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Edexcel International AS Physics Your notes

Waves, Electrons & Photons

Contents
2.18 Diffraction
2.19 The Diffraction Grating Equation
2.20 Core Practical 6: Investigating Diffraction Gratings
2.21 The Wave Nature of Electrons
2.22 The de Broglie Equation
2.23 Transmission & Reflection of Waves
2.24 Pulse-Echo Technique
2.25 Wave-Particle Duality
2.26 Energy of a Photon

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2.18 Diffraction
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Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves when they pass an obstruction
Diffraction through a gap
This obstruction is typically a narrow gap (a slit, or aperture)

Diffraction is usually represented by a wavefront as shown by the vertical lines in the diagrams above
The only property of a wave that changes when its diffracted is its amplitude
This is because some energy is dissipated when a wave is diffracted through a gap
Diffraction around an obstacle
The diffraction pattern for a large slit can be thought of as a wave passing two completely separate
obstacles
This shows that when a wave meets an obstacle a diffraction pattern forms around the edges.
Behind the obstacle a ‘shadow’ forms where no part of the wave reaches
Factors that affect diffraction
The effects of diffraction are most prominent when the gap size or obstacle is approximately the same
or smaller than the wavelength of the wave
As the size of the gap or obstacle increases, the effect gradually gets less pronounced
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When the gap is much larger than the wavelength, the waves are no longer spread out

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The size of the gap (compared to the wavelength) affects how much the waves spread out
Explaining diffraction
Huygens developed a model for wave propagation which suggested that every point on a wavefront
can be considered to be a point source of secondary waves (which he called wavelets)
This leads to a diagram, called Huygens’ construction, which shows that new wavefronts are
tangential to the secondary wavelets
The tangents create the curve of the new wavefront emerging either through the gap or around the
obstacle

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When a wave meets an obstacle a diffraction pattern forms around the edges, with a ‘shadow’ created
behind the obstacle where no part of the wave reaches
Huygens' Construction for Diffraction Through a Gap

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Your notes

Those point sources which pass through the gap create new wavelets on the other side, leading to the
characteristic curved shape of the diffracted wave
Huygens' Construction for Diffraction Around an Obstacle

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Your notes

Those point sources which pass around the obstacle create new wavelets on the other side, leaving
empty space where the 'shadow' is seen

Worked example
When a wave is travelling through air, which scenario best demonstrates diffraction?
A. UV radiation through a gate post
B. Sound waves passing a steel rod
C. Radio waves passing between human hair
D. X-rays passing through atoms in a crystalline solid

Answer: D
Diffraction is most prominent when the wavelength is close to the aperture size
UV waves have a wavelength between 4 × 10-7 – 1 × 10-8 m so won’t be diffracted by a gate post
Sound waves have a wavelength of 1.72 × 10-2 – 17 m so would not be diffracted by the diffraction
grating
Radio waves have a wavelength of 0.1 – 106 m so would not be diffracted by human hair

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X-rays have a wavelength of 1 × 10-8 – 4 × 10-13 m which is roughly the gap between atoms in a crystalline
solid
Therefore, the correct answer is D Your notes

Examiner Tip
When drawing diffracted waves, take care to keep the wavelength constant. It is only the amplitude of
the wave that changes when diffracted.
Huygen's diagrams can be tricky to draw, so are definitely worth practicing.

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2.19 The Diffraction Grating Equation

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The Diffraction Grating Equation
A diffraction grating is a plate on which there is a very large number of parallel, identical, close-spaced
slits
When monochromatic light is incident on a grating, a pattern of narrow bright fringes is produced on a
screen

Diagram of diffraction grating used to obtain a fringe pattern

The angles at which the maxima of intensity (constructive interference) are produced can be deduced
by the diffraction grating equation

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Diffraction grating equation for the angle of bright fringes

Exam questions sometime state the lines per m (or per mm, per nm etc.) on the grating which is Your notes
represented by the symbol N
d can be calculated from N using the equation

Angular Separation
The angular separation of each maxima is calculated by rearranging the grating equation to make θ the
subject
The angle θ is taken from the centre meaning the higher orders are at greater angles

Angular separation

The angular separation between two angles is found by subtracting the smaller angle from the larger
one
The angular separation between the first and second maxima n1 and n2 is θ2 – θ1
Orders of Maxima
The maximum angle to see orders of maxima is when the beam is at right angles to the diffraction
grating
This means θ = 90o and sin θ = 1

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The highest order of maxima visible is therefore calculated by the equation:

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Note that since n must be an integer, if the value is a decimal it must be rounded down
E.g If n is calculated as 2.7 then n = 2 is the highest order visible

Worked example
An experiment was set up to investigate light passing through a diffraction grating with a slit spacing of
1.7 µm. The fringe pattern was observed on a screen. The wavelength of the light is 550 nm.

Calculate the angle α between the two second-order lines.

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Your notes

Examiner Tip
Take care that the angle θ is the correct angle taken from the centre and not the angle taken between
two orders of maxima.

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2.20 Core Practical 6: Investigating Diffraction Gratings

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Core Practical 6: Investigating Diffraction Gratings
Aim of the Experiment
To find the wavelength of light using a diffraction grating
Variables
Independent variable = Distance between maxima, h
Dependent variable = The angle between the normal and each order, θn (where n = 1, 2, 3 etc)
Control variables
Distance between the slits and the screen, D
Laser wavelength, λ
Slit separation, d
Equipment List

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Metre ruler = 1 mm

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Vernier Callipers = 0.01 mm

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Method

The setup of apparatus required to measure the distance between maxima h at different angles θ

1. Place the laser on a retort stand with the diffraction grating in front of it
2. Use a set square to ensure the beam passes through the grating at normal incidence and meets the
screen perpendicularly
3. Set the distance D between the grating and the screen to be 1.0 m using a metre ruler
4. Darken the room and turn on the laser
5. Identify the zero-order maximum (the central beam)
6. Measure the distance h to the nearest two first-order maxima (i.e. n = 1, n = 2) using a vernier calliper
7. Calculate the mean of these two values
8. Measure distance h for increasing orders
9. Repeat with a diffraction grating with a different number of slits per mm
An example table might look like this:

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Your notes

Analysing the Results

The diffraction grating equation is given by:
nλ = d sin θ
Where:
n = the order of the diffraction pattern
λ = the wavelength of the laser light (m)
d = the distance between the slits (m)
θ = the angle between the normal and the maxima (°)

The distance between the slits is equal to:

Where
N = the number of slits per metre (m–1)
Since the angle is not small, it must be calculated using trigonometry with the measurements for the
distance between maxima, h, and the distance between the slits and the screen, D

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Calculate a mean θ value for each order

Calculate a mean value for the wavelength of the laser light and compare the value with the accepted
wavelength Your notes
This is usually 635 nm for a standard school red laser

Evaluating the Experiments

Systematic errors:
Ensure the use of the set square to avoid parallax error in the measurement of the fringe width
Using a grating with more lines per mm will result in greater values of h. This lowers its percentage
uncertainty
Random errors:
The fringe spacing can be subjective depending on its intensity on the screen, therefore, take multiple
measurements of w and h (between 3-8) and find the average
Use a Vernier scale to record distances w and h to reduce percentage uncertainty
Reduce the uncertainty in w and h by measuring across all visible fringes and dividing by the number of
fringes
Increase the grating to screen distance D to increase the fringe separation (although this may
decrease the intensity of light reaching the screen)
Conduct the experiment in a darkened room, so the fringes are clear

Safety Considerations
Lasers should be Class 2 and have a maximum output of no more than 1 mW
Do not allow laser beams to shine into anyone’s eyes
Remove reflective surfaces from the room to ensure no laser light is reflected into anyone’s eyes

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Worked example
Your notes
A student investigates the interference patterns produced by two different diffraction gratings. One
grating used was marked 100 slits / mm, and the other was marked 300 slits / mm. The distance
between the grating and the screen is measured to be 3.75 m.
The student recorded the distance between adjacent maxima after passing a monochromatic laser
source through each grating. These results are shown in the tables below.

Calculate the mean wavelength of the laser light and compare it with the accepted value of 635 nm.
Assess the percentage uncertainty in this result.

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Your notes

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Your notes

Examiner Tip
Remember to read the question carefully and make sure dimensions such as the fringe separation are
put into meters.

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2.21 The Wave Nature of Electrons

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The Wave Nature of Electrons
Electron diffraction was the first clear evidence that matter can behave like light and has wave
properties
This is demonstrated using the electron diffraction tube
The electrons are accelerated in an electron gun to a high potential, such as 5000 V, and are then
directed through a thin film of graphite
The lattice structure of the graphite acts like the slits in a diffraction grating
The electrons diffract from the gaps between carbon atoms and produce a circular pattern on a
fluorescent screen made from phosphor

Electrons accelerated through a high potential difference demonstrate wave-particle duality

In order to observe the diffraction of electrons, they must be focused through a gap similar to their
size, such as an atomic lattice
Graphite film is ideal for this purpose because of its crystalline structure
The gaps between neighbouring planes of the atoms in the crystals act as slits, allowing the
electron waves to spread out and create a diffraction pattern
The diffraction pattern is observed on the screen as a series of concentric rings
This phenomenon is similar to the diffraction pattern produced when light passes through a
diffraction grating

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If the electrons acted as particles, a pattern would not be observed, instead, the particles would
be distributed uniformly across the screen
It is observed that a larger accelerating voltage reduces the diameter of a given ring, while a lower Your notes
accelerating voltage increases the diameter of the rings

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2.22 The de Broglie Equation

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The de Broglie Equation
Using ideas based upon the quantum theory and Einstein’s theory of relativity, de Broglie theorised
that not only do EM waves sometimes behave as particles, but that very small, fast moving particles like
electrons could also behave as waves
He called these matter waves
The Broglie equation relates the wavelength of some particles to their mass and velocity, which
combine to give their momentum
Hence:
h h
λ= =
mv p
λ = the de Broglie wavelength (m)
h = Planck's Constant (J s)
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m s-1)
p = momentum (kg m s-1)

Worked example
Determine the de Broglie wavelength of a person of mass 70 kg moving at 2 ms-1 and comment on
your answer.

Step 1: Write the known values

Mass, m = 70 kg
Velocity, v = 2 m s−1
Planck's constant, h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js
Step 2: Write the equation and substitute the values

h (6 . 63 × 10−34 )
λ= = = 4 . 74 × 10−36
mv 70 × 2
Step 4: Write the answer to the correct number of significant figures and include units
de Broglie wavelength of a moving person, λ = 4.7 × 10−36 m
Step 5: think about the magnitude of the result and comment on it
The person does have a de Broglie wavelength but since it is about 1020 times smaller than a
nucleus, it can be ignored
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People behave like particles, not waves

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Examiner Tip
If you've not been given the mass of a particle in a question, make sure to look at your data sheet which
includes the rest mass of various particles

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2.23 Transmission & Reflection of Waves

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Transmission & Reflection of Waves
When waves are incident on the interface between two different media, they are either transmitted or
reflected
'Incident on' simply means 'to meet'
The interface is also called the boundary between media
Transmitted means to pass through

When the media have similar densities the energy of the wave is mostly transmitted
When the media have different densities most of the energy is reflected
Reflected waves in use
Uses of reflected waves include:
Medical x-rays
Sonar
Ultrasound scans
Transmitted waves in use

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In the above examples the waves have to be transmitted through one medium first, before they are
reflected
X-rays are transmitted through soft tissue Your notes
Sonar is transmitted through air or water
Ultrasound is transmitted through a gel of similar density to the skin so that it reaches the tissues
inside the body

Reflection
Reflection occurs when:
A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through, but instead stays
in the original medium
The law of reflection states:
The angle of incidence = The angle of reflection

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Your notes

Reflection of a wave at a boundary

Some of the wave may also be absorbed or transmitted
Echos are examples of sound waves being reflected off a surface
Flat surfaces are the most reflective
The smoother the surface, the stronger the reflected wave is
Rough surfaces are the least reflective
This is because the light scatters in all directions
Opaque surfaces will reflect light which is not absorbed by the material
The electrons will absorb the light energy, then reemit it as a reflected wave

Transmission
Transmission occurs when:
A wave passes through a substance
For light waves, the more transparent the material, the more light will pass through
Transmission can involve refraction but it is not exactly the same
For the process to count as transmission, the wave must pass through the material and emerge
from the other side
When passing through a material, waves are usually partially absorbed
The transmitted wave may have a lower amplitude because of some absorption
For example, sound waves are quieter after they pass through a wall

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Your notes

When a wave passes through a boundary it may be absorbed and transmitted

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2.24 Pulse-Echo Technique

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Pulse-Echo Technique
Foetal Scanning
In medicine, ultrasound can be used to construct images of a foetus in the womb
An ultrasound detector is made up of a transducer that produces and detects a beam of
ultrasound waves into the body
The ultrasound waves are reflected back to the transducer by different boundaries between
tissues in the path of the beam
For example, the boundary between fluid and soft tissue or tissue and bone
Using the speed of sound and the time of each echo’s return, the detector calculates the distance
from the transducer to the tissue boundary
Gel is put onto the scanner so that the boundary between the instrument and the skin is of the same
density as the skin, this allows the signal to be easily transmitted
By taking a series of ultrasound measurements, sweeping across an area, the time measurements may
be used to build up an image
Unlike many other medical imaging techniques, ultrasound is non-invasive and harmless

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Ultrasound can be used to construct an image of a foetus in the womb

Sonar
Sonar uses ultrasound to detect objects underwater
The sound wave is reflected off the object being tracked
Examples include;
Finding fish by fishing fleets
Military uses looking for underwater vessels
Mapping the ocean bottom

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Your notes

The time it takes for the sound wave to return is used to calculate the depth of the water
The distance the wave travels is twice the depth of the ocean
This is the distance to the ocean floor plus the distance for the wave to return
Pulse Duration and Wavelength
The amount of detail which can be captured (the resolution) of pulse-echo techniques depends on the
wavelength
Shorter wavelengths have smaller (better) resolution
More detail can be seen since they diffract (spread out) less
More energy is needed as short wavelength waves have higher frequency
Wavelength is chosen to be similar in size to the object that is being resolved
This makes best use of diffraction effects
Pulse duration is a consideration because ultrasound transducers cannot transmit and receive pulses
at the same time.
If incoming and outgoing pulses overlap the information is lost and image quality suffers
This affects the range since a longer wait time for pulses to return reduces the amount of
information which can be collected

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Your notes

Ultrasound pulses are very short, only a few microseconds, to reduce reflections from nearby
interfaces
The gap between pulses is relatively long, measured in milliseconds, to prevent overlapping signals
This combination of short pulses with relatively large spaces between them produces the clearest
images

Worked example
A sonar system uses ultrasound with frequency of 3.2 kHz to map the ocean floor. The speed of sound
in water is 1 500 m s−1.
An echo is detected 3.6 s after the pulse is transmitted.
a) Determine the depth of the sea at this point.
b) Suggest a resolution for this ultrasound survey of the seafloor

Part (a)
Step 1: Write the known values from the question
Frequency, f = 3.2 kHz = 3 200 Hz
Speed of sound, v = 1 500 m s−1
Time, t = 3.6 s
Step 2: Write the correct equation and substitute the values
Distance;
d = vt = 1 500 × 3.6 = 5 400 m
Step 3: Account for the received signal being an echo
Total distance travelled by the signal = 5 400 m
Depth of the sea floor = 1/2 × 5 400 = 2 700 m

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Part (b)
Step 1: Write the wave equation and rearrange to make wavelength the subject Your notes
v = fλ
v
→λ =
f
Step 2: Calculate to find wavelength

1500
λ= = 0 . 47
3200
Step 3: Write the final answer to correct significant figures and give units
The resolution of the signal is similar to the wavelength, and λ = 0.47 m

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2.25 Wave-Particle Duality

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Wave-Particle Duality
Light can behave as a particle (i.e. photons) and a wave
This phenomenon is called the wave-particle nature of light or wave-particle duality
Light interacts with matter, such as electrons, as a particle
The evidence for this is provided by the photoelectric effect
Light propagates through space as a wave
The evidence for this comes from the diffraction and interference of light in Young’s Double Slit
experiment

Light as a Particle
Einstein proposed that light can be described as a quanta of energy that behave as particles, called
photons
The photon model of light explains that:
Electromagnetic waves carry energy in discrete packets called photons
The energy of the photons are quantised according to the equation E = hf
In the photoelectric effect, each electron can absorb only a single photon - this means only the
frequencies of light above the threshold frequency will emit a photoelectron

The wave theory of light does not support the idea of a threshold frequency
The wave theory suggests any frequency of light can give rise to photoelectric emission if the
exposure time is long enough
This is because the wave theory suggests the energy absorbed by each electron will increase
gradually with each wave
Furthermore, the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons should increase with radiation intensity
However, in the photoelectric effect, this is not what is observed
If the frequency of the incident light is above the threshold and the intensity of the light is increased,
more photoelectrons are emitted per second
Although the wave theory provides good explanations for phenomena such as interference and
diffraction, it fails to explain the photoelectric effect

Compare wave theory and particulate nature of light

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Your notes

Development of the Theory of Wave-Particle Duality

Ideas about the nature of light were contested by modern science for around 300 years
The evidence to prove both theories was available
Some prominent scientists argued light was a wave
Others contested that light was a particle
It was not until the early 20th century that scientists settled on a theory of duality

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Your notes

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Your notes

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2.26 Energy of a Photon

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Energy of a Photon
Photons are fundamental particles which make up all forms of electromagnetic radiation
A photon is a massless “packet” or a “quantum” of electromagnetic energy
What this means is that the energy is not transferred continuously, but as discrete packets of energy
In other words, each photon carries a specific amount of energy, and transfers this energy all in one go,
rather than supplying a consistent amount of energy

Calculating Photon Energy

The energy of a photon can be calculated using the formula:

Using the wave equation, energy can also be equal to:

Where:
E = energy of the photon (J)
h = Planck's constant (J s)
c = the speed of light (m s-1)

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f = frequency (Hz)
λ = wavelength (m)
This equation tells us: Your notes
The higher the frequency of EM radiation, the higher the energy of the photon
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength
A long-wavelength photon of light has a lower energy than a shorter-wavelength photon

Worked example
Light of wavelength 490 nm is incident normally on a surface, as shown in the diagram.

The power of the light is 3.6 mW. The light is completely absorbed by the surface.Calculate the number
of photons incident on the surface in 2.0 s.

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Your notes

Examiner Tip
Make sure you learn the definition for a photon: discrete quantity / packet / quantum of
electromagnetic energy are all acceptable definitions.
The values of Planck’s constant and the speed of light will always be available on the datasheet,
however, it helps to memorise them to speed up calculation questions!

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