languages
include Vandalism and Burgundian, though the only remnants of these languages are in the form
of isolated words and short phrases. The East Germanic subgroup was formed by the tribes who
returned from Scandinavia at the beginning of our era. The most numerous and powerful of them
were the Goths. They were among the first Teutons to leave the coast of the Baltic Sea and start
on their migrations to the territory of Roman Empire and Northern Italy. The Gothic Language,
now dead, has been preserved in written records of 4th-6th centuries. The Goths were the first of
the Teutons to become Christian.
 Scholars often divide the Germanic languages into three groups: West Germanic, including English,
German, and Netherlandic (Dutch); North Germanic, including Danish, Swedish, Icelandic,
Norwegian, and Faroese; and East Germanic, now extinct, comprising only Gothic and the
languages of the Vandals, Burgundians. The only East Germanic language of which texts are known
is Gothic, although a word list and some short sentences survive from its relative Crimean Gothic.
Other East Germanic languages include Vandalic and Burgundian, though the only remnants of
these languages are in the form of isolated words and short phrases.
4. North Germanic languages
Scandinavian languages, also called North Germanic languages, group of Germanic languages
consisting of modern standard Danish, Swedish, Norwegian (Dano-Norwegian and New
Norwegian), Icelandic, and Faroese.
Approximately 20 million people in the Nordic countries speak a Scandinavian language as their
native language, including an approximately 5% minority in Finland. Besides being the only North
Germanic language with official status in two separate sovereign states, Swedish is also the most
spoken of the languages overall. 15% of the population in Greenland speak Danish as a first
language.
The Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups: West, East and North
Germanic. Their exact relation is difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic
inscriptions, and they remained mutually intelligible to some degree during the Migration Period,
so that some individual varieties are difficult to classify. Dialects with the features assigned to the
northern group formed from the Proto-Germanic language in the late Pre-Roman Iron Age in
Northern Europe.
Eventually, around the year 200 AD, speakers of the North Germanic branch became
distinguishable from the other Germanic language speakers. The early development of this
language branch is attested through runic inscriptions.
After the Old Norse period, the North Germanic languages developed into an East Scandinavian
branch, consisting of Danish and Swedish; and, secondly, a West Scandinavian branch, consisting
of Norwegian, Faroese and Icelandic and, thirdly, an Old Gutnish branch. Norwegian settlers
brought Old West Norse to Iceland and the Faroe Islands around 800. Of the modern Scandinavian
languages, written Icelandic is closest to this ancient language. An additional language, known as
Norn, developed on Orkney and Shetland after Vikings had settled there around 800, but this
language became extinct around 1700.
5. West Germanic languages
West Germanic languages, group of Germanic languages that developed in the region of the North
Sea, Rhine-Weser, and Elbe. Out of the many local West Germanic dialects the following six
modern standard languages have arisen: English, Frisian, Dutch (Netherlandic-Flemish), Afrikaans,
German, and Yiddish.
The Angles and the Frisians, the Jutes and the Saxons inhabited the coastal area of the modern
Netherlands, the Federal Republic of Germany and the southern part of Denmark. The modern
language of the Netherlands, formerly called Dutch, and its variant in Belgium, known as the
Flemish dialect, are now treated as a single language, Netherlandish. About 300 years ago the
Dutch language was brought to South Africa by colonists from Southern Holland. Their dialects in
Africa eventually grew into a separate West Germanic language, Africans. Africans has
 incorporated elements from the speech of English and German colonists in Africa and from the
tongues of the native. Writing in Africans began at the end of the 19th сentury.
West Germanic languages, group of Germanic languages that developed in the region of the North
Sea, Rhine-Weser, and Elbe. Out of the many local West Germanic dialects the following six
modern standard languages have arisen: English, Frisian, Dutch (Netherlandic-Flemish), Afrikaans,
German, and Yiddish.
6. Chronological Divisions in the History of English
Middle English language, the vernacular spoken and written in England from about 1100 to about
1500, the descendant of the Old English language and the ancestor of Modern English. The history
of Middle English is often divided into three periods: (1) Early Middle English, from about 1100 to
about 1250, during which the Old English system of writing was still in use; (2) the Central Middle
English period from about 1250 to about 1400, which was marked by the gradual formation of
literary dialects, the use of an orthography greatly influenced by the Anglo-Norman writing
system, the loss of pronunciation of final unaccented -e, and the borrowing of large numbers of
Anglo-Norman words; the period was especially marked by the rise of the London dialect, in the
hands of such writers as John Gower and Geoffrey Chaucer; and (3) Late Middle English, from
about 1400 to about 1500, which was marked by the spread of the London literary dialect and the
gradual cleavage between the Scottish dialect and the other northern dialects. During this period
the basic lines of inflection as they appear in Modern English were first established. Among the
chief characteristic differences between Old and Middle English were the substitution of natural
gender in Middle English for grammatical gender and the loss of the old system of declensions in
the noun and adjective and, largely, in the pronoun. The dialects of Middle English are usually
divided into three large groups: (1) Southern (subdivided into Southeastern, or Kentish, and
Southwestern), chiefly in the counties south of the River Thames; (2) Midland (corresponding
roughly to the Mercian dialect area of Old English times) in the area from the Thames to southern
South Yorkshire and northern Lancashire; and (3) Northern, in the Scottish Lowlands,
Northumberland, Cumbria, Durham, northern Lancashire, and most of Yorkshire.
Early Modern English (1500-1800) The Renaissance brought the revival of classical scholarship and
brought many classical Latin and Greek words into the Language. These borrowings were
deliberate and many bemoaned the adoption of these "inkhorn" terms. Many survive to this day.
The Influence of the Printing Press The last major factor in the development of Modern English
was the advent of the printing press. William Caxton brought the printing press to England in
1476. Books became cheaper and literacy more common. Publishing for the masses in English
became profitable. The printing press brought standardization to English. The dialect of London,
where most publishing houses were located, became the standard. Spelling and grammar became
fixed. The first English dictionary was published in 1604 (Cawdrey's A Table Alphabeticall). Late
Modern English (1800-Present) The principal distinction between early-and late-modern English is
vocabulary. Pronunciation, grammar, and spelling are largely the same. New words are the result
of two historical factors: the Industrial Revolution. the British Empire.
7. The geographical situation of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is situated on the British Isles — a large
group of islands lying off the north-western coast of Europe and separated from the continent by
the English Channel and the Strait of Dover in the south and the North Sea in the east.
 The British Isles consist of two large islands — Great Britain and Ireland — separated by the Irish
Sea, and a lot of small islands, the main of which are the Isle of Wight in the English Channel,
Anglesea and the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea, the Hebrides — a group of islands off the north-
western coast of Scotland, and two groups of islands lying to the north of Scotland: the Orkney
Islands and the Shetland Islands.
Historically the territory of the United Kingdom is divided into four parts: England, Scotland, Wales
and Northern Ireland. The total area of the United Kingdom is 244 square kilometres.
8. Seas, oceans, rivers and lakes in GB
Great Britain is made up of three-countries: England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland.
• The most famous English river is the Thames. It is 215 miles long. The Severn, the longest river in
the United Kingdom, is 240 miles long. Other important rivers are the Trent, Mersey, Tyne, Tees,
Forth and Clyde. Lakes can be found in the north of England (Lake District), in Scotland and in
Ulster. The most beautiful lakes, like Loch Lomond and Loch Katrine, are in Scotland and the Lake
District, where the most famous are Windermere and Derwentwater.
• The British Isles are washed by the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the North Sea to the north and
east and the English Channel to the south. The lrish Sea separates Ireland from Great Britain.
• The UK lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea, and comes within 35 km (22
miles) of the northwest coast of France, from which it is separated by the English Channel
9. Mountains. Climate. Population in GB
• The Scots, Welsh and Irish regard themselves as largely Celtic peoples, while the English are
mainly Anglo- Saxon in origin.
British society as a whole does not have a uniform cultural identity. In 1988 the population of the
United Kingdom was about 57 million inhabitants. This figure gives a population density of 600
persons per square mile (284 per square km). England has an average density of 980 persons per
square mile (364 per square km). Within Europe only the Netherlands has a higher population that
England.
• Due to the geographic location of Great Britain the type of the climate is oceanic. There are no
extreme contrasts in temperature in Britain because of the current of warm water flowing from
the gulf of Mexico called the Gulf Stream.
Average British temperatures do not rise above 32”C in summer and do not fall below — 10°C in
winter. The grass remains green all the year round. Thanks to climate conditions, Britain in truth
looks like one great well-ordered park with its old trees, green meadows and hedges.
• The mountains and hills of England comprise very different kinds of terrain, from a mountain
range which reaches almost 1,000 metres (3,300 feet) high, to several smaller areas of lower
mountains, foothills and sea cliffs. Most of the major upland areas have been designated as Areas
of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) or national parks. The highest and most extensive areas are
in the north and west (including south-west), while the midlands, south-east and east of the
country tend to be low-lying.The tallest mountain in Britain is Ben Nevis (1,345m) in the Highland
region of Scotland. Ben Nevis is known to locals as 'The Ben' and has two main walking tracks to
the summit: The Mountain Track (or Tourist Track) and the more challenging Carn Mor Dearg
Arête route (for experience hikers)
10. The Roman invasion and results
Emperor Nero, having learned of the uprising, sent his most famous general Vespasian to Palestine
at the head of a large army. Vespasian began the campaign in 67 from the Syrian port city of
Ptolemais (Acre) and, overcoming the stubborn resistance of the enemy, with an army of sixty
thousand invaded the territory of Galilee. However, the events in Rome did not allow the general
to achieve a final victory, and he had to return home. Nero committed suicide. Emperors Galba,
Otho and Vitellius rapidly replaced each other. The latter was taken out of the doghouse drunk,
 dragged through the streets and put to an ignominious d In April 70 A.D., immediately after Easter,
when Jerusalem was flooded with pilgrims, the siege began. The Zealots rejected with contempt
and disdain the repeated offers of Titus and the pleas of Josephus, who accompanied the
commander as an interpreter and mediator, and killed everyone who hinted about surrender.
They made forays into the valley of Kedron and up the slopes of the mountain, causing great
damage to the Romans. The more difficult it was for the defenders of the city, the more their
courage grew. The crucifixion of thousands of prisoners (up to five hundred a day) only made them
even more furious. Neither the onset of famine, which claimed thousands of lives every day (one
woman even fried and ate her own child [547]), nor the crying of mothers and children, nor the
terrible suffering that reigned around could touch the hearts of mad fanatics. History knows of no
other example of such stubborn resistance, such desperate courage and contempt for death. Jews
fought not only for their civil freedom, life and homeland, but also for what was their nationeath.
In 69, Vespasian was proclaimed emperor and restored order and prosperity.
11. The first settlers on the British Isles
The Iberians were an ancient people settled in the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian
peninsula, at least from the 6th century BC.The Iberians lived along the Mediterranean coast and
in the south and centre of the Iberian Peninsula, as well as in the French Languedoc region. The
large cultural area of the ancient Mediterranean was the staging ground of the historical dynamic
between the 6th-1st centuries BC that the Iberian peoples took part in.
Beaker folk, Late Neolithic–Early Bronze Age people living about 4,500 years ago in the temperate
zones of Europe.Beaker culture was taken up by a group of people living in Central Europe whose
ancestors had previously migrated from the Eurasian Steppe. This group continued to migrate
west and finally arrived in Britain around 4,400 years ago
The Celts or Celtic peoples are a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia,
identified by their use of Celtic languages and other cultural similarities. Historical Celtic groups
included the Britons, Boii, Celtiberians, Gaels, Gauls, Gallaeci, Galatians, Lepontii and their
offshoots. In current scholarship, 'Celt' primarily refers to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than
to a single ethnic group.
12. The conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity
When the Anglo-Saxons inhabited Britain, they brought with them Germanic paganism. The story
of the conversion of the Saxons to Christianity is one filled with political intrigue and bloody
conflict.
Christianity has existed in Britain since the time of the Roman Empire when it spread across the
British Isles over the process of many centuries. However, the coming of the Anglo-Saxons led to
the extinguishing of Christianity in England and the resurgence of Germanic-inspired Anglo-Saxon
paganism. It was not until the 7th century, and a papal mission sent by Gregory the Great, that the
conversion of England began again. Through the baptism of monarchs and the establishment of
royal hegemonies, the Christian faith spread throughout the elite of Anglo-Saxon England.
Arguably, it was the work of missionaries that eventually ended Germanic paganism amongst the
general populations of these Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
13. The Norman invasion and results
 Norman return of England (eng. Norman Conquest of England) - the invasion in 1066 of the English
army of William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, and the subsequent subjugation of the
country.
The conquest of England began with the victory of the Normans at the Battle of Hastings in 1066,
after which Duke William became King of England. The conquest had a significant impact on the
development of English culture and language. As a result of the adaptation of northern French
state and social institutions to the Anglo-Saxon probability of rise, there was a system of Anglo-
Norman monarchy that lasted until the rise of the 12th century, which formed the basis of the
medieval English state.
14. The first king of England
The first king of all of England was Athelstan (895-939 AD) of the House of Wessex, grandson of
Alfred the Great and 30th great-granduncle to Queen Elizabeth II. The Anglo-Saxon king defeated
the last of the Viking invaders and consolidated Britain, ruling from 925-939 AD.
15. The basis of feudal society in GB
Feudal society is a military hierarchy in which a ruler or lord offers mounted fighters a fief
(medieval beneficium), a unit of land to control in exchange for a military service. The individual
who accepted this land became a vassal, and the man who granted the land become known as his
liege or his lord.Feudalism was a system in which people were given land and protection by people
of higher rank, and worked and fought for them in return. As feudalism decayed in the West it
gave rise to a mercantile class.
16. The English Bourgeois Revolution (1642—1648)
The English Revolution, also known as the English Civil War; - the process of transition of England
from a monarchy to a republic that took place in 1639-1660, ending with the death of the
protector Cromwell and the restoration of the monarchy. The revolution took the form of a
conflict between the executive and legislative powers (king against parliament), which resulted in
a civil war, as well as a religious war between Anglicans, Catholics and the wavering Scottish
Puritans on the one hand, and the English Puritans on the other. In the English Revolution, an
element of national struggle was also noticeable, although it played a secondary role (between the
English, Welsh, Scots, Irish).The first civil war began on August 22, 1642, when Charles I ordered
his banner to be raised over Nottingham Castle, and the war ended in 1646, when Cromwell
created a "New Model Army", which won a decisive victory at the battle of Naseby.The civil war
ended with the complete victory of Parliament.
17. Oliver Cromwell as a leader in the English Revolution
Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) came from an impoverished East Anglian gentry family. He was a
small landowner and Member of Parliament. Remarkably, he was over 40 years old when he
began his military career. Cromwell realised instinctively that good quality, disciplined troops,
motivated by religious zeal, were the key to victory. He recruited his men accordingly. In February
1644, Cromwell was appointed cavalry commander of the Army of the Eastern Association, a
Parliamentarian force recruited mostly in East Anglia. In July that year, this army formed part of
the Parliamentarian forces at the Battle of Marston Moor, in which Cromwell commanded the
cavalry of the left wing. The following year, Cromwell played a similar role at the Battle of Naseby.
His men were able to drive off the opposing cavalry and then turn upon the flank of the Royalist
infantry, ensuring a Parliamentarian victory.
18. The industrial revolution and Chartism
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Great Britain,
continental Europe, and the United States, that occurred during the period from around 1760 to
about 1820–1840. Chartism, British working-class movement for parliamentary reform named
after the People’s Charter, a bill drafted by the London radical William Lovetээ T. It contained six
demands: universal manhood suffrage, equal electoral districts, vote by ballot, annually elected
Parliaments, payment of members of Parliament and abolition of the property qualifications for
membership. Chartism was the first movement both working class in character and national in
scope that grew out of the protest against the injustices of the new industrial and political order in
Britain .While composed of working people, Chartism was also mobilized around populism as well
as clan identity.
19. The Queen Victoria and her contribution to the development of GB
Queen Victoria was the matriarch of the British Empire. She epitomised the values of the era and
carved out a new role for the monarchy. During her 63-year reign, a length surpassed only by our
current Queen, Victoria presided over the social and industrial transformation of Britain, as well as
expansion of the empire.
Victoria resumed her public duties by the late 1860s. Her later reign was largely devoted to
encouraging peace in Europe and expanding and consolidating her massive political empire. She
became Empress of India in 1877 and influenced foreign relations closer to home through her
children and grandchildren, many of whom married into European royalty.
At the beginning of her monarchy, Britain was seen largely as a trading power. But under Victoria,
it became a mighty empire and the world’s most powerful nation. Over the course of the 19th
century, it grew by 10 million square miles and 400 million people. Those gains came at a
tremendous price: England was almost constantly at war during Victoria’s reign, and the
colonialism practiced in her name involved brutal subjugation.
Though Victoria was popular, her subjects still pushed to reform the monarchy. Ultimately, this led
to an erosion of the monarch’s direct political power as ordinary British people gained the vote,
the secret ballot, and other political reforms in the mid- to late 1800s.
20. Art, culture, and literature in Elizabethan era
Elizabethan artists drew from European Renaissance ideals, but they also brought a unique
national sensibility to their work. Among the many influences on their style was Elizabeth herself.
Her image was often invoked in painting and literature, and her appreciation of music, dancing,
and pageantry raised them to a higher level of artistry. (A pageant is a dramatic presentation, such
as a play, that often depicts a historical, biblical, or traditional event.) Like most English people,
though, Elizabeth did not distinguish much between popular entertainment and the higher arts.
She was as happy to watch a bearbaiting (a form of entertainment in which a bear is tied to a post
and attacked by dogs in front of spectators) or view a fireworks display as to listen to her court
musicians perform or attend a play.
In modern times we tend to think of art as the expression of the artist's deepest feelings and
beliefs. This was not true in Elizabeth's day. All English artists were expected to fulfill their patriotic
duty by glorifying the queen. Since it was impossible in the Elizabethan age to support oneself
through art, most artists depended on patrons (wealthy sponsors who helped them financially),
and they frequently flattered potential patrons in their art, hoping for financial reward.
 In 1521 the teachings of Martin Luther (1483–1546) started the Protestant Reformation (also
known as the Reformation; a sixteenth-century religious movement that aimed to reform the
Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the establishment of Protestant churches). In the decades
that followed many northern European countries, such as the German states, the Netherlands,
England, and Scotland, adopted Protestantism, while southern European states, such as Italy,
France, and Spain, remained Catholic. The arts developed differently in Catholic and Protestant
regions.
Most early Renaissance writers in England strove to imitate the style of the classics. Many
continued to write in Latin, the language used for most literary works in England. Others, though,
sought to follow in the footsteps of the medieval English author Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1342–1400),
whose poetic work, The Canterbury Tales, had been written in English. Like Chaucer, many
Elizabethan writers wished to raise the English language, long considered a rough means of
expression, to the level of art.
21. Modern Cultural life in GB, cultural values
England’s contribution to both British and world culture is too vast for anything but a cursory
survey here. Historically, England was a very homogeneous country and developed coherent
traditions, but, especially as the British Empire expanded and the country absorbed peoples from
throughout the globe, English culture has been accented with diverse contributions from Afro-
Caribbeans, Asians, Muslims, and other immigrant groups. Other parts of the United Kingdom
have experienced the same social and cultural diversification, with the result that England is not
always distinguishable from Wales and Scotland or even Northern Ireland. The former insularity of
English life has been replaced by a cosmopolitan familiarity with all things exotic: fish and chips
have given way to Indian, Chinese, and Italian cuisine, guitar-based rock blends with South Asian
rap and Afro-Caribbean salsa, and the English language itself abounds in neologisms drawn from
nearly every one of the world’s tongues.
Even as England has become ever more diverse culturally, it continues to exert a strong cultural
influence on the rest of the world. English music, film, and literature enjoy wide audiences
overseas, and the English language has gained ever-increasing currency as the preferred
international medium of cultural and economic exchange.
These 4 fundamental British values are:
Democracy
Rule of Law
Respect & Tolerance
Individual Liberty
Fundamental British Values underpin what it is to be a citizen in a modern and diverse Great
Britain valuing our community and celebrating diversity of the UK.
Fundamental British Values are not exclusive to being British and are shared by other democratic
countries as a way of creating an orderly society, where individual members can feel safe, valued
and can contribute for the good of themselves and others.
These will mirror the principles and values of Total People and all the work areas that we support.
These will occur throughout your programme and will be promoted by the staff with whom you
come into contact.
Democracy
A culture built upon freedom and equality, where everyone is aware of their rights and
responsibilities.
Examples
Leadership and accountability
 Joint decision making
Team meetings
The right to protest and petition
Receiving and giving feedback
Rule of Law
The need for rules to make a happy, safe and secure environment to live and work.
Examples
Legislation
Agreed ways of working, policies and procedures
How the law protects you and others
Codes of conduct
Respect and Tolerance
Understanding that we all don’t share the same beliefs and values. Respecting the values, ideas
and beliefs of others whilst not imposing our own others.
Examples
Embracing diversity
The importance of religion, traditions, cultural heritage and preferences
Tackling stereotyping, labeling, prejudice and discrimination
Individual Liberty
Protection of your rights and the right of others you work with.
Examples
Equality and Human Rights
Personal Development
Respect and Dignity
Rights, choice, consent and individuality
Values and principles
22. Folk, rock and pop music and world’s major theatre centers in GB.
The folk music of England is a tradition-based music which has existed since the later medieval
period. It is often contrasted with courtly, classical and later commercial music. Folk music
traditionally was preserved and passed on orally within communities, but print and subsequently
audio recordings have since become the primary means of transmission. The term is used to refer
both to English traditional music and music composed or delivered in a traditional style.
There are distinct regional and local variations in content and style, particularly in areas more
removed from the most prominent English cities, as in Northumbria, or the West Country. Cultural
interchange and processes of migration mean that English folk music, although in many ways
distinctive, has significant crossovers with the music of Scotland. When English communities
migrated to the United States, Canada and Australia, they brought their folk traditions with them,
and many of the songs were preserved by immigrant communities.
English folk music has produced or contributed to several cultural phenomena, including sea
shanties, jigs, hornpipes and the music for Morris dancing. It has also interacted with other
musical traditions, particularly classical and rock music, influencing musical styles and producing
musical fusions, such as British folk rock, folk punk and folk metal. There remains a flourishing sub-
culture of English folk music, which continues to influence other genres and occasionally gains
mainstream attention.
Mainstream British theatre paid very little attention to the antirealistic movements that
characterized experimental theatre in the rest of Europe. The domination of the actor-manager
was effectively challenged by Harley Granville-Barker and John E. Vedrenne at London’s Royal
Court Theatre; between 1904 and 1907 they staged numerous new plays by British and
Continental writers. The major dramatist at the Royal Court—indeed the most important British
 dramatist of the century—was the Irish-born George Bernard Shaw. With plays such as Man and
Superman (1903), he made theatre a lively platform for the discussion of social and philosophical
issues, usually through the medium of laughter. Shaw availed himself of a wide variety of styles
and models, including mythology in Pygmalion (1916) and history in Saint Joan (1924), but he
always transformed his models to make them relevant to his own age.
23. Traditions, cultural values in GB
First of all it concerns United Kingdom political system. In Great Britain there is no written
constitution, only customs, traditions and precedents. After the English Revolution of Great Britain
is a constitutional monarchy headed by King (now Queen, Elizabeth the second). Traditionally the
queen acts only on the advice of her Ministers. She reigns but she does not rule.
Englishmen have traditions not only in political, but in social life. For example, London , the capital
of England , is traditionally divided into three parts: the West End , the East end, and the City. The
City is a historical, financial and business center of London . The East End is the district inhabited
by the workers, and the West End is a fashionable shopping and entertaining center. English
people like to spend their free time in numerous pubs where they can have a glass of beer and talk
about different things with their friends.
The English are traditional about their meals. They eat eggs and bacon with toasts for breakfast,
pudding or apple pie for dessert. Every English family has five o'clock tea. A typical feature of an
English house is a fireplace, even when there is central heating in the house.
English people like domestic animals. Every family has a pet: a dog, a cat or a bird.
Politeness is a characteristic feature of Englishmen. They often say "Thank you", "Sorry", "Beg your
pardon". Russian people, I think, have to learn this good custom.
Englishmen have many traditional holidays, such as Christmas, St.Valentine's Day, Mother's day,
Easter and others.
24. Public Holidays in GB
There are only 6 public holidays in Great Britain. Those are days on which people need not go to
work. These days are: Christmas Day, Boxing day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Spring Bank
Holiday and Late Summer Bank Holiday. Most of these holidays are of religious origin, though it
would be right to say that for the great part of the population they have lost their religious
significance and are simply days on which people relax, drink and make merry. All public holidays,
except Christmas day and Boxing day observed on December 25th and 26th respectively, are
movable, that is don't fall on the same day each year. Christmas day observed on December 25th
is the most popular public holiday of the year in all parts of Greeat Britain except Scotland. On
Christmas Eve offices and public buildings close at one o'clock, but the shops stay open late. Most
big cities, especially London, are decorated with Christmas trees and colored lights across the
streets. Everybody wants to be at home for Christmas. At homes there's a great air of expectation.
The children are decorating the tree, housewives are busy in the kitchen getting things ready for
the next day's dinner. The Christmas food, nowadays usually turkey, is being prepared and stuffed.
The chief Christmas tree is usually placed on Trafalgar Square, in front of the national Gallery, and
it has become a tradition that the tree is a present from the people of Oslo. December 26th is
called Boxing day because traditionally it was the day for people still give a "Christmas box" to the
postman and milkman, but it's usually some money. This is the day when one visits friends, goes
for a drive or a long walk or just sits around recovering from eating too much food. In the big cities
and towns, tradition on that day demands a visit to the Christmas pantomime where one is
entertained by the story of Cinderella, or Puss in Boots or whoever it may be. Easter is a religious
holiday and Easter Monday is a bank holiday. Certain old traditions are observed, whenever it's
celebrated as the start of spring or a religious festival. London greets the spring with a spectacular
show, Easter Parade in Batter Sea Park on Easter Sunday each year. It is sponsored by the London,
Tourist Board and is usually planned around a central theme related to the history and attractions
 of London. During the Easter Holidays the attention of the progressive people in Britain and indeed
throughout the world stays focused. First and foremost on the Easter Peace Marches, which took
place for the first time in 1958 and have since become traditional. Good Friday and Easter Monday
depend on Easter Sunday, which falls on the 1st Sunday after a full Moon on or after March 21st.
The Spring Bank Holiday falls on the last Monday of May or on the 1st Monday of June, while the
Late Summer Bank Holiday comes on the last Monday in August or on the first Monday in
September, depending on which of the Monday is nearer to June 1st and September 1st
respectively. Besides public holidays, there are other festivals, anniversaries and simply days, for
example Pancake Day and Bonfire High on which certain traditions are observed.
25. British system of education: primary and secondary education in GB
 A Primary School is divided into Infant and Junior ones.
 At Infant Schools reading, writing and arithmetic (three "Rs") are taught for about 20 minutes a
day during the first year, gradually increasing to about two hours in their last year.
 There is usually no written timetable.
 Much time is spent in modelling from clay or drawing, reading or singing.
 By the time children are ready for the Junior School they will be able to read and write, do simple
addition and subtraction of numbers.
 At the age of 7 children go on from the Infants School to the Junior School.
 This marks the transition from play to "real work". The children have set periods of arithmetic,
reading and composition which are all "Eleven Plus" subjects. History, Geography, Nature Study,
Art and Music, Physical Education, Swimming are also on the timetable.
 Core subjects are English, Maths, Science. Exams in them are taken at the age of 7 and 11.
Years 7 and 8 are the first two years of secondary school education in the UK. In some
independent schools they are included in the Junior School, in others, they are part of the Senior
School. Under the UK school system, all students study English, Maths, Sciences, a Humanity and a
Modern Language. Besides these subjects, each school has a list with optional subjects (Art, Music,
Drama, Latin, Sport Science, Design Technology, Computer Science), and students may choose a
few subjects that interest them. In some schools, students sit Common Entrance Exam in year 7.
There are 3 examination sessions, in November, January and May/June. The transition from Junior
to Senior School (from year 8 to year 9) may be conditioned by the Common Entrance Exam
results in those schools.
Year 9 is a very important year in the British school system, as most of the students make the
transition from Junior School to Senior School. It is also a very good foundation for the GCSE
programme and it is an entry point to all schools. Students study English, Maths, Sciences,
Humanity and Languages. In addition, students choose a few subjects from the optional subject list
offered by each school.
GCSE programme
In the last two years of secondary education, which are called Year 10 and Year 11, starting at age
14, students prepare for GCSE exams that are taken after two years (General Certificate of
Secondary Education).In the UK school system, during the GCSE programme, students study
between 9 and 12 subjects. Some of them are compulsory (English, Math, 2/3 Sciences,
History/Geography, a Modern Language etc.), some are chosen by each student according to their
abilities and preferences. At the end of the 2 year GCSE programme, following the examinations
on each studied subject, students receive their GCSE Certificates. The chosen subjects and the
 GCSE results are very important for their Further Studies (A-Level or IB) and for their University
admission. Intensive 1 year GCSE: Some schools offer a 1 Year GCSE programme in Year 11 for
international students seeking a school education in the UK. These intensive, one year courses, are
available for students aged 15 plus, with the appropriate academic level from their own country.
Fewer subjects are studied (maximum 6).
IGCSE: The IGCSE programme (International General Certificate of Secondary Education) prepare
international students for A-Level and/or IB. Students study between 5 and 7 subjects, English,
Maths and Science being included. Each school has a list of available subjects for IGCSE students.
At the end of Year 11, students take exams in each studied subject and receive IGCSE Certificates.
26. The difference between Comprehensive and Grammar schools in GB
Comprehensive Schools were introduced in 1965. The idea of comprehensive education,
supported by the Labour Party, was to give all children of whatever background the same
opportunity in education. So Comprehensive Schools are non-selective ("all-in") schools, which
provide a wide range of secondary education for all the children of a district. They are the most
important type of school because they are attended by 88 % of all Secondary School pupils. All
Scottish state pupils also attend nonselective schools. There are various ways in which a
Comprehensive School can be organized. It can by "streaming" within the school try to keep
children of approximately similar ability in one group or class; or it can leave the children to
choose between large numbers of courses; or it can combine the two methods. Pupils may leave
the school at the age of 16 or 18. Comprehensive Schools are often very large with up to 2000
pupils.
A Grammar School mainly provides an exam-centred academic course from 11 to 18. It is the main
route to the universities and the professions. A large proportion of university students is recruited
from Grammar Schools, though they make 3 % of all schools. Most Grammar School pupils remain
at school until 18 or 19 years old, especially if they want to go on to a university. Some degree of
specialisation, especially as between arts and science subjects, is usual in the upper forms. The top
form is always called the "sixth form". Pupils may remain in this form for 2—3 years, until they
leave school. Selection of Primary School children for Grammar Schools is usually based on school
record cards, teachers' reports, tests and consultation with parents. After the Reform Act of 1988
many Grammar Schools were turned into Comprehensives and the change was in many cases very
painful. Secondary Modern Schools give a general education with a practical bias. It is common for
more time to be given to handicrafts, domestic sciences and other practical activities than in
Grammar Schools. Foreign languages are not thought there. "Streaming" is practiced in secondary
modern schools. The children in each group are usually placed in three, streams — A, B and C; C-
stream is for children of the least academic type, concentrating mainly on practical work.
27. What is known about secondary technical schools in GB
A secondary technical school was a type of secondary school in England and Wales that existed in
the mid-20th century under the Tripartite System of education. In addition to grammar schools
and secondary modern schools, the government intended there to be a series of secondary
technical schools which would teach mechanical, scientific and engineering skills to serve industry
and science.
28. What do you know about Public schools in GB
 Public school, also called independent school, in the United Kingdom, one of a relatively small
group of institutions educating secondary-level students for a fee and independent of the state
system as regards both endowment and administration. The term public school emerged in the
18th century when the reputation of certain grammar schools spread beyond their immediate
environs. They began taking students whose parents could afford residential fees and thus became
known as public, in contrast to local, schools. By the late 20th century the term independent
school was increasingly preferred by the institutions themselves.
The typical great public school—such as Eton, Harrow, Winchester, Westminster, Rugby,
Shrewsbury, or Charterhouse—evolved from an institution founded by a single benefactor during
the late Middle Ages or Renaissance. Such charitable foundations, almost invariably for males
only, had usually been intended to educate local boys from relatively humble backgrounds. From
about the 17th century the upper classes took increasing advantage of the tuition afforded by
these foundations. As pupils paying the market rate became more numerous, the schools were
increasingly transformed into boarding establishments. (Some, however, such as St. Paul’s or
Merchant Taylors’ in London, remained day schools; others took both day boys and boarders.) The
public schools were seen as preparing students for the ancient universities of Oxford and
Cambridge (though not all students proceeded then or proceed now to a university) and for public
service—another origin of the appellation “public” school.
29. The system of Higher Education in GB
 The system of higher education in Britain includes universities, colleges of higher education and
advanced courses in the further education. The British educational system on the higher level is
still more selective and class-divided than secondary education, particularly so far as the oldest
universities are concerned.
 Most big towns in Britain have both a university and a college of higher education. There are 91
universities and 47 colleges of higher education today.
 Universities offer 3- and 4-year degree courses, though a number of subjects take longer, including
medicine, architecture and foreign languages (where courses include a year abroad). Colleges of
higher education offer both two-year HND (Higher National Diploma) courses, as well as degree
courses.
 Undergraduate courses normally take 3 years of full-time study and lead in most cases to a
Bachelor degree in Arts, Science or Education (BA, BSc, BEd). Undergraduates, students who study
for degrees, go to large formal lectures, but most of the work takes place in tutorials: lessons in
groups of 10 or more when the students discuss their work with the lecturer.
30. Art in GB. Museums and galleries.
Theatre is probably the performing art for which England is best known.
In the 18th and 19th centuries the British aristocracy and rich merchants filled their houses with
valuable paintings, sculptures, furniture and ornaments which they brought back from their travels
abroad. So their collections can be seen today in museums, country houses, palaces and castles.
There are museums and art galleries in most cities as well.
There is much to see in Britain, especially in its heart, London. The British Museum is the largest in
the world. It was built between 1823 and 1852. Its magnificent library has the right, by law, to one
copy of every publication printed in Britain. Of special interest are the costume displays, the
 jewellery and porcelain, belonging to the Crown, and the best collection of English miniatures to
be found in the country.
The National Gallery is the largest in the country. It exhibits all schools of European paintings from
the 13th to the 19th century. About 2,000 museums and art galleries in Britain attract over 68
million people a year.
31. William Hogarth.
W.Hogarth was born in London 1697-1764, the first great English-born artist to attract admiration
abroad, best known for his moral and satirical engravings and paintings. Engraving technique of
making prints from metal plates into which a design has been incised with a cutting tool called a
burin. His aesthetic theories had more influence in Romantic literature than in painting. The only
son of Richard Hogarth, a minor classical scholar and schoolmaster, grew up with two sisters. He
took private drawing lessons while earning a living as an engraver of book illustrations. His first
major work, the satirical engraving Masquerades and Operas, attacked contemporary taste and
questioned the art establishment, thus winning him many enemies. In 1728 he embarked on a
painting career with a work that reveals his interest in theatre and comic subject matter, A Scene
from “The Beggar’s Opera”; he also painted “conversation pieces” (informal group portraits) for
wealthy clients. His engravings of modern morality subjects, often in sequential sets, were aimed
at a wide public, and their outstanding success established his financial independence. To
safeguard his livelihood against pirated editions, he fought for legislation protecting artists’
copyright. Britain’s first copyright act was passed in 1735, the year he published his satirical eight-
part series The Rake’s Progress. His other satirical series include A Harlot’s Progress (1730–31) and
Marriage à la Mode (1743–45). The teaching academy he established led to the founding of the
Royal Academy (1768).
32. Joshua Reynolds.
Full name Sir Joshua Reynolds born in 1723, Plympton, Devon, England—died 1792 London,
portrait painter and aesthetician who dominated English artistic life in the middle and late 18th
century. Son of a clergyman-schoolmaster, he was apprenticed to a London portraitist in 1740.
Through his art and teaching, he attempted to lead British painting away from the indigenous
anecdotal pictures of the early 18th century toward the formal rhetoric of the continental Grand
Style. Indigenous stories are used to instruct and teach children about cultural values and lessons.
With the founding of the Royal Academy in 1768, Reynolds was elected its first president and
knighted by King George III. His large group portrait The Eliot Family reveals the influence of
Anthony Van Dyck. The impressions he gained during two years in Italy, particularly in Venice,
inspired his painting for the rest of his life. He established a portrait studio in London in 1753 and
was immediately successful. His early London portraits introduced new power into English
portraiture. After 1760, with the increasing vogue for Greco-Roman antiquity, his style became
increasingly Classical and self-conscious. Through his art and teaching, Reynolds led British
painting away from the anecdotal pictures of the early 18th century toward the formal rhetoric of
continental academic painting. His Discourses Delivered at the Royal Academy (1769–90),
advocating rigorous academic training and study of the Old Masters, ranks among the most
important art criticism of the time.
33. Thomas Gainsborough.
 He lived between1727 Sudbury, Suffolk, Eng-1788 London, portrait and landscape painter, the
most versatile English painter of the 18th century At 13 he left his native Suffolk to study in
London.. Some of his early portraits show the sitters grouped in a landscape (Mr.and Mrs.Andrews
1750). By 1750, back in Suffolk, he had established a reputation in portraiture and landscape
painting. He painted landscapes for pleasure; portraiture was his profession. In 1759 he moved to
the fashionable spa of Bath, where his works would be seen by a wider and wealthier public. In
1768 he became a founding member of the Royal Academy of Art. He developed an elegant,
formal portrait style inspired by Anthony Van Dyck, whose influence can be seen in such portraits
as his famous Blue Boy (1770). In 1774 he moved to London and became a favourite of the royal
family, preferred above the official court painter, Joshua Reynolds. His love of landscape came
from studying 17th-century Dutch artists and later Peter Paul Rubens, whose influence is evident
in The Watering Place (1777). His output was prodigious; he produced many landscape drawings in
various media, and in his later years he also created images of seascapes, pastoral subjects, and
children.
34. Joseph Turner.
Joseph Mallord William Turner born 1775 London –died 1851 London, English Romantic landscape
painter whose expressionistic studies of light, colour, and atmosphere were unmatched in their
range and sublimity. The son of a barber, he entered the Royal Academy school in 1789. In 1802
he became a full academician and in 1807 was appointed professor of perspective. His early work
was concerned with accurate depictions of places, but he soon learned from Richard Wilson to
take a more poetic and imaginative approach. The Shipwreck (1805) shows his new emphasis on
luminosity, atmosphere, and Romantic, dramatic subjects. After a trip to Italy in 1819, his colour
became purer and more prismatic, with a general heightening of key. In later paintings, such as
Sunrise, with a Boat Between Headlands (1845), architectural and natural details are sacrificed to
effects of colour and light, with only the barest indication of mass. His compositions became more
fluid, suggesting movement and space. In breaking down conventional formulas of representation,
he anticipated French Impressionism. His immense reputation in the 19th century was due largely
to John Ruskin’s enthusiasm for his early works; 20th-century critics celebrated the abstract
qualities of his late colour compositions.
35. Museums and galleries in GB.
The oldest museum in the world is situated in Oxford. The biggest museum in the world is the
British Museum in London. The British Museum is the world's oldest national public museum.
Founded in 1753, it opened its doors in 1759, 17 years before the Declaration of
Independence.The most famous British museums are situated in London, they contain some of the
biggest collections of objects of artistic, archaeological, scientific, historical and general
interest:the British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum, the National
Gallery, the Tate Gallery, the National Portrait Gallery, the Geological Museum, the Natural History
Museum. Madame Tussauds is a wax museum founded in 1835 by French wax sculptor Marie
Tussaud in London, spawning similar museums in major cities around the world. it is a major
tourist attraction in many cities, displaying the waxworks of famous and historical figures, as well
as popular film and television characters. The Oxford University Museum of Natural History,
sometimes known simply as the Oxford University Museum is a museum displaying many of the
University of Oxford's natural history specimens, located on Parks Road in Oxford, England.
 National Portrait Gallery is the biggest art museum in London that houses the national collection
of portraits of British men and women. It is located nearby to the National Gallery. The collection
comprises some 215,000 portraits in a variety of media: paintings, drawings, medallions,
sculptures, photographs, motion pictures, and video recordings. The portraits are collected
primarily for historical reasons and mainly consist of Britons who have made notable contributions
to the nation’s history since Tudor times. For ex: Sir Isaak Newton, Jane Austin, Elizabeth I. Dulwich
Picture Gallery is an art gallery in Dulwich, South London, which opened in 1817. It was designed
by Regency architect Sir John Soane using an innovative and influential method of illumination.
Dulwich is the oldest public art gallery in England and was made an independent charitable trust in
1994. Until this time the gallery was part of the College of God's Gift, a charitable foundation
established by the actor, entrepreneur, and philanthropist Edward Alleyn in the early 17th
century.
36. The British state system
Britain is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy. Parliamentary democracy
means that U.K. nationals have the power to elect their legislative representatives, whose work is
to present the citizen's interests to the government. A constitutional monarchy is whereby the
king or the queen serves as the head of state but has limited authority. This is in contrast to
absolute monarchy, whereby the king or the queen has all the powers. The U.K.'s story began
when the Anglo-Saxon monarch Athelstan conquered the Celtic tribes and adjacent kingdoms in
the early 10th century, establishing his dominion over seven kingdoms. This is when following the
Acts of Union laws of 1542, Wales and England were formally unified. Scotland was formally
united with England and Wales in 1707 after being controlled by London since 1603. Ireland was
officially united with the rest of the U.K. by the Act of Union of 1800, but in 1922 it separated to
establish the Republic of Ireland. Six Ulster counties, which make up a portion of Ireland,
continued to be a part of the U.K. as Northern Ireland. Parliament is divided into two "houses":
house of lords and house of commons. There are rules, regulations, principles and procedures for
the running of the country - but there is no formal document that could be called the Constitution
of the UK. However, there are three distinctive features that have influenced Britain's social and
political institutions and that may be called the basis of the political system: statue law, common
law and conventions. The cabinet started in the eighteenth century as an informal grouping of
important ministers and officials of the royal household. The Government was run by the Privy
Council, a body of hundred and more people - including those belonging to "the cabinet" - directly
responsible to the monarch. In the twentieth century, the cabinet has itself become more and
more "official" and publicly recognised and much of the real decision-making takes place in the
cabinet. The cabinet meets once a week and takes decisions about new policies, the
implementation of existing policies and the running of the various government departments. The
members of the Cabinet are chosen by the Prime Minister and may or may not have a government
department under them.
37. The monarchy.
Monarchy is the oldest form of government in the United Kingdom.
In a monarchy, a king or queen is Head of State. The British Monarchy is known as a constitutional
monarchy. This means that, while The Sovereign is Head of State, the ability to make and pass
legislation resides with an elected Parliament.
 Although The Sovereign no longer has a political or executive role, he or she continues to play an
important part in the life of the nation.
The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. This means that it has a monarch (a King or a
Queen) as its Head of State. The monarch reigns with the agreement of Parliament. The powers of
the monarch are not defined precisely. Everything today is done in the Queen’s name. It is “Her
Majesty’s” government, “Her Majesty’s” armed forces, “Her Majesty’s” law courts and so on. She
officially appoints all the Ministers, including the Prime Minister. Everything is done, however, on
the advice of the elected Government, and the Monarch takes no part in the decision-making
process. The Commonwealth is a free association of 50 sovereign independent states that were
once a part of the British Empire. The British Monarchy is one of the world’s monarchies, with an
almost unbroken line of Kings and Queens stretching back to at least the 9thcentury. Since the
9thcentury there has been only one short interruption in the history of the Monarchy. The concept
of the Monarchy of the United Kingdom is embodied by a person known as its Sovereign who acts
as head of state on ceremonial occasions and in its formal relations with other countries. The
political power formerly exercised by Sovereigns is now exercised by the Parliament of the United
Kingdom, with the exception of a set of residual powers that are mainly exercised by the Prime
Minister. The Sovereign retains the constitutional right to be informed and consulted by the Prime
Minister, and the constitutional power to act to resolve a grave and otherwise intractable
constitutional crisis, but does not exercise any other political function. Sovereigns have been
titular heads of the Church of England since the time of Henry VIII, and member countries of the
Commonwealth of Nations have recognised each British Sovereign as its titular head since the time
of George V, the present Sovereign's great-grandfather.
King Charles III has been the Sovereign of the United Kingdom since 2022.
38. The government in GB.
Britain is a constitutional monarchy. That means it is a country governed by a king or a queen who
accepts the advice of a parliament. It is also a parliamentary democracy. That is, it is a country
whose government is controlled by a parliament which has been elected by the people.
The highest positions in the government are filled by the members of the directly elected
parliament. In Britain, as in many European countries, the official head of state, whether a
monarch (as in Belgium, the Netherlands or Denmark) or a president (as in Germany, Greece or
Italy) has little power.
The word government usually has two meanings. It can be used to refer to all the politicians who
are normally known as Ministers. There are about a 100 members of the government in this sense.
The other meaning of the word is more limited. It refers only to the most powerful politicians,
namely the Prime Minister and the other members of the Cabinet. There are usually 20 members
in the Cabinet. The position of a British Prime Minister is in direct contrast to that of the monarch.
The PM appears not to have much power but in reality has a great deal indeed. The queen is said
to appoint people to government on the advice of the PM. But what actually happens is that the
PM simply decides and makes an appointment. The strength of the PM’s power is seen from the
modern phenomenon known as "cabinet reshuffle”. The PM chooses about 20 MPs from his or her
party to become the Cabinet of Ministers and quite easily changes the members of the Cabinet
regardless of anyone’s opinion. The most important ministers are called Secretaries of State and
they form the Cabinet. The Secretaries of State are in charge of a Government Department (a
ministry). Each minister is responsible for his department, and makes sure that his department
applies the policy of the government. The most important Secretaries of State are:
1. The Chancellor of the Exchequer (finance)
2. The Foreign Secretary (international affairs)
3. The Home Secretary (internal affairs)
4. The Lord Chancellor (the legal system)
 5. The Secretary of State for Education
6. The Secretary of State for Transport and the Environment.
39. Parliament in GB.
The British Parliament is divided into two "houses", and its members belong to one or other of
them, although only members of the Commons are normally known as MPs (Member of
Parliament).
Parliament, often referred to as Westminster, is the supreme law-making authority that can
legislate for the United Kingdom as a whole or for any parts of it separately. The main functions of
Parliament are to pass laws, to vote taxation and to scrutinize government policy.
British Parliament consists of two Houses: the unelected upper house, the House of Lords, and the
elected lower house, the House of Commons. The House of Commons is the centre of
parliamentary power. It is directly responsible to the electorate, and from the 20th century the
House of Lords has recognised the supremacy of the elected chamber. Although the House of
Commons is traditionally regarded as the lower house, it is the main parliamentary arena for
political battle. A Government can only remain in office for as long as it has the support of a
majority in the House of Commons. Like the House of Lords, the House of Commons debates new
primary legislation as part of the process of making an Act of Parliament, but the Commons has
primacy over the non-elected House of Lords. ‘Money bills’, concerned solely with taxation and
public expenditure, are always introduced in the Commons and must be passed by the Lords
promptly and without amendment. When the two houses disagree on a non-money bill, the
Parliament Act can be invoked to ensure that the will of the elected chamber prevails. So far two
Parliament Acts have been used: the first in 1911 and the second in 1949. Parliament Acts allow
for a bill to become law without the agreement of the Lords when certain conditions have been
met: the bill has been introduced and passed in the Commons in two consecutive sessions and the
Lords have on both occasions actively prevented its passing.
Parliamentary procedure is based on custom and precedent. The system of debate in the two
Houses is similar. Each Parliament is divided into annual sessions with breaks for public holidays
and a long summer ‘recess’.
40. Political parties of the USA and their functions.
Today, the Republican and Democratic parties — both of them heirs to predecessor parties from
the 18th and 19th centuries — dominate the political process. With rare exceptions, the two major
parties control the presidency, the Congress, the d the state legislatures. For instance, every
president since 1852 has been either a Republican or a Democrat, and in the post-World War II
era, the two major parties’ share of the popular vote for president has averaged close to 95
percent. Rarely do any of the 50 states elect a governor who is not a Democrat or a Republican.
The number of independent or third-party members of Congress or of state legislatures is
extremely low.
41. Geography of the USA. The nicknames of the states: official and non-official
The USA is the 4 th largest country in the world (after Russia, Canada and China). It is situated in
central North America and stretches from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean. It borders on Canada
in the north and Mexico in the south and has a sea-border with Russia. It also includes Alaska and
Hawaii. The total area of the country is 9.4 million square kilometers. The enormous size of the
country influences the diversity of landscape, climate and even people. The USA is a federal
republic, a union of 50 states. The capital of the country Washington is situated in a special federal
area called the District of Columbia..
The longest rivers are the Mississippi (6,400 kilometers), «the father of waters», the Missouri
(1,600 kilometers) «too thin to plough and too thick to drink», the Colorado wild, restless and
 angry, the Columbia full of quiet dignity and the Rio Grande (3,200 kilometers), a national
boundary between the USA and Mexican sizes.
The Colorado forms the Grand Canyon, which strikes one's imagination as a fabulous phenomenon
of nature. Its perpendicular walls go up to 1,500 meters above the river level. The USA has
thousands of lakes of all kinds
The West is a mountainous area of the Rocky Mountains, the Cordillera and the Sierra Nevada.
The highest peak is Mount McKinley in Alaska (6,000 meters). As compared with the Appalachians
in the east, the Rocky Mountains are sharp and rugged, over 4,000 meters high, rich in gold,
copper, lead, silver and other minerals.The nicknames of the states: official and non-official
the official or most common state nickname is listed first.
Arizona: Grand Canyon State, Copper State
Arkansas: The Natural State, Land of Opportunity, The Razorback State
California: Golden State
Colorado: Centennial State, Colorful Colorado
Connecticut: Constitution State, Nutmeg State
Delaware: First State, Diamond State, Blue Hen State, Small Wonder
Florida: Sunshine State
Georgia: Peach State, Empire of the South, Goober State
Hawaii: Aloha State, Pineapple State
Kansas: Sunflower State, Salt of the Earth
Louisiana: Pelican State, Sugar State
Massachusetts: Bay State, Old Colony State
Michigan: Great Lakes State, Wolverine State
Montana: Treasure State, Big Sky State
Nebraska: Cornhusker State
New Jersey: Garden State
New Mexico: Land of Enchantment
New York: Empire State
Texas: Lone Star State
Vermont: Green Mountain State
Washington: Evergreen State, Chinook State
West Virginia: Mountain State
42. The climate. Land. Population of the USA
America, is a country in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major
unincorporated territories, nine Minor Outlying Islands,[j] and 326 Indian reservations. It is the
world's third-largest country by both land and total area.[d] The United States shares land borders
with Canada to its north and with Mexico to its south. It has maritime borders with the Bahamas,
Cuba, Russia, and other nations.[k] With a population of over 331 million,[e] it is the most
populous country in the Americas and the third most populous in the world.
The USA is the fourth largest nation in the world. The United States of America is washed by the
Atlantic ocean, the Pacific ocean, the Arctic ocean and the gulf of Mexico. The total area of the
USA is 9.372.6140sq.km.
 America is a land of physical contrasts, including the weather. The southern parts of Florida, Texas,
California, and the entire state of Hawaii, have warm temperatures year around; most of the
United States is in the temperate zone, with four distinct seasons and varying numbers
of hot and cold day each season, while the northern tier of states and Alaska have extremely сold
winters.
Population of The USA
 is a federal republic, a union of 50 states
 the capital of the country Washington is situated in a special federal area called the District of
Columbia
 the population of the country is about 260 million people -так написано в pptx/but nowadays
aproximately 340-350 billion people.
 the nation occupies nearly half of a continent
 is divided into 4 time zones and has almost every type of climate (snow-topped mountains and flat
prairies, fertile valleys and deserts, the areas of tropical heat and arctic cold)
 The United States contains a highly diverse population.
 A wide range of racial, ethnic, and cultural types.
 About tens of millions of immigrants have come to America hoping for greater social, political, and
economic opportunities than they had in the places they left
43. The structure of the government of the USA
The Constitution of the United States was drafted and ratified, and it came into force on March 4,
1789. What 3 powers do governments have?
 Legislative—Makes laws (Congress, comprised of the House of Representatives and Senate)
 Executive—Carries out laws (president, vice president, Cabinet, most federal agencies)
 Judicial—Evaluates laws (Supreme Court and other courts).
Democracy in ancient Greece served as one of the first forms of self-rule government in the
ancient world. The system and ideas employed by the ancient Greeks had profound influences on
how democracy developed, and its impact on the formation of the U.S. government.
Rome inspired many features of our own Constitution:
 checks and balances (The legislative branch makes laws, but the President in the executive branch
can veto those laws with a Presidential Veto),
 bicameral legislature,
 term limits and
 age requirements.
In some cases, the Founders copied terms straight out of the Roman constitution: words like
senate, capitol and committee. The vice president is the second-highest official in rank of the
federal government. The vice president's duties and powers are established in the legislative
branch of the federal government. The president of the Senate
 Each state has a constitution
 The head of each state is the governor
 But no state may pass a law contrary to the Constitution or to the United States' laws and treaties.
 Each state creates units of local government.
 Large cities have an elected mayor as head of the elected council to help him.
 The mayor and council have broad power.
 The mayor-council system is the most popular kind of local government.
 The elected council keeps the legislative power.
 The U.S. Constitution was signed 233 years ago today. ...
 The original document was four pages long. ...
 The Constitution includes seven articles. ...
 There are 27 Amendments to the Constitution. ...
 The most recent one was originally proposed in 1789 and not ratified until 1992.
44. The war of Independence in USA
American Revolution, also called United States War of Independence or American Revolutionary
War, (1775–83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain’s North American colonies won political
independence and went on to form the United States of America. The war followed more than a
decade of growing estrangement between the British crown and a large and influential segment of
its North American colonies that was caused by British attempts to assert greater control over
colonial affairs after having long adhered to a policy of salutary neglect. Until early in 1778 the
conflict was a civil war within the British Empire, but afterward it became an international war as
France (in 1778) and Spain (in 1779) joined the colonies against Britain. Meanwhile, the
Netherlands, which provided both official recognition of the United States and financial support
for it, was engaged in its own war against Britain. From the beginning, sea power was vital in
determining the course of the war, lending to British strategy a flexibility that helped compensate
for the comparatively small numbers of troops sent to America and ultimately enabling the French
to help bring about the final British surrender at Yorktown. Aftermath:
Preliminary articles of peace were signed on November 30, 1782, and the Peace of Paris
(September 3, 1783) ended the U.S. War of Independence. Great Britain recognized the
independence of the United States (with western boundaries to the Mississippi River) and ceded
Florida to Spain. Other provisions called for payment of U.S. private debts to British citizens,
American use of the Newfoundland fisheries, and fair treatment for American colonials loyal to
Britain.
45. The civil war in USA: reasons and results
The Civil War in the United States began in 1861, after decades of simmering tensions between
northern and southern states over slavery, states’ rights and westward expansion. The election of
Abraham Lincoln in 1860 caused seven southern states to secede and form the Confederate States
of America; four more states soon joined them. Causes of American Civil War:
 1850s: Tensions between North and South intensify as "free" states outnumber "slave" states in
US Senate
 "November 1860: Republican Abraham Lincoln elected President
 "Lincoln opposed both slavery and states' rights
 Southern states fear that Lincoln's government will abolish slavery
Result: The Civil War confirmed the single political entity of the United States, led to freedom for
more than four million enslaved Americans, established a more powerful and centralized federal
government, and laid the foundation for America's emergence as a world power in the 20th
century.
46. The US state system
 All State governments are modeled after the Federal Government and consist of three branches:
executive, legislative, and judicial. The U.S. Constitution mandates that all States uphold a
“republican form” of government, although the three-branch structure is not required.
The United States is a constitutional federal republic, in which the president (the head of state and
head of government), Congress, and judiciary share powers reserved to the national government,
and the federal government shares sovereignty with the state governments. Executive Branch: In
every state, the Executive Branch is headed by a governor who is directly elected by the people. In
most states, other leaders in the executive branch are also directly elected, including the
lieutenant governor, the attorney general, the secretary of state, and auditors and commissioners.
States reserve the right to organize in any way, so they often vary greatly with regard to executive
structure.
Legislative Branch: All 50 States have legislatures made up of elected representatives, who
consider matters brought forth by the governor or introduced by its members to create legislation
that becomes law. The legislature also approves a State’s budget and initiates tax legislation and
articles of impeachment. The latter is part of a system of checks and balances among the three
branches of government that mirrors the Federal system and prevents any branch from abusing its
power. Except for one State, Nebraska, all States have a bicameral legislature made up of two
chambers: a smaller upper house and a larger lower house. Together the two chambers make
State laws and fulfill other governing responsibilities. (Nebraska is the lone state that has just one
chamber in its legislature.) The smaller upper chamber is always called the Senate, and its
members generally serve longer terms, usually four years. The larger lower chamber is most often
called the House of Representatives, but some states call it the Assembly or the House of
Delegates. Its members usually serve shorter terms, often two years.
Judicial Branch: State judicial branches are usually led by the State supreme court, which hears
appeals from lower-level State courts. Court structures and judicial appointments/elections are
determined either by legislation or the State constitution. The supreme court focuses on
correcting errors made in lower courts and therefore holds no trials. Rulings made in State
supreme courts are normally binding; however, when questions are raised regarding consistency
with the U.S. Constitution, matters may be appealed directly to the United States Supreme Court.
47. The role of the local government in the USA
Local Government: Local governments generally include two tiers: counties, also known as
boroughs in Alaska and parishes in Louisiana, and municipalities, or cities/towns. In some States,
counties are divided into townships. Municipalities can be structured in many ways, as defined by
State constitutions, and are called, variously, townships, villages, boroughs, cities, or towns.
Various kinds of districts also provide functions in local government outside county or municipal
boundaries, such as school districts or fire protection districts.
48. The American holidays and customs
The history of the Americans is history of immigration. Immigrants brought their customs and
traditions. That’s why the USA is a mixture of different cultures. International holidays are
holidays celebrated in different parts of the world – New Year, Christmas, St. Patrick's Day ,
Easter, Helloween and so on. St. Patrick's Day is celebrated on the 17th of March. St. Patrick is a
patron of Ireland, who converted the Irish to Christianity. There are a lot of Irish people in the
USA, that’s why St. Patrick is very popular here. Celebrations include prominent displays of the
 color green, feasting, and numerous parades. The holiday has been celebrated on the North
American continent since the late 18th century. Halloween is a festival that takes place on
October 31. In the United States children wear costumes and masks and go trick-or-treating. Many
of them carve jack-o'-lantens out of pumpkins. Fortunetelling and storytelling about ghosts and
witches are popular activities. Halloween developed from new year festivals and festivals of the
dead. Christian church established a festival on November 1 called All Saints' Day so that people
could continue to celebrate their festivals. Talking about national holidays in the USA I must say
that many states have holidays of their own, but there are also major holidays observed in nearly
all the USA. Let’s talk about some of them. On January 15th, people in the United States
celebrate the birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr. He was a great civil rights leader who
fought against racial discrimination. He said that people should be judged by their
characters, and not the color of their skin. He believed in integration. He received national
attention when he protested the injustice of segregated buses in Alabama. Martin Luther
King is remembered in church memorial services, marches, and public ceremonies. People
also listen to his speeches, watch TV documentaries. In schools, students read about this
leader, study his writings and celebrate his memory with special programs. Politicians and
performers also participate in celebrations to honor Martin Luther King. The last Monday in
May is Memorial Day. This is a national holiday to remember the dead. The first Memorial
Day was many years ago after the Civil War (1861 –1865). After the war, people wanted to
remember the dead. So around 1866, people began to decorate the graves of Civil War
soldiers. People called this day Decoration Day or Poppy Day (Poppies are small red
flowers). On the Memorial Day, Americans honor the servicemen who gave their lives in
past wars. Schools, clubs and churches decorate the cemeteries. They put up the flags on
the graves of the army, navy and airmen. They hold memorial services in churches, halls,
parks and cemeteries. July 4th is Independence Day. Another name for Independence Day is the
Fourth of July. On this day in 1776 the final of the Declaration of Independence, written
by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted. Government offices, banks, and schools close. Most people
don’t go to work. Families and friends get together outside for picnics. Traditionally the Fourth of
July is celebrate with firing of guns and fireworks, parades open – air meetings and
speeches praising “Americanism, democracy, free enterprise.” It is also a day to think about
freedom. The Declaration of Independence says everyone has the right to life, liberty, and
the pursuit of happiness. The Declaration of Independence more than 200 years old, but
its ideas are important today.
49. The American cultural values
The context of traditional American values are racial, ethnic, religious, and cultural diversity.
Today, the US is the most diverse country in the World! Racially, ethnically, culturally, religously
the US has always had some diversity:
 Native Americans
 Spanish settlers
 French missionaries
 Black slaves
 British colonists
 These American values include individualism, equality, diversity, unity, liberty, and self-
government (which can also be referred to as democracy). Liberty is the value that proclaims that
people should be free to think, speak, and act as they choose as long as they do not offend the
freedom and rights of others.
Equality is the value that holds that all people must be treated fairly and with dignity and be able
to embrace opportunities for education, economic success, political involvement, and a fulfilling
life.
Self-government is the value that declares that citizens have a say in how their government is run.
They are the primary source of the government's authority, they participate actively in the political
process, and the government exists to promote their well-being.
Individualism is the value that is committed to independence, self-sufficiency, private initiative,
and personal economic growth. Individuals must be in control of their own lives and be able to
make decisions without undue influence from the government or society.
50. The American variant of the English language
The variety of English spoken in the USA has received the name of American English. The term
variant or variety appears most appropriate for several reasons. American English cannot be called
a dialect although it is a regional variety, because it has a literary normalized form called Standard
American (or American National Standard). An Americanism may be defined as a word or a set
expression peculiar to the English language as spoken in the USA. E. g. cookie 'a biscuit'; frame-up
'a staged or preconcerted law case'; guess 'think'; mail 'post'; store 'shop'. In the American variant
there is an important distinction between Americanisms belonging to the literary norm and those
existing in low colloquial and slang. The difference between the American and British literary norm
is not systematic. The American variant of the English language differs from British English in
pronunciation, some minor features of grammar, but chiefly in vocabulary. Speaking about the
historic causes of these deviations it is necessary to mention that American English is based on the
language imported to the new continent at the time of the first settlements, that is on the English
of the 17th century. The first colonies were founded in 1607, so that the first colonizers were
contemporaries of W. Shakespeare, E. Spenser and J. Milton. Words, which have died out in
Britain, or changed their meaning may survive in the USA. Thus, guess, was used by G. Chaucer for
think. For more than three centuries the American vocabulary developed more or less
independently of the British stock and was influenced by the new surroundings. The early
Americans had to coin words for the unfamiliar fauna and flora. Hence bullfrog 'a large frog',
moose , opossum, raccoon for animals; and corn, hickory, etc. for plants
51. The system of education in the USA: elementary (primary), secondary and high schools
In the US, compulsory schooling is typically divided into three distinct levels, each with its own
curriculum and school. Students are taught a broad range of subjects and usually participate in
extracurricular activities. Though educational standards vary from district to district, learning
about the general organization of these schools will help you prepare for your move. The first five
or six years of compulsory schooling are called elementary school. Secondary education is for
students aged 12 to 18 and is often divided into three years of middle school and four years of
high school. The elementary school curriculum varies with the organization and educational aims
of individual schools and local communities. Promotion from one grade to the next is based on a
student’s achievement of specified skills, although a child is required to repeat a year in
 exceptional circumstances only Secondary school students must take certain ‘core’ curriculum
courses for a prescribed number of years or terms, as determined by each state. These generally
include English, maths, general science, health, physical education and social studies or social
sciences (which may include American history and government, geography, world history and
social problems).
52. Higher education in USA
The U.S. higher education system is unique for its diversity and independence, with oversight and
responsibility for the system largely residing with higher education institutions themselves. This
system embodies some of the best qualities of U.S. culture and society – flexibility, openness, and
an environment that encourages innovation.
Education USA can help you understand U.S. educational structure, how to guide students as they
access U.S. higher education, and how to prepare your campus for internationalization.
Higher education is usually obtained within 4 years of study at a college or university. All training
programs in public and private universities are accredited by the accreditation councils. There are
colleges and universities that have not passed accreditation, for example: The so-called diploma
mills , where diplomas are simply sold to everyone Some Bible colleges and other religious
organizations whose programs are not academic, but are used to train clergy in certain areas .
Institutes of marginal research areas Educational institutions that do not meet the standards of
higher education in topics, the number of hours or qualifications of teachers. Three types of US
universities:
 Colleges
 Private universities
 State universities, funded by specific state authorities
The average course is four years.
Students choose a "major" subject and take many courses in this subject.
After four years of study students get the degrees of Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of
Philosophy (Ph.B.), Bachelor of Letters (B.L.) or Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) (if they studied Greek or
Latin).
53. Culture and the American customs
American culture encompasses the customs and traditions of the United States. "Culture
encompasses religion, food, what we wear, how we wear it, our language, marriage, music, what
we believe is right or wrong, how we sit at the table, how we greet visitors, how we behave with
loved ones, and a million other things," said Cristina De Rossi(opens in new tab), an anthropologist
at Barnet and Southgate College in London(opens in new tab). The most multicultural nation in the
world, the American identity is influenced by almost every other culture. Asian, European, African
American, and South American cultures are evident in many of the country's cultural elements. A
country that's open to all religions, nearly every kind is practiced with complete acceptance and
tolerance. Because of the varied nationalities, there are many differences in lifestyles such as
having both conservative and liberal political views, and both family-oriented and individualistic
values.
54. Music, art and theater in the USA
MUSIC
Until the 20th century, "serious" music in America was shaped by European standards and idioms.
A notable exception was the music of composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk (1829-1869), son of a
British father and a Creole mother. Gottschalk enlivened his music with plantation melodies and
Caribbean rhythms that he had heard in his native New Orleans. He was the first American pianist
to achieve international recognition, but his early death contributed to his relative obscurity. More
representative of early American music were the compositions of Edward MacDowell (1860-1908),
who not only patterned his works after European models but stoutly resisted the label of
"American composer." He was unable to see beyond the same notion that hampered many early
American writers: To be wholly American, he thought, was to be provincial. A distinctively
American classical music came to fruition when such composers as George Gershwin (1898-1937)
and Aaron Copland (1900-1990) incorporated homegrown melodies and rhythms into forms
borrowed from Europe. Gershwin's "Rhapsody in Blue" and his opera Porgy and Bess were
influenced by jazz and African-American folk songs. Some of his music is also self-consciously
urban: The opening of his "An American in Paris," for example, mimics taxi horns. As Harold C.
Schonberg writes in The Lives of the Great Composers, Copland "helped break the stranglehold of
the German domination on American music." He studied in Paris, where he was encouraged to
depart from tradition and indulge his interest in jazz (for more on jazz, see chapter 11). Besides
writing symphonies, concertos, and an opera, he composed the scores for several films. He is best
known, however, for his ballet scores, which draw on American folk songs; among them are "Billy
the Kid," "Rodeo," and "Appalachian Spring." ART Visual art of the United States or American art is
visual art made in the United States or by U.S. artists. Before colonization there were many
flourishing traditions of Native American art, and where the Spanish colonized Spanish Colonial
architecture and the accompanying styles in other media were quickly in place. Early colonial art
on the East Coast initially relied on artists from Europe, with John White (1540-c. 1593) the earliest
example. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, artists primarily painted portraits, and some
landscapes in a style based mainly on English painting. Furniture-makers imitating English styles
and similar craftsmen were also established in the major cities, but in the English colonies, locally
made pottery remained resolutely utilitarian until the 19th century, with fancy products imported.
But in the later 18th century two U.S. artists, Benjamin West and John Singleton Copley, became
the most successful painters in London of history painting, then regarded as the highest form of
art, giving the first sign of an emerging force in Western art. American artists who remained at
home became increasingly skilled, although there was little awareness of them in Europe. In the
early 19th century the infrastructure to train artists began to be established, and from 1820 the
Hudson River School began to produce Romantic landscape painting that was original and
matched the huge scale of U.S. landscapes. The American Revolution produced a demand for
patriotic art, especially history painting, while other artists recorded the frontier country. A
parallel development taking shape in rural U.S. was the American craft movement, which began as
a reaction to the industrial revolution.
THEATRE
Theater in the United States is part of the old European theatrical tradition and has been heavily
influenced by the British theater. The central hub of the American theater scene is Manhattan,
with its divisions of Broadway, Off-Broadway, and Off-Off-Broadway. Many movie and television
stars have gotten their big break working in New York productions. Outside New York, many cities
have professional regional or resident theater companies that produce their own seasons, with
some works being produced regionally with hopes of eventually moving to New York. U.S. theater
also has an active community theater culture, which relies mainly on local volunteers who may not
be actively pursuing a theatrical career. Before the first English colony was established in 1607,
there were Spanish dramas and Native American tribes that performed theatrical events.
Representations continued to be held in Spanish-held territories in what later became the United
States. For example, at the Presidio of Los Adaes in the New Philippines (now in Louisiana), several
plays were presented on October 12, 1721. Although a theater was built in Williamsburg, Virginia
in 1716, and the original Dock Street Theatre opened in Charleston, South Carolina in 1736, the
birth of professional theater in the English colonies may have begun when Lewis Hallam arrived
with his theatrical company in Williamsburg in 1752.[4] Lewis and his brother William, who arrived
in 1754, were the first to organize a complete company of actors in Europe and bring them to the
colonies. They brought a repertoire of plays popular in London at the time, including Hamlet,
Othello, The Recruiting Officer, and Richard III. The Merchant of Venice was their first
performance, shown initially on September 15, 1752. Encountering opposition from religious
organizations, Hallam and his company left for Jamaica in 1754 or 1755. Soon after, Lewis Hallam,
Jr., founded the American Company, opened a theater in New York, and presented the first
professionally mounted American play—The Prince of Parthia, by Thomas Godfrey—in 1767. In
the 18th century, laws forbidding the performance of plays were passed in Massachusetts in 1750,
in Pennsylvania in 1759, and in Rhode Island in 1761, and plays were banned in most states during
the American Revolutionary War at the urging of the Continental Congress. In 1794, president of
Yale College, Timothy Dwight IV, in his "Essay on the Stage", declared that "to indulge a taste for
playgoing means nothing more or less than the loss of that most valuable treasure: the immortal
soul."