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Case in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study

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Case in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study

By
Zainab Kadim Igaab and

Manahil Salman Owaid Al-Manhalawey

Abstract
The present study is a descriptive contrastive one because it describes case
in English and Arabic to arrive at the similarities and differences between
them. It investigates case as a property of nouns and pronouns in English
and Arabic.
The study aims at comparing and contrasting case in English and Arabic
by defining it, showing its history and system, mentioning and illustrating its
types, and showing to what extent the two languages are similar or different
from each other in terms of case. The study describes case in English
depending on an eclectic model in both languages.
The study concludes that case has a considerable status in defining and
classifying nouns and pronouns in both languages, position is a crucial factor
in determining the types of case in English, there are similarities but the area
of differences occupies a wider space than the area of similarities, and that
the vocative is a type of syntactic non-clausal unit in English but it is a
morphological-syntactic and clausal one in Arabic.

1. Introduction
The study aims at comparing and contrasting case in English and Arabic by
defining it, showing its system, mentioning and illustrating its types and
showing to what extent the two languages are similar or different from each
other in terms of case.
To achieve the aims of the study, it is hypothesized that the nominative
case is used more than the other types of cases in both languages, English
and Arabic are inflected languages in terms of case of pronouns, the types of
case in both languages are governed by some elements like verb, noun, etc.
and that there are similarities and differences between case in English and
Arabic and the area of differences is wider than that of similarities .
 1

The procedure of investigation in carrying out the study involves

studying case in English, then in Arabic then a comparison is made between
both languages in so far as case is concerned. This is the same procedure
adopted in Betti (2020c: 1), Betti and Hashim (2018: 277), Betti and Igaab
(2018: 30; Betti and Ulaiwi (2018: 84) and Betti and Al-Fartoosy (2019:
93). The study is restricted to studying case as a grammatical feature of
nouns and pronouns not other features as gender and number in English and
Arabic. The study adopts an eclectic model in English taken from Onions
(1971)and Quirk et al (1985) for case in English and another one for Arabic
taken from Hassaan (2006) and9 abdul-Hamid (2009) for describing case in
Arabic .

2. Case in English
Case is a common feature and a grammatical or an inflectional category of
nouns and pronouns. The feature is determined by the function of the
sentence. It is used to analyze the word classes or their associated phrases to
express their roles in relation to other sentence components as verbs,
prepositions and nouns, for instance, I is the pronoun in the nominative case
of the first person singular pronoun and functions as a subject (i.e., it comes
before a verb); me is the pronoun in the accusative case and functions as an
object (i.e., it comes after a verb).
Case is a mark or a suffix in a word (noun or pronoun) that refers to its
grammatical relation or function. This definition is corresponding to genitive
case. Lyons (1979: 289) mentions that case is a very important element or
characteristic in the definition and classification of nouns. It was most
peculiarly grammatical of all the traditional categories of inflexion. It has no
equivalent to other sciences of logic, epistemology and metaphysics.

2.2. Types of Cases of Nouns

English has two cases of nouns. The first is the common and the second is
genitive.
2.2.1 The Common Case
The common case has five types which are:
1. Nominative Case
The nominative case is used to name a thing or a person or because all other
cases arise from it (Dinneen, 1967: 116). According to the case theory of
Chomsky (1981), "NPs are given case if and only if they appear in specific
positions in the sentence. In particular, nominative case is assigned in the
specifier of finite T ….." (Carnie, 2001: 232; and Carnie, 2002: 234). One of
the morpho-syntactic properties of the subject is that it is being in the
 2

nominative case (Miller, 2002: 93). The nominative case is the case of
subject or deputy-agent, as in:
(10) The chairs were sold yesterday (Chatmajian, 2005: 39).
Radford (1989: 309-10) states a rule for nominative case, that is : "A Np
which is a sister of a finite is assigned Nominative case." :
(11) I really think ( that John does like you).
(12) I really think ( that John likes you).
According to this rule, the noun phrase "John" is a sister of the finite
constituent which contains the verb ''does'', as in: (11) but (12) that lacks the
verb. Therefore, "John" will be in the nominative case. The proof for this
statement is that if "John" is exchanged by the personal pronoun, then the
personal pronoun (which is overtly marked for case) will be in the
nominative case and not in the accusative one, as in:
(13) I really think (that he/*him does like you).
This property of the subject is different and it is not morpho-syntactic
but it is a syntactic one. English is morphologically a poor language so the
case is determined by the position of the noun in the sentence. There is no
distinct mark which indicates a nominative case, the proof of this is by the
following example:
(14) This fellow likes girls.
(15) Girls like this fellow.
These two sentences have the same constituents but they are different in the
meaning because the order of the constituents is not the same. What
distinguishes them is the position of the noun. The same thing is true
concerning "girls" (Carnie, 2001: 231 and Carnie, 2002: 233).
"There" usually appears in a subject function but it is different from the
subject in its function because it does not inflect for case, for example,
(16) There was only me.
The noun phrase after the verb will have the form of a case-variable personal
pronoun and this pronoun is in the accusative form, so it is obvious that this
noun phrase is not a subject (Huddleston, 2005: 183).
2. Accusative Case
Accusative case refers to the form of the noun when it is the object of a
verb. The word order marks the case because the word is not marked. There
is no difference in the form of the word whether the noun is an object of a
verb or other constituents in the sentence. Because of this , linguists
emphasize that it can be misleading to use terms such as 'accusative'
(Crystal, 2003: 6). One criterion which can be added to the description of
direct objects is that they are in the accusative case (Miller, 2002: 95;
Mathews, 2007: 5; and Tallerman, 2008: 247). The accusative is nearly used
 3

in all languages as it becomes a universal object-case (Onions, 1971: 85; and

Valin JR, 2004: 59). The accusative term is driven from an ancient
mistranslation of the Greek word and it means a causal case. It is the object
of transitive verbs. Many of these objects refer to things or persons which
are affected by the action of the verb (Robin, 1964: 292).
The main uses of accusative case are:
as the object of transitive verbs, as in:
(17) They murdered the king.
2- as the object of prepositions. ''These are apprehended as consisting of an
adverbial accusative followed by an adverb, but they seem to have resulted
from an inversion of the word-order and a consequent conversion of a
preposition into an adverb'' (Onions, 1971: 95), as in:
(18) all the world over (instead of ''over all the world'')
3- as an adverbial adjunct expressing the relations of time, space, measure or
manner whether it is qualified or unqualified and without prepositions. The
simple adverbial accusatives may be re-written in another form by using
equivalents with prepositions. For instance,
(19) The river is a mile broad just here. (The river is higher by two feet.)
(20) Our friend died last night. (…..on the last night of the old year.)
(21) He came full speed. (at full speed)
(22) A head taller (taller by a head) (Onions, 1971: 12, 31,46, 85-6).
In traditional grammar , the object is an entity that the subject does the
predicator to, the compliment is to label a nominal or adjectival group which
refers to some entity as the subject, or describes the subject (Betti, 2020b:
187).
The linear sequence is the crucial element in identifying the kind of case:
(23) Jennifer swatted Steve.
(24) Steve swatted Jennifer.
In the sentence (23) 'Steve" is the object and in, (24) Jennifer is the object
and they are in the accusative cases. These two names are not different in
forms when they are in nominative cases but their positions are different
(Carnie, 2001: 231 and Carnie, 2002: 233).
In modern English, there is a new type of accusative case which is called
the accusative of description, one which consists of an adjective –
equivalent which expresses some features of objects such as size, colour,
age, price or the professions of persons. It may be replaced by the
preposition ''of'' with the noun which is the original form of the expression:
(25) The towers were exactly the same height.
(26) The door was a dark brown.
(27) What price is that article?
 4

(28) What age is she? She might be any age (or anything) between twenty
and thirty.
(29) What trade is he?
These equivalents are most often which are used as predicative adjectives:
(30) The earth is the shape of an orange (= orange-shaped) (Onions, 1971:
10,87).
In some sentences in which di-transitive verbs are used, there are two
objects and each object has a special case:
(31) I gave him the book.
The first object follows the verb and it is the indirect object. It is in the
dative case (it will be illustrated in (2.4.1.3)). The second object is the direct
one and it follows the indirect object. In (31) ''the book'' is the direct object
and it is affected by the action directly, so it is in the accusative case. When
the sentence has two objects and it changes from active to passive, one of the
objects becomes the subject of the passive sentence and the other remains
unaffected. This unaffected object is called ''The remaining accusative'':
Active Passive
(32) They taught me Latin. → I was taught Latin by them.
(33) They took care of her.→ She was taken care of by them. (Onions,
1971: 87).
3. Dative Case
The dative case expresses an indirect object relationship in a language with
extensive case systems and marks the experiencer subjects. Crystal (2003:
123) shows that in classical transformational grammar, the dative movement
transformation is associated with di-transitive constructions of this kind. An
ethical dative (ethic dative or dative of advantage) indicates the person with
a special interest in an action. Dative is the case of the animate being which
is affected by the state or action performed by the verb. Tallerman (2008:
180) mentions that there is a little justification to distinguish an indirect
object from any other object. He adds that the recipient noun phrase seems
just like a direct object and this is termed "the double object construction".
The recipient has the same form as any object and it immediately follows the
verb.
The basic role of dative is to mark the recipient of something given,
transferred …. etc. For instance,
(34) He gave a book to Mary.
In (34), ''Mary'' is the recipient of the action of giving. It is marked by the
preposition ''to'' (Matthews, 2007:91). Dative case shows the difference
between an indirect object relationship and a scope of meaning like that is
covered by ''to'' or ''for''. Modern English expresses the notion of indirect
 5

object by other means such as prepositions and word order, this is clear in
(34) and (35) respectively,
(35) He gave the boy a book (Crystal, 2003: 123).
Example (35) is called dative shift because it is driven from the basic
sentence " he gave a book to the boy", i.e., dative shift means the
movement of indirect object (Brown and Attrado, 2008: 47).

4. Vocative Case
The vocative is used to get attention or to address one or more persons. It is
an optional noun phrase that is used in a certain position (initially, medially
or finally). It is usually associated with a distinctive intonation at the
beginning or the end of the sentence. In spelling, it is marked by a comma to
separate the vocative expression from the sentence. Palmer (1978: 96) shows
that vocative is different from other cases because it has no function within
the sentence (i.e., it does not mark a special constituent in the sentence as
the nominative marks the subject and so on). Matthews (2007: 429)
mentions that the vocative has a traditional use and it is characterized by
using archaic ''O'' as a vocative particle when it is used in calling someone or
getting his/her attention, as in:
(38) We beseech thee, O Lord.
Now, English uses a noun as in:
(39) Bill, where are you? (initially)
(40) It's a lovely day, Mrs Johnson .(finally)
(41) And you, my friends, will have to work harder (medially)
Vocative ''is the case of a noun or pronoun used interjectionally.''
(Onions, 1971: 84-5). For instance,
(42) Speak up, sir!
As it is clear in No.(41), the vocative is not a part of the subject or predicate
of the clauses or sentences but it (the vocative) is connected with the subject
or predicate. An adjective may qualify the vocative, the adjective clause is
susceptible of analysis apart, as in:
(43) O thou (Vocative) that tallest good tidings to Zion,…(Onions, 1971: 84-
5,17 and Biber et al., 2000: 1103).
The functions of the vocative include paying the attention of the
addressee(s); specifying someone as an addressee from others who may hear
the speech; and showing the nature of the relationships among people,
maintaining and reinforcing social relationships (Gramley & Pätzold, 1992:
291; and Biber et al., 2000: 1112). The relationships are reciprocal or non-
reciprocal.
The forms of the vocative are divided into distinct types:
 6

1- Unbound pronouns: Pronouns are less important than other types which
bear the burden of making social distinction. The basic contrast is between
you and no pronoun at all, for instance :
(44) Hey, you, watch out! vs (45) Hey, watch out! (Quirk et al., 1972:
373; Quirk & Greenbaum, 1973: 209; Gramley & Pätzold, 1992: 289 and
Biber et al., 2000: 1109). "The use of you without the introductory hey in the
example above to soften its effect would be considerably more direct and
therefore less polite (cf. the same sentence with rude you there" (Gramley &
Pätzold, 1992: 289).
Also, the use of an indefinite pronoun (bound) is possible, as in:
(46) Get me a pen, somebody.
2- Names: The use of names may be the first names in full forms (FN) as
''Stephen and Elizabeth''; familiar forms as ''Steve and Lize'' ; or diminutive
forms as ''Stevie and Lizzie '' ; or nicknames as ''Tiger and Bunny''; or the
last names (LN) as ''Smith and Windsor''. The use of the last name alone is
not a common form of an address. It is mainly used among men and
especially in the military (cited in Jonz, 1975: 74) and in British private
schools. The names are effected by phonetic-morphological variation when
they change to diminutives, as in ''Stevie and Lizzikins''. The names may be:
a-multiple naming. People are free in using any name (Betti, 2007: 401).
b-generic names. These names are used for addressing any person regardless
of his actual name, such as bud/buddy, Mack or Jack. Also, it shows the
relation as familiar rather than a more distance (Quirk et al.,1972: 373;
Quirk & Greenbaum 1973: 209; Gramley & Pätzold, 1992: 289-90;and
Biber et al., 2000: 1109).
3-Kinship terms. Kinship terms are as ''mother, father, uncle'' or the more
familiar forms as ''mom (my) AmE, mum (my)BrE, dad(dy), auntie,
grandma, etc'' (Quirk et al., 1972: 373; Quirk &Greenbaum, 1973: 209; and
Biber et al., 2000: 1108). Kinship terms may function as names or as titles
such as ''Grandmother, father and their diminutives, Granny, Dad''. They are
used as names and they are always capitalized. They may combine with a
name in the manner of a title as in ''Aunt Liz, Uncle Steve''. Their use is
upward only (Gramley & Patzold, 1992: 290).
4-Titles. The titles are frequently used with the last name. The titles may be
vocational ''Dr, Prof, Senator, …etc'' or as ranks in the military or police
such as ''LT, Capt, Gen, Constable, Officer, Sheriff, etc'' or as religious titles
as ''Father, Brother, Sister, Mother superior'' (Quirk et al., 1972: 373; Quirk
& Greenbaum, 1973: 209 and Gramely & PätZold, 1992: 290). These titles
are also used as titles of respect. The most common kind of titles is M-forms
such as ''Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms, master'' which are generic titles.
 7

5-Descriptors. Descriptors have many types. One of these types is

endearment as ''baby, (my) darling, (my) dear, honey, hon, love, sweetie
(pie)'' (Quirk etal., 1972: 373; Quirk & Greenbaum, 1973: 209; Gramley &
Pätzold, 1992: 291; and Biber et al., 2000: 1108). The most outstanding
terms are animal terms of endearment, some masculine, some feminine and
some either such as, bear, Kitten, Puppy, ladybird etc. (Gramley & Pätzold,
1992: 291). Endearments have a particular role in maintaining and
reinforcing an existing relationships. They are used to show closeness and
affection between close family members, sexual partners and other favourite
people (Biber et al., 2000: 1110).
6- A nominal clause (very occasionally). For instance,
(47) whoever said that, come out here (Quirk et al., 1972: 373 and Quirk &
Greenbaum, 1973: 209).
Vocative varies from mild friendliness to intimacy. Biber et al. (2000:
1108-10) classify the vocative forms to categories to represent an
approximate scale from the most familiar or intimate relationship to the most
distant and respectful one. The categories are: Endearments, family terms,
familiarizers, familiarized first names, first name in full, title and surname,
honorifics, and others (including nicknames).
5. Ablative Case
Ablative case is the form of a noun phrase whether it is a noun or a pronoun
that marks the source of a movement away from some locations. Crystal
(2003: 2) shows the use of the following prepositions: with, from, and by in
particular to express this concept. Palmer (1978: 96) adds that the ablative is
used with the prepositions with a meaning of "from". Miller (2002: 105)
mentions that the term "ablative" is driven from a Latin word meaning
"taking away". For instance,
(48) He departed from the city (Robins, 1965: 282).
(49) He did it with his hand (Crystal, 2003: 2).
(50)He left Rome (Mathews, 2007: 1).(the meaning implies ''from''
6. Genitive Case
The genitive case refers to the form of noun phrases which are often a single
noun or a pronoun to express grammatical relationships (i.e., to mark nouns
or noun phrases that are dependents of other nouns). It usually expresses a
possessive relation or other similarly close connection by using apostrophe
and s. There is another construction which expresses genitive case; it is "of
construction". It is also called the post –modifying genitive.
The only living uses of the genitive is the adjectival one. It means
''belong to'' or ''connected with''. The most common one is the possessive
genitive. It may be used :
 8

Attributively, for instance,

(51) which is the doctor's house?
2- Predicatively, it is equal to a predicative adjective, for example,
(52) This house is the doctor's.
In some sentences, there is more than one possessive and each one is
dependent on the other, such as,
(53) My father's brother's daughter (Onions, 1971: 88-9).
In writing, the form of genitive is distinctive by using an apostrophe. The
position of the apostrophe is determined by the noun number whether it is
singular or plural. The forms are:
The singular noun is realized by an apostrophe plus "s" as "boy's".
The regular plural noun is realized by the apostrophe only because it has s-
plural and the apostrophe follows the plural-s as "boys' ". This form is also
called zero genitive.
The irregular plural noun is realized by an apostrophe plus "s", as in:
(men's). This form is identical to the form of the singular noun.
In speech, the genitive inflection is recognized in the regular noun,
where it is pronounced /-iz/, /-z/ or /-s/. These pronunciations are similar to
the pronunciations of s-plural and s-third person singular.
The regular plural noun has no distinctive pronunciation, so it is called
zero genitive. In addition to this, there are other forms which are called zero
genitive. It occurs to avoid repetitive or awkward combinations of sounds
such as : the Greek names as in ''Socrates' wife''; the names that end in /z/ as
in ''Burns' (Burns's) poem'' and with firmed expressions of the form
"for…sake" as in ''for goodness' sake''.
(4) The last name takes ('s) in compounds, as in:
(60) My brother-in- Law's guitar
Not only the preceding but also the names which consist of several words,
such as,
(61) Henry the Eighth's wives (Thomson & Martinet, 2001: 30).
Of-genitive is also called ''The perphrastic genitive". The structure of this
genitive structure is:
Head noun phrase + of + modifying noun phrase.
It is clear that the preposition phrase post-modifies the head noun
(phrase).The function and meaning of the noun in the genitive construction
and the same noun in the periphrastic genitive are similar. For instance.
(62) What is the ship's name?
(63) What is the name of ship?
 9

In (62) ''ship's'' precedes the noun ''name'' and it determines it as the head
noun phrase. In (63) the preposition phrase ''of the ship'' post-modifies the
head ''name''.
The meaning of the genitive is expressed by sentences or phrases as the
ones below. Also, the use of ''of-construction'' is given where it is acceptable
as it is clear in the second example of the following meanings. The meanings
are:
1-possessive genitive. For instance,
Genitive Analogues
(64) My son's wife My son has wife.
(65)The earth's gravity The earth has (a certain) gravity.
cf The gravity of the earth.
2-subjective genitive, such as in:
(66)The boy's application The boy applied for……
(67)The parents' consent The parents consented
cf The consent of The parents
3-objective genitive, for instance,
(68)The family's support (…)supports the family.
(69) The prisoner's release (…)released the prisoner.
cf The release of the prisoner
4-genitive of origin. For example,
(70)The girl's story The girl told a story.
(71)England's cheeses The cheeses were produced
in
cf The cheeses of England
England.
5-descriptive genitive, as in:
(72) A Summer's day. A summer day, a day in
summer
(73) A doctor's degree A doctor degree, doctorate
cf The degree of a doctor
6-genitive of measure (including time, value, and space) for instance,
(74)a dollar's worth
(75) ten day's absence
cf an absence of ten days The absence lasted ten days.
7-partitive genitive, such as,
(76)The baby's eyes The baby has (blue) eyes.
(77)The earth's surface
cf The surface of the earth
8-genitive of attribute, for example
 10

(78)The victim's outstanding courage The victim was very courageous.

cf The outstanding courage of the victim
9-oppositive genitive, as in:
(79)The city of York York is a city.
10- Quirk et al. (1985: 322 and 289) add that genitive expresses close
family relationships. For instance,
(80) Granny is delighted with Peter's Jane.
The double genitive is a term that is used when there is a combination of
inflected (or pronoun) genitive and periphrastic genitive with a partitive
meaning. It is called post-genitive, too. The post-modifier must be definite
and personal and an indefinite article which precedes the head noun, as in:
(122)Aren't you having a bun of mummy's now?
The genitive functions as a determiner and as a modifier.
1-as a Determiner
The genitive functions as a central definite determiner ''the'' and in this case
it prevents the occurrence of other determiners, a possessive pronoun, a noun
accompanied by its own determiner and /or modifier:
(136) her (new) desk
(137) Jenny's (new) desk
(138) My daughter's (new) desk
2.3 Cases of Pronouns
Case of pronouns is different from nouns because they are inflected.
Pronouns are different from nouns in case. Pronouns have distinctive forms
in different positions in the sentence. The pronouns that function as subjects
are called subjective or nominative. Nominative case forms can be used as a
test for subjecthood. The pronouns which function as objects are called
objective or accusative. Also, pronouns have two genitive forms, one is
determinative or called possessive adjective and the other is an independent
form for five of the pronouns. They are called possessive pronouns.
Pronouns have different forms and express different cases except in some
cases.
The selection of nominative and accusative cases does not depend on
their distinctive forms of subject and object but it is based on the pronoun's
function in the sentence. There are two distinctive divisions of the finite
clause. They are: ''Subject Territory'' which means the preverbal subject
position (it consists of a personal pronoun that functions as a subject and
sometimes as a subject complement) and ''Object Territory'' that includes all
elements which follow the verb. It is the post verbal part of a sentence (it
consists of a personal pronoun which functions as an object, prepositional
complement and sometimes as a subject complement). The subjective
 11

pronouns are with the oblique case particularly accusative and dative cases
(Quirk et al., 1985: 336-7 ; Radford, 1989: 309-10; Greenbaum & Quirk,
1990: 111; cook & Newson, 1996: 54; and Radford,2006: 45-6).
In informal English , the objective pronouns are the unmarked case
forms and they should be used when the subject pronouns cannot be used.
Traditional grammarians insist that the correct use after "be-verb, than, and
as " is the subject pronouns. But informal usage prefers the accusative form
(Betti, 2007: 406). For instance,
(149) A: Who's there? B:me.
more intelligent than
(150) He is her.
as intelligent as
In (149) ''me'' is treated as a disjunctive pronoun when the pronoun stands
alone (Gramley & pätzold ,1992:128). Palmer (1978: 97) shows that the
accusative form is used as a subject in the answer of the question, but there
are two words of warning: ''first, we must not then import case into the
nouns and say that John and Bill are in different cases in John hit Bill.
Secondly, we must not look for yet another case for me in "He gave me a
book.'' In informal English, ''as and then'' are considered as prepositions and
not as subordinating conjunctions, so they are followed by an adjective
pronouns as prepositional complements (Hall, 1964: 210-11; Huddleston,
1977: 26; Hodges & Whitten, 1982: 61; Quirk et al., 1985: 337-8;
Hudleston, 1988: 160 and Leech & Svartvik,1994: 333-4).
Many people are not comfortable about the use of objective pronouns
after "than'' particularly in writing, even though the subject variants are
almost equally objectionable in seeming unnatural. The solution of the
problem of choosing between subjective and objective pronouns is adding an
operator, for example,
(151) His sister is taller than he is (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990: 111).
There is another occurrence of accusative pronoun in a certain
exclamatory phrase, for instance,
(152) Dear me! (Onions, 1971: 87).
There is another problem about using nominative or accusative cases
after the indefinite pronouns (as nobody, everyone, all etc.) followed by
"but" or "except". The source of the problem is whether "but" and "except"
are considered as conjunctions or prepositions:
nobody but she
everyone except her
 12

prescriptivists tend to consider "but" as a conjunction and "except" as a

preposition, so they use nominative case after "but" in subject territory as in:
(153) and the accusative case in object territory as in (154),
(153) Nobody but she can solve our problems.
(154) Nobody can solve our problem but her.
The use of reflexive pronouns treat this problem, such as,
(155) Nobody said anything but myself.
When there is a relationship between the verb and what follows it, the
objective form is the correct usage, as in:
(156) I want nobody but him ( I want him and nobody else) (Onions, 1971:
98; Quirk et al., 1985: 339; and Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990: 111).
The subjects of exceptional clauses are not in nominative case form but
they are assigned as accusative case forms, for example,
(157) I believe ( him to be right )
And they behave as the objects of the preceding verbs and they also undergo
passivisation, as in:
(158) He is believed.
The case of the pronouns that are used as appositive, depends on the
function of the noun which the appositive explains or identifies. For
instance,
(159) Two members of the cast, he and I, assist the director. (''He and I''
members of the cast, assist the director )
(160) The director often calls on her assistant: him and me. (The director
often calls on him and me, her assistants.)
The accusative pronoun form is required after the verb "let", for example,
(161) Let's = (Let us)
(162) Let's you and me (= let us-just you and me.)
The informal use is,
(163) Let's you and I (Hodges & Whitten, 1982: 59).
" …… for speakers to use the objective case even in the subject function
where a pronoun is coordinated, and therefore is seperated to some extent
from the following verb, either by position or by failure of concord, as in the
nonstandard."
(164) Him and Mary
are going abroad for a holiday.
(165) Mary and him
These sentences are nonstandards and more reprehensible, even though not
the less common, if the offending pronoun also breaks the rule of politeness.
The rule of politeness stipulates that 1st person pronoun should appear at the
 13

end of the coordinated construction (Betti and Al-Fartoosy, 2019: 101). For
instance,
(166) Me and Mary are going abroad for a holiday.
The prescriptivists prefer nominative forms occurring to account for their
hypercorrect use in coordinated noun phrases in object territory: between
you and I, as for John and I, etc. The second reason is that the sequence of
"X" and "I" is felt to be polite and it does not change, especially in the view
of the distance between the preposition and I. For instance,
(167) Let ('s)you and I do it!
(168) He says he saw John and I last night.
These sentences are examples of types that are not uncommon in informal
conversation (Quirk et al., 1985: 338). Gramley & Pätzold (1992 : 127)
show that the accusative case forms can be joined together and in this case,
they will be subjects, for instance,
(169) Me and him, we're going for a swim.
When the sentences consist of cases and they are combined, their case
forms do not change, for instance,
(170) We need this.
(171) We are students.
(172) We students need this.
It is clear that the insertion of plural nouns after the pronouns does not
change the form of the pronoun. But the following sentences will change
when they are combined,
(173) I grew up fast. New responsibilities caused this.
When the two sentences are combined by introducing the reason (i.e., the
order of the sentences will change), the pronoun will change, it will be:
(174) New responsibilities caused me to grow up fast.
"I" is the subject of the verb "grew up" in (173) and "me" is the subject of
"to grew up" an infinitive in (174). This change happens because after
infinitive should be a pronoun in the accusative case. The subject or the
object of an infinitive is in the accusative case form, for example,
(175) They expected Nancy and me to do the script writing. (subject of the
infinitive to do)
(176) I did not want to challenge victor or him. (object of the infinitive to
challenge).
In the opposite side, subject or subject complements are in nominative case
and they are interchangeable, such as,
(177) You and I are the losers.
(178) The losers are you and I (Hodges & Whitten, 1982: 58-9; 64).
 14

Quirk et al. (1985: 338) show that it is unclear about the grammatical
function of a pronoun which acts as "focus" in cleft sentences. For instance,
(179) It was she who came.
? she
(180) It was (that ) John criticized
? her ( informal)
In addition to the personal pronouns, there are two interrogative words
that refer to people (they are considered as pronouns). They are "who" and
"whom." ''Who'' is usually used in the subject position and gets nominative
case.''Whom'' is usually used in the object position and gets accusative case.
Beside that "who" can be used in the object position for most speakers
today. This use is in informal speech. "who" and "whom" are used before ( I
think, he says, she believes and we know). The choice is determined by the
use of "who" or " whom" in its own clause. For instance,
(181) Gene is a man whom we know well. (whom is the direct object of
know. Compare "We know him well.")
(182) Gene is a man who we know is honest. ( Who is the subject of the
second verb "is". The comparison is: '' We know that Gene is a man who is
honest.'')
A. Dative Case
The illustration of dative case of nouns is in corresponding with the dative
one of pronouns. But there is a particular usage that is related to pronouns
only. It is called the reflexive dative that is used with certain intransitive
verbs and this case is only used with pronouns and now it is archaic, as in:
(185) She went and sat her down over against him. (Bible)
When both objects are pronouns, their position is determined by their
weight, the higher of the two usually comes first, for example,
(186) I will bring it him.
If the pronouns are nearly of equal weight, there is a variation in the position
of the pronouns, for instance,
(187) I cannot lend you them now (Onions, 1971: 93-4)
B. Vocative Case
This is explained in detail in speaking about cases of nouns.
C.Genitive Case
What is illustrated about the genitive of the nouns is largely corresponding
to the genitive of the pronouns. But there is an exception that is genitive
pronouns have two forms and functions as determinative and independent.
Possessive adjectives are followed by nouns and they refer to the
possessor and not to the thing possessed, as in:
(188) Sara and her husband
 15

In (188), the possessive adjectives act as determinative. They precede count

nouns whether they are singular or plural and non-count nouns. In this case,
it is similar to the genitive case of nouns, for instance,
(189) He liked the student's essay.
(190) He liked her essay (Leech & Svartvik, 1994: 269).
From the preceding examples, it is obvious that possessive adjectives are
followed by nouns but possessive pronouns are not followed by nouns and
they are often used in comparative sentences. For example,
(191) Our cat is smaller than theirs. (theirs = their cat).
" A/ some " is followed by a noun and this noun is followed by "of" and then
by a possessive pronoun to talk about one of a number of people or things,
as in:
(192) I went to the club with a friend of mine. (= one of my friends.)
The indefinite and definite articles do not precede possessive adjectives or
pronouns. Such as,
(193)* It's a my bag
(194)* They're the ours (Thomson & martinet, 1986: 75-6 ; Alexander,
1999: 60; Betti, 2007: 406;Swan, 2009: 417-18;and Coe et al., 2010: 124).
With an animal or a thing ''its'' is used, for instance,
(195) A tree drops its leaves in autumn.
But if the sex of the animal is recognized, ''his'' and/or ''her'' will be used, if
there is more than one possessor, ''their'' is used, such as,
(196) The girls are with their brother (Thomson & martinet, 1986: 75).

3. Case in Arabic
Case is a grammatical feature in Arabic. It shows the relationships between
the elements of the sentence (whether the element is definite or indefinite).
Also, it clarifies the change that happens at the end of the word:
(211) ‫ َض‬٣‫بكسغذ كةٍٔدُ بُذظب َء بُجض‬. (Fatima bought new shoes.)
?i∫tarat FaTimatu al-Hiðaa?a al-d3adiida.
The words ''al-Hiðaa?a and ald3adiida'' are in the accusative case. Their
diacritics are'' fatha''.''FaaTimatu'' is in the nominative case and its diacritic
is'' dhamma.
The linguistic definition of case is to clarify the meaning of words and
sentences. This definition is taken from speech:
. ٚ‫أػغت بُغجَ ػٖ دجس‬ َ . (The man clarified his idea).
?a9raba al-rad3ulu9 an Hud3atah.
Beside that it is used to avoid what is said wrongly (Al-NaHwi, 1886: 18-19
and Al-9ukbarii, without date: 53.
 16

The idiomatic definition of case is the change that occurs at the end of
the word as a result to the change of the element:
(212) .‫ ٌض‬٣‫( جة َء ػ‬Zaid came). d3aa?a zaiidun.
(213) .ً‫ضب‬٣‫ر ػ‬٣‫عأ‬ ُ (I saw Zaid ). ra?aiitu zaiidan
ُ
(214) .‫ ٍض‬٣‫( ٓغعذ جؼ‬I passed by Zaid). marartu biZaidin.
If the diacritics that refer to the types of case of nouns are presented in the
sentence, the case is called verbal and if they are not presented in the
sentence, the case is called maHallii .(ً‫ة‬٤ِ‫ )ٓذ‬Case is a property of nouns not
verbs nor particles (Al-Zad3ad3i ;77 :1979 ,Ibn 9aSfuur, 1986 and Alkai∫i,
1987: 79,82). It is well-known that case system in Arabic is declinable
means that the noun can take any of the three case endings 'u', 'a' or 'i .('The
marks that refer to case are of two types: the main marks (diacritics) and
secondary ones.
1.3 The Main and Secondary Marks
The main marks are three which are diacritics and they are 'u', 'a' and 'i',
including dhamma (‫ )بٌُٔد‬that marks the nominative case, as in:
(215) ٌْ ‫ ٌض هةئ‬٣‫( ػ‬Zaid is standing. ) Zaidun qaa?imun.
Al- fatha is a mark of the accusative case:
(216) ٌْ ‫ضبً هةئ‬٣‫ ئٕ ػ‬. (Zaid is standing). zaiidan qaa?imun.
Al-kasra (‫ ) بٌُـغخ‬is a mark of the genitive case:
ُ
(217) ‫ ٍض‬٣‫ٓغعذ جؼ‬. ( I passed by Zaid). (marartu biZaidin.)
The secondary marks are of two types. They are: letters and diacritics.
1. (ٝ‫ب‬ُٞ‫ )ب‬Alwaaw is used with the sound masculine plural and what follows
it;
and with the irregular nouns in the nominative case:
(218) .ً‫َٕ عجال‬ٝ‫َٕ ػلغ‬ٝ‫ض‬٣‫( بُؼ‬Zaids are twenty men).
alzaiiduuna 9i∫ruuna rad3ulaan.
(219) ‫ ٍض‬٣‫ ػ‬ٞ‫( جة َء أج‬Zaid's father came.) d3aa?a ?abu Zaidin.
2. Alalif (‫ )بالُق‬is used with a dual noun and what follows it in the
nominative case. For instance,
(220 ) ‫ٔة‬ٛ‫ضبٕ ًال‬٣‫بُؼ‬ ِ ‫جة َء‬. ( Both Zaids came.) d3aa?a alZaidaini kilaahmaa.
In addition, it is the mark of irregular nouns in the accusative case:
(221) ٙ‫ر أجة‬٣‫ عأ‬. (I saw his father). ra?aiitu ?abaah.
3. Alyaa (‫ةء‬٤ُ‫ )ب‬is the mark of dual nouns and what follows them, sound
masculine plural and what follows it in the accusative case. For example,
(222) ‫ َٔة‬ٜ٤ًِ ٖ٣َ ُ
ِ ‫ض‬٣‫ر بُؼ‬٣‫عأ‬ ( I saw both Zaids.) ra?aiitu alzaiidaiini kilaiihumaa.
ً
(223) ‫َٖ عجال‬٣‫َٖ ػلغ‬٣‫ض‬٣‫ظ٘٘ر بُؼ‬ ُ . (I thought that Zaids were twenty men.)
Danntu alZaidaina 9i∫riina rad3ulaan.
 17

Also, Alyaa is the mark of irregular nouns, the dual nouns and what
follows them, the sound masculine plural and what follows it in the genitive
case, as in:
ُ
(224) .ِٚ ٤‫ٓغعذ جأج‬ (I passed by his father.) (marartu bi?abiihi.
(225) ‫ٔة‬ٜ٤ًِ ٖ٣‫ض‬٣‫جةُؼ‬
ِ ُ
‫ٓغعذ‬ (I passed by both Zaids).
marartu bilZaidaini kilaiihmaa.
ُ
(226) . َٖ٣‫ جةُؼلغ‬ٝ َٖ٣‫ض‬٣‫ٓغعذ جةُؼ‬ (I passed by Zaids and the twenty. )
marartu bilZaidaina.
4. Al- kasra is the mark of sound feminine plural instead of fatha:
(227) .‫ذ‬ِ ‫ر ٓـِٔة‬٣‫عأ‬ ُ (I saw Muslim women). ) ra?aiitu muslimati.
5. Al- fatha is the mark of diptotes instead of kasra, for instance:
ُ
(228) .َ‫ٓغعذ جأد َٔض‬ (I passed by Ahmad). marartu bi?aHmada. (Alzad3aad3i,
72 :1979 ,Abd alGani, 1990: 54; MuStafa, 1992, 108 ,111,112; FayaD,
1995: 71 ; Al-BaSrawi, 2000: 98-100,102-9 and 9abdul-Hamid , 2009:39-
56, 63, 65-6).
(230) . َٖ٤‫( ٓغعذ جٔوطل‬I passed by Mustafas). marartu bimuSTafiina.

3.2 Cases in Arabic

1. Nominative Case
It is the highest type of case because it can be used without accusative and
genitive cases .It is called alrafi9 because when the speaker pronounces the
nominative noun, he/she will raise his/her lower jaw upward. Also, his/ her
two lips are connected. For instance,
(248) ‫ن‬ٌ ِ‫ ٌض ٓ٘ط‬٣‫ػ‬.(Zaid is going ahead.) Zaidun munTaliqun ( Al-Zad3aad3i,
1979:93 ; Al-BaSri,1991 : 29 and d3ubal, 1999: 64-5,67).
The Nominative case refers to the nominative nouns which are the basic
ones in the sentence. They cannot be deleted from the sentence ,in opposite
to the accusative nouns as it is clear in the above example, it is impossible to
delete'' Zaidun or munTaliqun'' and still have a complete meaning.
Nominative nouns are: the subject ,deputy-agent, topic and comment, the
subject of'' kana (ٕ‫'' )ًة‬and its set, the comment of ''?inna (‫'' )ئݩ‬and its set, the
subject of verbs of propinquity, the subject of ''?in (ٕ‫'' )ب‬and its set ,the
subject of negative ''maa (‫'' )ٓة‬and some of exceptional states (Al-Saraad3,
1983: 81, Ibn 9aSfuur,1986:53 and Al?-ahdal, 1990: 152.)
A. The Subject
The subject is a noun that is an agent of a verbal sentence. It is the subject of
the verb or ∫ubh alfi9il ,(َ‫ بُلؼ‬ٚ‫ )كح‬and case ending is marked by (-u, -an- ,
un .(For instance,
 18

(249) ‫ض‬٣‫هة َّ ػ‬.(Zaid stood.) qaama Zaidun.

∫ubh alfi9il may be the active participle (ismu alfaa9il َ‫) بؿْ بُلةػ‬, as in:
(250) ٕ‫ضب‬٣‫أهةئ ٌْ بُؼ‬. (Are the two Zaids standing?) aqaa?imun alZaidaani.
Or it may be pseudo-participle) Sifa mu∫abaha bilfi9il ,(َ‫ جةُلؼ‬ٚ‫) هلد ٓلح‬:
(251) ٍٜٚ‫ج‬ٝ ٖ‫دـ‬ِ ‫ ُض‬٣‫ػ‬. (Zaid's face is beautiful.) (Zaidun Haasinin wadᶾhah).
Or it is an abstract noun, (almaSdar), ‫ بُٔوضع‬, for instance,
(252) ٍ‫ ٍض ػٔغب‬٣‫ػجحر ٖٓ ًغت ػ‬.(Iُ am surprised at Zaid's hitting Omar.)
9ad3ubtu min Darb Zaidin ?amran.)
Or it is ismu-alfi9il ,(َ‫ )بؿْ بُلؼ‬for example,
(253) ‫ن‬٤‫ةذ بُؼو‬ٜ٤ٛ. How far agate is !) (haiihaat al9aqiiq).
Or preference ?af9al?'' afi9al altafDiil" .(َ٤ٌ‫ )بكؼَ بُسل‬. For example,
(254) ٙٞ‫جةألكٌَ أج‬
ِ ُ
‫ٓغعذ‬. (I passed by somebody whose father is the best.)
(mararitu bial?fDali ?aboh.)
In No. ' (253abwh'' is in the nominative case and it is affected by ''al?afDal''
that its pattern is '' afi9al'' and it is ∫ubh alfi9il .
The subject is in the nominative case whether the verb is no diptots
(munSarif ‫)ٓ٘وغف‬:
(255) ‫ ٌض‬٣‫ ػ‬٠‫أز‬. (Zaid came). (ata Zaidun).
Or it is diptots) Gaiir munSarif ,( ‫غ ٓ٘وغف‬٤‫ؿ‬For instance,
(256) ٠‫ٗؼ ُْ بُلس‬. ( What an excellent boy he is!) (ni9ma alfataa) (Al-Saamra?i,
1969:299-300; Al-xawaarizmi, 1982: 233; Al-Galaaijni, 1993: 233; Al-
?i∫bili, 1998: 287 ; Al-Ba9alij, 2002: 205 and 9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 53-4).
Intensive active participle (siiGat almubaalaGa ‫ـد بُٔحةُـد‬٤‫ )ه‬is one of the
elements that makes the subject in the nominative case. It has eleven patterns
(awzaan), but only five of them are well-known. They are: fa9al ٍ‫كؼة‬,
muf?aal ٍ‫ٓلؼة‬, fa?ulٍٞ‫ كؼ‬, fa?iil َ٤‫ كؼ‬and fa9lu َُ ‫'' كؼ‬. These patterns are driven
from trilateral verbs only and they are rarely driven from quadrilateral ones.
For instance,
(257) ٍ‫ال ٓذسة‬ٝ ‫ص‬ٞ‫ال دو‬ٝ ‫ص‬ٞ‫ال دـ‬ٝ ‫ال ٓـسةت‬ٝ ّ‫ ٌع ال ٗٔة‬ٌٞ‫ ٌع ك‬ٞ‫ بُٔإٖٓ هح‬.
The believer is patient ,thankful; he is not slanderer ,not calumniator ,not
envious, not spiteful ,and not swindler.
(almu?min sabuurun ∫akurun laa namaam wa la muGtaab wa la Haswd wa
laHaqud wa la muHtaal) (Al-d3aarim and ?amiin, 1966: 74; Al-Galaaijni,
1993: 193 and Al-Sa9iid, 2006: 96)
The subject after the formula "?if9al bihi ٚ‫ ''بكؼَ ج‬is in the nominative case
even though it is preceded by an extra ''baa?'' and it gets the genitive marks,
for example,
(258) ٖ٣‫ض‬٣‫جةُؼ‬
ِ ٖ‫أدـ‬.
ِ ( you, do the best to the two Zaids.) ? aHsin bialZaidaini .
 19

In example No. (258)albaa'' is an extra preposition and '' alZaidaini'' is in the

genitive case, but in fact it is a subject of the verb ''?aHsin ''ٖ‫ بدـ‬and it is in
the nominative case (9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 109-10).
B. Deputy-agent
Deputy-agent (َ‫ )ٗةئث بُلةػ‬is the noun that follows the passive verb (whether
it is past or present) and, it follows the passive participle (passive verbal
adjective=ismualmaf9ul ٍٞ‫) بؿْ بُٔلؼ‬. It shares all the characteristics of the
subject, as it should be in the nominative case, it should be postponed after
the passive verb or the passive participle, and it should not be deleted. In
fact, it is the original object of the sentence, for instance,
(259) َ‫ٗةئ‬
ٍ ‫ ُغ‬٤‫َ س‬٤ َ ِٗ. (The best gain was gained.) )niila xaiiru naa?lin.
It is taken from :
(260) .َ‫ٗةئ‬ٍ ‫غ‬٤‫س‬ َ ‫ ٌض‬٣‫ٗةٍ ػ‬َ (Zaid gained the best gain).
(naala Zaidun xaiira naa?lin).
(261) .‫ف بُشحغ‬ٝ‫( ٓة ٓؼغ‬The news is unknown). (maa ma9ruuf al xabar).
The word ''alxabar ''is a deputy –agent to the passive participle ''ma9ruuf''
(Ald3aarim and ?amiin, 1966: 77; Al-BaGdaadi, 1987: 93: Al-BaGdaadi,
1996: 58; Al-Sa9iid, 2006: 13,97 and Ibid: 81-2).
C. Topic and Comment
Topic and comment (‫ بُشحغ‬ٝ ‫ )بُٔحسضأ‬are called ''almubnaa٠٘‫ بُٔح‬and almubnaa9
alaiih ٚ٤ِ‫ ػ‬٢٘‫ '' بُٔح‬by sibawayh, ''almuuDuu9 ‫ع‬ًُٞٞٔ‫ ب‬and almaHmul ٍٞٔ‫بُٔذ‬
" by logicians and ''subject ‫ بُٔـ٘ض‬and predicate ٚ٤ُ‫ ''بُٔـ٘ض ب‬by ?ahlalma9aanii
and albaiiaan(ٕ‫ة‬٤‫ بُح‬ٝ ٢ٗ‫َ بُٔؼة‬ٛ‫)أ‬ َ . Topic and comment are mentioned after the
subject and the deputy-agent because their element is non-verbal and the
element of the subject and the deputy-agent is verbal. The verbal element is
stronger than the non-verbal one (Al-?ahdal, 1990: 177). The topic has two
kinds. One of them has a comment and the other has a subject that does as a
comment. For example,
(262) ٌْ ‫ ٌض هةئ‬٣‫ػ‬. (Zaid is standing.) Zaidun9 aa?imun.
The topic is in nominative case because it is affected by its non-verbal
element which is the beginning. Also the comment is in the nominative case
because it follows the topic .This is sibawayh's ideology? ( abu Al9-abaas,
1998: 24; Harun, 2001: 35 and 9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 162-3).
The topic may be repeated in the sentence to refer to fame or to a static
phenomenon, as in:
(263) ‫ ٓذٔ ٌض ٓذٔ ٌض‬. (Mohamed Mohammed. muHammadun muHamadun.
In addition, the topic may be repeated to refer to magnition and
intimidation .For instance,
(264) ‫( بُذةهد ٓة بُذةهد‬The Sure Reality. What is the Sure Reality).
( alHaaqah(t) u (1 )maa alHaaqah(t)u) (?abu al9abass, 1998: 25).
 20

In this regard, reiteration, on the other hand, means repeating a word or more
than one word and this repetition includes the pronunciation and meaning of
that word (Betti and Al-Fartoosy, 2019: 101). There are some purposes to
reiteration, such as, description, praise or dispraise whereas purposes of
ellipsis include brevity and economy of speech (Betti and Al-Fartoosy, 2019:
101).

If both topic and comment are indefinite or definite, the fronting noun is
the topic and the postponed one is the comment, such as ,
(265) ‫ ٍض عج ٌَ هةُ ٌخ‬٣‫ ٌغ ٖٓ ػ‬٤‫ ( س‬A good man is better than Zaid)
xaiirun min Zaidin rad3lun SaaliHun (Indefinite)
(266) .‫ ٌض‬٣‫ىَ ػ‬ٞ‫أس‬ (Your brother is Zaid).? axuuka Zaidun. (definite)
If they are not equal in definiteness, the definite noun will be the topic and
the indefinite one will be the comment, as in:
(267) ٌْ ‫ ٌض هةئ‬٣‫ػ‬. (Zaid is standing). Zaidun qaa?mun.
The comment may be fronted obligatorily or optionally in some
conditions by the effect of some elements .For instance,
(268) ‫ت صٓة ٌء‬ ِ ِٞ‫ بُو‬٢‫ك‬. ( There is blood in hearts.)
fi alqilubi dima?un) (MaTrad3i, 2000: 164-7).

D. The Subject of Kana and its Set and the Subject of Propinquity
Verbs and Others
A-The Subject of Kana (‫ )كان‬and its Set
They are called imperfect verbs. They are kana, Dala, bata, ?aDHa,
?aSbaHa, ?amsa, Saara, laisa, baraHa, fati?a, ?infaka, and maa dama. These
verbs affect the topic and the comment. They make the topic in the
nominative case and the comment in the accusative one, for instance,
(269) ً‫ ٌض هةئٔة‬٣‫ٓةػبٍ ػ‬. ( Zaid is still standing.) maa zaala Zaidun qaa?iman.
B-The subject of kada (‫ )ًةص‬and its set
They are called propinquity verbs. They are called so because some of them
are propinquity verbs. They are of three types:
1-Propinquity verbs: they are ''kada, karuba and aw∫aka.
2-Expectation verbs. They are 9asa, Hara, and ?ixluliqa.
3-Establishment verbs. They are d3a9ala, Tafaqa, ?axaða, 9alaqa and
?an∫a?a. These verbs make the topic in the nominative case and their
comment is the same comment of the topic. For example,
(270) ّٞ‫و‬٣ ‫ ٌض‬٣‫ًةص ػ‬. ( Zaid is just about to stand.) kada Zaidun jaquum.
(271) .ّٞ‫و‬٣ ٕ‫ ٌض أ‬٣‫ ػ‬٠‫( ػـ‬I hope that Zaid stands). 9asaa Zaidun? an jaquum
(Ibn 9aqiil, 2001: 392 and 9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 256-7).
C-The Subject of '' ma ‫ ٓة‬,la ‫ ال‬, lat ‫ الذ‬,and ?in ٕ‫'' ئ‬
 21

These particles are '' nasixah ‫ '' ٗةؿشد‬ones because they change the case of the
comment. They are similar to kana and its set. They make the topic in the
nominative case and the comment in the accusative one, for example,
(272) ُ ‫ ٌض هةئٔة‬٣‫ٓة ػ‬. (Zaid is not standing.) maa Zaidun qaa?imaan.
The topic and the comment of ''lat'' do not come together in the sentence.
One of them is mentioned only. It is common to delete the topic, as in :
(273) ‫م‬ ٍ ‫َٖ ََٓ٘ة‬٤‫ذَ ِد‬٥ٝ.(When there was no longer time for being saved.)(38/3)
(wa lata Hiina manaaSin.)
The estimation of the sentence is :
.‫م‬ٍ ‫َٖ ٓ٘ة‬٤‫ُٖ د‬٤‫ذَ بُذ‬٥ٝ wa lata alHiinu Hiina manaaSin
''lat'' comes only with temporal names as ''Hiina,alsaa9ah,……etc (Al-
diHdaaH, 1989: 283; Al-Galaaijni, 1993: 292, 294; Al-Makuudi, ;206 1993
; abu Al9- abaas, 1998: 35 and 9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 240,249,253.
E. The comment of ?inna and its Set and the Comment of the Generic
laa
The comment of ''?inna'' ( ‫ )ئݩ‬and its set is in the nominative case. These are
particles that are called ''alHuruuf almu∫abaha bilfi9l "َ‫ جةُلؼ‬ٜٚ‫ف بُٔلح‬ٝ‫" بُذغ‬.
These particles are ?inna,?anna, lakina, la9ala, and ka?ana. The effect of
these particles is in the opposite to kana and its set because they make their
topic in the accusative case and the comment in the nominative one, such as,
(274) ٌْ ‫ضبً هةئ‬٣‫بٕ ػ‬. ( Zaid is standing.) ?inna zaiidan qaa?imun
According to Al-BaSriin's opinion, it is?'' inna'' affects two components (the
topic and the comment, but Al-Kufiin's opinion is that it does not have any
effect on the comment (Al-BaGdaadi, 1973: 103 ; Al?-anSaari, 1383:147
and 9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 273-5) .
The generic ''laa'' (‫د ُِج٘ؾ‬٤‫ )ال بُ٘ةك‬has the same effect of ''?inna'' and its set
on the topic and the comment, for example,
(275) ٌْ ‫عجَ هةئ‬
ٍ َّ ‫ال ؿال‬. (There is no man's boy who is standing.)
laa Gulaama rad3ulin qaa?imun.
The topic and the comment of the generic ''laa'' are indefinite, ''laa'' has no
effect on definite nouns (Al-Saraad, 1983: 91; Ibn Hi∫am, 1383: 166 and
Makrram, 1992: 128 and 9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 3-4)
E.The thing excepted in the Nominative Case
The thing excepted (٠٘‫ )بُٔـسط‬is in the nominative case if the exception is
perfect and the general term (ٚ٘ٓ ٠٘‫ )بُٔـسط‬in the nominative case. According
to these conditions, the thing excepted may be parsed as a nominative
apposition, as in:
(276) ‫ ٌض‬٣‫ٓة هة َّ بد ٌض ئال ػ‬. ( No one stood except Zaid.)
maa qaama ?aHadun ?ilaa Zaidun.
 22

In" (276) Zaidun'' is in the nominative case because it is an apposition to

''?aHadun'' which is in the nominative case too because it is the subject of
the sentence .
Also, if the exception is ''mufaraG ‫''ٓلغؽ‬, and the thing excepted is a subject
or a comment, the thing excepted will be in the nominative case, for
instance,
(277) ‫ ٌض‬٣‫ٓة هة َّ ئال ػ‬. ( Only Zaid stood.) maa qaama ?laa Zaidun .
'' Zaidun'' is the thing excepted and it is the subject of the sentence so it is in
the nominative case (Al-Sa9iid, 2006: 64,66 and 9abdul-Hamid-157 :2009 ,
.(2-66161
F. Nominative by Followers
Nominative by followers (‫د‬٤‫ )بُغكغ جةُسحؼ‬is that these nouns are not parsed as
nouns but they follow other nouns so they are called followers (‫بجغ‬ٞ‫)بُس‬. These
nouns agree with the preceding ones in cases. Followers are of five types:
emphasis ‫ض‬٤ً‫))بُسة‬, adjective (‫) بُولد‬, apposition (ٍ‫ )بُحض‬and its types,
explicative apposition (albaiiaan ٕ‫ة‬٤‫ )ػطق بُح‬and conjunction by a particle
(‫)بُؼطق جةُذغف‬. For example,
(278) ُٚ‫ ٌض ٗل ُـ‬٣‫جة َء ػ‬. (Zaid came himself). d3aa?a Zaidun nafsuhu.
In this example, ''nafsuhu'' is in the nominative case because it is used as an
emphasis to'' Zaidun'' which is the subject and it is in the nominative case .
(279) ُْ ٣‫ ٌض بٌُغ‬٣‫جة َء ػ‬. (Zaid who is generous came.)
d3aa?a Zaidun alkariimu .
'' alkariimu'' is in the nominative case because it is an adjective to '' Zaidun ''
which is the subject and it is in the nominative case .
(280) ُ ُٚٔ ِ‫ ٌض ػ‬٣‫ ػ‬٢٘‫أػجح‬. (I admired Zaid's science.) ?a9d3abanii zaidun9 ilmuhu.
9 ''ilmuhu'' is in the nominative case and it is an apposition to'' Zaidun ''that
is the subject and it is in the nominative case .
(281) ٝ‫ ٌض جَ ػٔغ‬٣‫ َٓة هة َّ ػ‬. (Zaid did not stand but Amro did.)
maa qaama zaidun bal 9amruu.
In (289'' (1amruu'' is in the nominative case because it is a conjunction to
''Zaidun ''that is in the nominative case because it is a subject .
(282) ‫ة ُء‬٤‫ بألٗح‬٠‫ٓةذ بُ٘ةؽُ دس‬. ( All people died even prophets.)
Maata alnasu Hataa Al?-anbiia?u.
In this example, ''Al?- anbiia?u'' is in the nominative case because it is a
conjunction to ''alnas'' which is the subject and in the nominative case.
(9abdul-Hamid: 2009: 140, 152, 168, 174, 183).
2. Accusative Case
The accusative case is the case of the complement that is not preceded by a
preposition .When the speaker pronounces the accusative noun, he/she will
 23

open his/ her mouth and his/ her jaws move away from each other so it is
called alnaSub, such as,
(283) ً‫ ٌض ػٔغب‬٣‫ًغت ػ‬َ . ( Zaid hit Omar). Daraba Zaidun9 amuraan
The accusative nouns are different from the nominative ones because the
accusative nouns are complement ''faDla "‫ كٌِد‬of the sentence but the
nominative ones are the basic elements of the sentence. They are called
''faDla'' because they can be omitted from the sentence. The accusative
nouns occupy a large space in Arabic. The main accusative nouns are the
five objects. They are: object, cognate object, object of purpose, place and
time adverbials, and the object of accompaniment. The other accusative
nouns are: the exception in some of its states, a circumstantial adverb, the
object of specification, the comment of kana and its set, the topic of ?inna
and its set, exclamation by using the formula ''maa ?af9ala َ‫'' ٓة بكؼ‬,
enticement (lure), warning, praise, dispraise, asking God to have mercy upon
''altaraHim ْ‫'' بُسغد‬, specialization (‫)بالسسوةم‬, prayer (invocation of God)
''aldu9aa? ‫ ''بُضػةء‬interrogation, the comment of ''kafaa ٠‫ '' ًل‬and albaa?, the
deletion of the preposition and finally the accusative by followers (Ibn
9aSfuur, 1986: 53).
A. Object
The transitive verb takes an object.:
(284) ‫بٌُسث‬
َ ُ
‫زضجغذ‬ .(I understood the books.) (tadabirtu al kutba).
Some verbs take two objects and both of them are in the accusative case.
The origin of these objects is a topic and comment as '' Dana ٖ‫ " ظ‬and its set,
and the origin of others is not a topic and comment as ''?a9Taa ٠‫بػط‬, ?abSr
‫ أجوغ‬and kasaa ‫'' ًـة‬. For instance,
(285) ً‫ضبً هةئٔة‬٣‫أجوغذ ػ‬.
ُ ( I saw Zaid standing.)
?abSartu Zaidaan qaa?imaan.
(286) .ٌ‫بألعى سٌغخ‬ َ ‫ ُغ‬٤‫( ً َـة بُغج‬The land is green in Spring).
kasaa alrabii9u al?arDa xiDratan.
Some verbs take three objects as ''?a9lama ? ,ِْ‫ بػ‬ablaGa and ?araa .'' ٟ‫بع‬
For example,
(287) ‫بُ٘ةؽ‬
َ ‫ض‬٣‫ةً بجِؾ ػ‬٤ِ‫هةصهةً ػ‬. (Zaid told the people that Ali was honest.)
(?ablaGa Zaidun alnaasa 9aliiaan Saadiqaan) (Aziz, 1989: 198 and 9abdul-
Hamid, 2009: 108-9).
Sometimes, there are two elements which affect the object, this is called
dispute (quarrel)=''altanaazi9 fi al9amal .'' َ‫ بُلؼ‬٢‫ بُس٘ةػع ك‬For example,
(292) ً‫ضب‬٣‫أًغٓر ػ‬ٝ
ُ ُ
‫ًغجر‬. ( I hit and welcomed Zaid).
Darabtu wa ?akramtu Zaiidan.
In this example ,both verbs ''hit'' and ''welcome'' affect the object '' Zaid ''and
make it in the accusative case9) abdul-Hamid, 2009: 117-9).
 24

In passive, the only first object becomes deputy-agent and the second
remain unaffected by any change.
B. Cognate Object
It is called cognate (‫ٍ بُٔطِن‬ٞ‫ )بُٔلؼ‬because there is no preposition or other
things which restrict it .It is free .It is derived from its verb .This is in the
opposite to other types of object ,as in :
(293) ً‫قُ ػدلة‬٤‫ػدقَ بُج‬. (The army marched.)
zaHafa ald3aii∫u zaHfaan (Al-Saraad, 1983: 93-4).
The cognate object is used:
1- to emphasize the action of the verb, as in:
(294) ُ ‫ةٓة‬٤‫هٔر ه‬
ُ (I fasted). Simtu Siiaamaan .
2. to show the type of the action, for example,
(295) ً‫ضب‬٣‫ضبً ًغجة ً كض‬٣‫ًغجر ػ‬
ُ (I hit Zaid strongly) (
Darabtu Zaidaan Darbaan ∫adiidaan.
3. to show the number, such as,
(296) .‫ذ‬ ٍ ‫ًغجة‬ٝ ٖ٤‫ًغجس‬
ِ ُ
‫ًغجر‬ (I hit somebody/something twice and many
times). Daaradtu Darbatiini wa Darbaatin) (fayaD, 1995: 123; Al-
BaGdaadi, 160 1996 ; Al-Ba9ali, 2002:360; Al-Sa9iid, 2006: 559 ;abdul-
Hamid,2009 : 126-7 and NaaSir,2012: 7).
There are many words which may be used instead of cognate number.
They are: all=kul ًَ, some=ba9D ‫ جؼي‬, equal words, demonstrative, the
pronoun, number, the noun of instrument. For example,
(297) " َ٤ُٔ‫ب‬
ِ ًَ ‫ب‬ِٞ٤ٔ‫ال ز‬ٝ " ( But turn not away) ( from a woman)
altogether,…'') (4/129) wa laa tamiiluu kul almaiili.
(298) .ً‫ؿة‬ِٞ‫هؼضذ ج‬ُ (I sat down) . qa9adtu d3iluusaan .
(299) .‫( ًغجسُيَ طُي بٌُغت‬I hit you harshly). Darabtka ðalka alDarb.
(300) .ً‫ضب‬٣‫ ػ‬ٚ‫( ًغجس‬I hit Zaid). Darabtahu Zaidann.
(301) " ً‫ٖ جِضخ‬٤ٗ‫ْ ضٔة‬ٛٝ‫ "كةجِض‬Flog them with eighty stripes (4/24)
fa?id3liduuhim Ѳ ninnammad3aldatan.
(302) ً ‫ٍة‬ٞ‫ ؿ‬ٚ‫( ًغجس‬I hit him by a lash). ( Darabtahu suuIaan) (Al?-anSaari,
1963: 224-5; and harun, 2001: 85-7and 9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 127-9).
C. Object of Purpose
It is an abstract noun that shows the reason behind the action. For instance,
(303) ً‫جض كٌغب‬. ( He works hard to thank somebody). d3ud∫ ukraan.
(304) .ٝ‫ ٌض ئجالالً ُؼٔغ‬٣‫( هة َّ ػ‬Zaid stood because he respected Amru).
qaama Zaidun? id3laalaan li9umruu.
The object of purpose in this sentence is an answer to the question '' Why
did Zaid stand ?lima fa9alta alqiyaam .'' ‫ ُْ كؼِر طُي‬The time of ''?id3laalaan''
is past because the time of the verb ''qaama'' is past, too. Also, the subject of
the sentence ''why did Zaid stand'' is the same subject of the verb ''qaama''
 25

(Al?-ahdal, 1990: 30; fayaD, 1995: 125 ;QaTuus, 2000, 87; and Al-Sa9iid,
2006: 57 and 9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 137-8).
D. Place and time Adverbials
They are names of place and time. They mean ''in ) fi ''( ٢‫ك‬and they are in the
accusative case. The elements that affect them may be:
1- an abstract noun, for example,
(305) ‫غ‬٤ٓ‫بأل‬
ِ ‫ َّ بُجٔؼ ِد ػ٘ َض‬ٞ٣ ً‫ضب‬٣‫ػجحر ٖٓ ًغجَيَ ػ‬
ُ .
(I was surprised at your hitting Zaid on Friday in front of the prince).
9ad3ibtu min Darbaka Zaidaan yauum aldᶾum9ati 9ind al?amiir.
2. the verb, as in :
(306) .‫غ‬٣‫ َّ بُجٔؼ ِد أٓةّ بُٔض‬ٞ٣ ً‫ضب‬٣‫ًغجر ػ‬ ُ (I hit Zaid in front of the boss on Friday)
Darabtu Zaidaan yauuma ald3um9ati ?amaam al?amiir.
3. or description, for example,
(307) ً‫ضب‬٣‫ّ ػ٘ضى أٗة ًةعتٌ ػ‬ٞ٤ُ‫ب‬. (I am hitting Zaid today in front of you.)
?anaa Daarbun Zaidaan alyauuma 9indak. (Al-BaGdaadi, 1987: 11-13; Al-
NaHwi, 1886: 72; and 9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 142-3).
Time adverbial is in the accusative case whether it is ambiguous, as in:
(308) ً‫ؿغذ ُذظد‬.
ُ (I walked for a moment.) sirtu laHDatan.
Or it may be specialized by :
1. genitive, such as,
(309) .‫ َّ بُجٔؼ ِد‬ٞ٣ ‫ؿغذ‬ ُ (I walked on Friday). sirtu yauuma aldᶾum9ati.
2. Description:
ً
(310) .‫ال‬٣ٍٞ ً ‫ٓة‬ٞ٣ ‫ؿغذ‬ُ (I walked for a long day). sirtu yauumaan Iauuiilaan.
3. Number: .ٖ٤ٓٞ٣
ِ ُ
‫ؿغذ‬ (I walked for two days). sirtu yauumaiini.
E. Object of Accompaniment
The object of accompaniment (ٚ‫ٍ ٓؼ‬ٞ‫ )بُٔلؼ‬is an accusative noun. It follows
the particle ''waawٝ‫ب‬ٝ '' which means ''with'' .The verb or ∫ubh alfi9il ( ٚ‫كح‬
َ‫ )بُلؼ‬makes the object of accompaniment in the accusative case, such as,
(318) ‫ن ٓـغػد‬٣‫بُطغ‬ٝ ١‫غ‬٤‫ؿ‬. ( Go ahead quickly.) siirii wa al Iariiq musri9atan.
(319) .‫ن‬٣‫بُطغ‬ٝ ‫ ٌض ؿةئ ٌغ‬٣‫ػ‬ (Zaid is walking along the way)
Zaidun saa?irun waalIariiq.
When the interrogative words ''ma ‫ ٓة‬or kaifa '' ‫ق‬٤ً precede alwaaw and
the noun, the noun will be in the accusative case by the effect of the implicit
verb that is driven from becoming ''alkuun '' ٌُٕٞ‫ ب‬:
(320) ً‫ضب‬٣‫ػ‬ٝ ‫ٓة أٗر‬. ( What is about you and Zaid.) maa ?anta wa Zaidaan.
(321) .‫ض‬٣‫ هوؼد ٖٓ ضغ‬ٝ ‫ق أٗر‬٤ً (do you do with a plant of food.
kaiifa ?anta wa qis9atan min Ѳ nimma.
The grammarians say that ''Zaidan'' and ''qis9atan'' are accusative nouns
(9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 152).
E. The Thing Excepted in the Accusative Case
 26

The thing excepted is in the accusative case obligatorily and optionally. If

the thing excepted follows a complete affirmative speech whether the speech
is connected (i.e., it means the thing excepted is a part of the general term)
or unconnected (i.e., it means the thing excepted is not a part of the general
term). The thing excepted will be in the accusative case obligatorily:
(322) (َ‫ )ٓسو‬.ً‫ضب‬٣‫ ُّ ئال ػ‬ٞ‫( هة َّ بُو‬All people stood except Zaid.)
qaama alquumu ?laa Zaidaan. (connected)
(323) (‫ )ٓ٘وطغ‬.ً‫ ُّ ئال دٔةعب‬ٞ‫( هة َّ بُو‬All people stood except a donkey)
qaama alquumu ?ilaa Himaaraan (unconnected).
In the preceding examples 322) and 323'' ,(Zaidan'' and ''Himaaran'' are in
the accusative case obligatorily. ''?ila ''‫ ئال‬is the element that affects the nouns
and makes them in the accusative case. This is siybawayh's ideology
9)abdul-Hamid .(6-155 :2009 ,Also, the thing excepted is in the accusative
case obligatorily, if the thing excepted precedes the general term, as in :
(324) ّٞ‫ضبً بُو‬٣‫( ٓة هة َّ ئال ػ‬Nobody stood except Zaid.)
) ) maa qaama ?ilaa Zaidaan alqauum.
The thing excepted is in the accusative case optionally, if the exception is a
complete, negative and it is connected, or if it is similar to negation, for
example ,
(325) ‫د ٓةهة َّ بد ٌض ئال‬٤ُ‫ بُحض‬٠ِ‫ ٌض )ػ‬٣‫ ػ‬ٝ‫ضبً ب‬٣‫) ػ‬ ( No one stood except Zaid).
maa qaama ?aHadun ?iaa Zaidaan\or Zaidun.
The thing excepted is in the accusative case obligatorily, if the exception is
''mufaraG '' which means the general term is not mentioned. The thing
excepted is an object, for instance,
(326) . َ‫ ٌض ئال ٍؼة َٓي‬٣‫أًَ ػ‬
َ ‫ٓة‬ (Zaid ate nothing except your food).
maa ?akala Zaidun? ilaa Ta9aamaka.
In '' (326) Ta9amaka'' is an accusative object) MuHuar Al-d3awa?ib, 1288 :
51 ; Al-Saamiri, 1982: 378-9; Al?-ahdal, 1990: 390-93,395; Al-BaGdaadi,
1997: 312; Al-Fuzan, 1998: 431-2; Al-Xawaarizmi, 1998: 158; and
9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 8-9, 155-547).
F. Singular Circumstantial Adverbs
A circumstantial adverb is a description that refers to a state. For example ,
(327) ‫ث‬ٛ‫كغصبً بط‬. (Go alone). )fardaan ?iɚhab.
In this example ,''fardaan'' is a circumstantial adverb and it is in the
accusative case. The circumstantial adverb is usually movable to the SaHib
alHal .For example ,
(328) ً‫ ٌض عبًحة‬٣‫جة َء ػ‬.( Zaid who is riding came.) d3aa?a Zaidun rakiban.
In'' (328) rakiban ''is a changeable description to'' Zaidun ,''he may come
walking or in other states. In other states, the circumstantial adverbs may be
static ,for example ,
 27

(329) ً ‫ؼة‬٤ٔ‫ذ هللا ؿ‬ٞ‫صػ‬.

ُ ( I ask God who is the All-Hearing God.)
da9auutu allah samii9aan.
All grammarians say that circumstantial adverbs should be indefinite, but the
SaHib alHal should be definite. SaHib AlHal may be indefinite if there is a
reason. The circumstantial adverb may precede SaHib alHal, as in:
(330) ‫ ٌض‬٤‫ًةدٌة ً جة َء ؿؼ‬. (Saeed who is laughing came.)
DaaHikaan d3aa?a sa9iidun. (Al-Saraad, 1983: 100; Al-NaHwi, 1886: 77-8;
?abu Al9abass, 1998: 31; QaTuus, 2000: 93 and 9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 179-
80, 183, 189-95).
G. Object of Specification
It is of two types:
1. The first type clarifies a thing/ self.
2. The second type shows proportion.
The first follows quantity, measure, weight and number, for example,
(331) ً‫ُ كح ٌغ بعًة‬ُٚ. (He has a span of the earth). ( lahu ∫ubrun ?arDan).
(332) ً‫ٖ جُغب‬٤‫ُ هل‬ُٚ (He has two baskets of buckwheat). lahu quufiian buran.
(333) ً‫بٕ ػـال‬ٞ٘ٓ ُُٚ (He has 150 Kilos of honey. lahu minuuaan 9asalan.
(334) ً ‫ٔة‬ٛ‫ٕ صع‬ٝ‫ ػلغ‬١‫ ػ٘ض‬I have twenty dirhams. 9i∫ruun dirhaman.
In the preceding examples (331-4?'' ,(arDan ,buran,9asalan, and dirhaman
are accusative objects of specification. The other kind shows what is related
to the element whether it is a subject or an object. For instance,
(335) (ً‫ ٌض ٗلـة‬٣‫ٍةت ػ‬ َ ) (َ‫( )كةػ‬Zaid's soul becomes good).
Taaba Zaidun nafsaan. (subject).
(336) ( ٚ‫ٍ ج‬ٞ‫ )ٓلؼ‬.ً‫بألعى كجغب‬ َ ُ
‫ؿغؿر‬ (I planted the trees).
Garastu alarDa ∫ad3arraan. (object) (Al?-anSaari, 1963: 237-9;
fayaD, 1995: 140-9 ; abdul-Hamid, 2009: 211-12; and NaaSir, 2012: 35).
The object of specification that follows the formula ''?af9al'' superlative
(َ٤ٌ‫ ) أكؼَ بُسل‬should be in the accusative case if its meaning is a subject. If it
is not, it should be in the genitive case by addition. There is a condition to
know if the noun is a subject or not, that is, if the noun becomes a subject to
the formula ''?af9al'' after changing it to the form of the verb. For example,
(337)ً‫أٗرَ أًطغ ٓةال‬. ( you have more money than me).?anta ?akѲai innanna.
This sentence can be:
(338) .‫( أٗر ًطُ َغ ٓةُي‬your money is increased).
?anta kaѲ in innanr (9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 213 .Also ,if the object
follows the interrogative word ''kam, '' ًْ" for instance,
(339) ?‫ٔة ً ػطةؤى‬ٛ‫( ًْ صع‬How many dirhams is your donation?)
kam dirhamaan 9aTaauk. ?Al-Hamad and Al-zuGbi, 1993: 252 and Al-
Quraafi, 1997: 226.
H. The Noun in the Vocative in the Accusative Case
 28

The vocative is the call by using ''yaa'' or one of its set. The noun in the
vocative (‫ت‬ٞ‫ بُٔ٘و‬ٟ‫ )بُٔ٘ةص‬is an object in meaning and origin. The vocative
particles are: alhamza ‫ٔؼخ‬ُٜ‫ب‬, yaa‫ة‬٣ , ?ayaa ‫ة‬٣‫ب‬, ?ay ١‫ ب‬, haya ‫ة‬٤ٛ, and waaw ٝ‫ب‬ٝ .
These particles are used instead of the vocative verb ''call (?id9u ‫ب‬ٞ‫'')بصػ‬, but
the verb is deleted in the sentence. The reason beyond the deletion of the
verb is to make the pronunciation of the sentence easier and to prevent
confusion. If the noun in the vocative is a singular word (i.e., it is not a
compound word) and indefinite or a possessed noun or similar to a
possessed noun ''mu∫abahan bilmuDaaf ‫ة جةٌُٔةف‬ٜ‫''ٓلح‬, it will be in the
accusative case, for example,
(340) ١‫ض‬٤‫ة ع ُجالً سظ ج‬٣. (Man, help me.) (singular) yaa rad3ulaan xuð bi-iiadii.
(341) .‫ ٍض‬٣‫ة ؿال َّ ػ‬٣ (Zaid's boy) (possessed noun) yaa Gulaama Zaidin.
ً ‫ة ٍةُؼة ً جح‬٣. possessed noun) similar to a ) (Going up the mountain.)
(342) ‫ال‬
(yaa Taali9aan d3abalaan) (bn Qanbar, 1988: 182 ;Al-NaHaas, 2009: 5;
9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 191-2; and Ibn Al?aѲiir, 2000: 388).
I. The Comment of ''Kana'' and its Set and the Topic of ''?inna'' and its
Set
They are called ''alnawasix ‫بؿز‬ُٞ٘‫''ب‬. The first group is verbs and the second
one is particles. Their effects are explained in (3.5.1.4 and 3.5.1.5). For
instance,
(344)'' ً‫ٔة‬٤ٌ‫ؼبً د‬٣‫ًةَٕ هللاُ ػؼ‬ٝ.(''And Allah is Exalted in Power,Wise,''(4/158)
'' wa kana allahu 9aziizaan Hakiimaan.)
(Al?-anSaari, 1963: 126; Al-BaGdaadi, 1978: 14; Al-Sabtij, 1986: 661-2
and 9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 211, 274-5).
J. The noun of '' maa ?af9al"
The noun which follows the exclamatory formula ''maa ?af9al "‫أكؼَ ٓة‬is in
the accusative case, for example,
(346) ً‫ضب‬٣‫ ( ٓة أدـَٖ ػ‬What a good person Zaid is!) maa ?aHsana Zaidaan.
''Zaidaan ''is an object of the verb ''?aHsana''(Al-d3aarim and ?amiin :1966 ,
;60fayaD, 1995: 254 ;Al-9azaawi, 2000: 160; Al-Sa9iid, 2006: 123 and
9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 109).
J. ment, Warning, Praise, Dispraise, Asking God to Have Mercy upon
''altaraHiim'' and Invocation
Enticement is a style of speech to entice and persuade the hearer(s) to do a
good deed. Such as,
(347) ‫ن بُ٘جةح‬٣‫ ٍغ‬ٚٗ‫ةص كة‬ٜ‫ بالجس‬. (Hard working is the way of success.)
al?id3tihaad fa?inahu Tariiq alnad3aaH.
It means ''work hard .''
Warning is a style of speech to warn or prevent the hearers from doing a bad
thing .For example,
 29

(348) َ‫بُلل‬ ِ ‫ن‬٣‫ ٍغ‬ٚٗ‫( بٌُ َـ ََ كة‬Laziness is the way of failure).

alkasala fa?inahu Tariiq alfa∫ali .
The enticement and warning nouns ''al?id3tihaad and alksala'' are always
in the accusative case. The element that makes the nouns in the accusative
case is a verb which is omitted optionally or obligatorily) Al-d3aarim and
?amiin ;59 :1966 ,Al-Sa9iid, 2006: 129 ;Al-NaHwi, without date: 312 and
9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 221-2). The other nouns as praise, dispraise,
''altaraHiim ''ْ‫ بُسغد‬and invocation are in the accusative case, for instance ,
(349) ‫بُوةُخ‬
َ ُ
َ‫ ٍض بُغج‬٣‫ٓغعذ جؼ‬. ( I passed by Zaid who is a good man.)
(marartu biZaidin alrad3l alSaaliHa.) (praise).
(350) .‫ي بُلةجغ‬٤‫ٓغعذ جأس‬ ُ (I passed by your brother who is bad) .
marartu bi?axiika alfaad3ir (Dispraise).
ُ
(351) . َٖ٤ٌ‫ بُٔـ‬ٚ‫ٓغعذ ج‬ (I passed by a poor man). marartu bihi almskiina.
ً ً
(352) .‫ؿذوة‬ٝ ُْٜ ‫( زحة‬Woe to them and distance) (tabaan lahim wa suHqaan).
(invocation) (Al-BaGdaadi, 1987: 34, 38; and Al-Faraahidi, 1985: 5, 64-
86).
3.5.2.13 Specialization ''ixtiSaaS"
Specialization (‫ ( بسسوةم‬is in the accusative case by the effect of an implicit
verb ''specialize'' ''?axS ‫'' أسن‬. For instance,
(353) ‫ بُ٘ةؽ ٗذُٖ بُؼغت‬٠‫أؿش‬. (We Arabs are the most generous people.)
naHnu al9arab? asxaa alnaas.
In (353'' ,(al9araba ''is an accusative noun) (Al-9azaawi, 2000: 188; Al-
Sa9iid, 2006: 128 and 9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 220).
K. Other Accusative Nouns
There are other accusative nouns as the interrogative ones for example,
(354) ّ‫ة‬٤‫بُ٘ةؽ ه‬ٝ ً‫صب‬ٞ‫أهؼ‬. ( Are you sitting? And people are standing).
?aqi9uudaan wa alnaas qiiaam. (Al-faraahiidij, 1985: 87).
The comment of'' kafa '' ٠‫ ًل‬and ''albaa ''‫? بُحةء‬is in the accusative case.:
(355) ''ً‫حة‬٤‫ جةهلل دـ‬٠‫ًل‬ٝ" ''And enough is Allah to call (men)account.) (33/39).
wa kafaa bilahi Hasiibaa. (Al-BaGdaadi, 1978: 62).
If the preposition is deleted from the sentence, its noun will be in the
accusative case) MuSTafaa ,(118 :1992 ,for example ,
(356) '' ّ‫جظال‬ٍ ‫ٓة عجي‬ٝ ‫ض‬٤‫ُِؼح‬.'' "Nor is your Lord over unjust (in the least))
to his Servant"). (41/64) wa maa rabuka biDalaamin lil9biid .
Its origin is'' wa maa rabuka Dalaamaan lil9abiid ".
1. Genitive Case
The genitive case is the case of nouns which are preceded by prepositions or
their meaning is addition .The genitive means addition or annexation ,so it is
called in this way .The prepositions connect what is before them) the speech
before the prepositions (with what is after them ,as in:
 30

ُ
(364) ‫ ٍض‬٣‫ٓغعذ جؼ‬ . (I passed by Zaid). )marartu biZaidin.
In ,(364) the preposition ''bi'' connects process of the passing with ''Zaid .''
The accusative and genitive cases do not appear in the sentence if the
nominative case is not fronted as it is clear in the previous example(Al-
Zad3ad3i ;93 :1979 ,Al-BaSri 29 :1991 ,and d3ubal, 1999: 64-5,67).
Genitive case consists of three types: genitive by preposition, genitive by
addition, and genitive by followers (Ibn 9aSfur, 1986: 54 .(
A. Genitive by Prepositions
There are twenty prepositions which affect the nouns and make them in the
genitive case. They are: min ٖٓ, ?ila ٠ُ‫ب‬, Hata ٠‫دس‬, xala ‫سال‬, Ha∫a ‫دةكة‬,
9ada ‫ػضب‬, fi ٢‫ك‬, 9an ٖ‫ػ‬, 9ala ٠ِ‫ػ‬, muð ‫ٓظ‬, munðu ‫ٓ٘ظ‬, ruba ‫ عت‬, allaam ّ‫بُال‬,
kai ٢ً, swearing waaw and taa? ٝ‫ب‬ٝ ‫زةء‬ٝ ْ‫بُوـ‬, albaa? ‫بُحةء‬, la9ala َ‫ُؼ‬, mata ٠‫ٓس‬
and alkaf ‫بٌُةف‬. Ha∫a, xala, and 9ada are prepositions if they are followed
by genitive nouns but they are verbs if they are followed by accusative
nouns, for example,
(365) ‫ ٍض‬٣‫ ُّ سال ػ‬ٞ‫هة َّ بُو‬. (People stood except Zaid.) qaama alquumu xalaa
zaidin) (NaaSif et al., 1911: 68; Al-NaHwi, 1972: 71-2; Al-Faraahidi :1985 ,
172and Al-Xawaarizmi ;8-197 :1998 ,Al-9azaawi et al ;8-67 :2000 ,.Al-
Saamra?i, 2007: 142; Al-NaHaas, 2009: 17; 9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 7, 561
and bn Qaasim, without date:12-19''.(Zaidin ''is a genitive noun so 'xalaa' is a
preposition not a verb .
Seven of these prepositions affect the explicit nouns only. They are :
munðu, muð, Hata, alkaf, alwaw, ruba and altaa .?So it is wrong to say :
*munðhu ٙ‫ ٓظ‬and* munðuhu .ٙ‫ ٓ٘ظ‬In addition, ''muð and munðu'' affect time
nouns only. If the time is present, they mean ''in=fi ,'' ٢‫ ك‬as in :
(366) ‫ٓ٘ة‬ٞ٣ ٢‫ ك‬:١‫أ‬ ‫ٓ٘ة‬ٞ٣ ‫ ٓ٘ظ‬ٚ‫س‬٣‫ (ٓة عأ‬I have not seen him from that day.)
(maa r?aiituhu munðu yauumunaa.)
If time is past ,they mean ''from=min ,'' such as,
)‫ّ بُجٔؼد‬ٞ٣ ٖٓ : ١‫ّ بُجٔؼد أ‬ٞ٣ ‫ ٓ٘ظ‬ٚ‫س‬٣‫( ٓة عأ‬367)I have not see him since Friday
) maa r?aiituh munðu yauumi ald3um9ati(.
'' Alwaw and altaa?'' are used to express swearing. They do not occur with a
swearing verb, for instance it is wrong to say :
(368) ‫ال أهـْ زةهلل‬ٝ ‫هللا‬ٝ ْ‫أهـ‬. ( *I swear by God and I do not swear by God.)
?*aqsim wa allahi was laa ?aqsim tallahi.
''Altaa?'' affects the word ''Allah'' only, for example ,
.‫( زةهللِ الكؼََِٖ طُي‬369)I Swear by Allah,I will do that. Tallahi la?a f9allana
ðalika.
''Altaa?'' comes with the words ''alka9ba '' ‫ بٌُؼحد‬and ''alraHmaan ''ٖٔ‫ بُغد‬and
it makes them in the genitive case :
(370) ‫ت بٌُؼح ِد‬ َ ‫زغ‬
َ (I swear by God of ka'aba). taraba alka9ba.
 31

These two forms are odd ) Al-Faraahidi, 1985: 187 ;fayaD, 199 150 :5and
9abdul-Hamid, 2009.(8 :
B.Genitive by Addition
Genitive by addition is called ''?iDaafah ‫ ''أًةكد‬by Arab grammarians. This
term is used to describe the process of adding a noun to another in a genitive
construction. Cited in ( Ibn Hisham Sharh: 325) defines addition as ''a
restrictive relation between two nouns, or as an attribution of a noun to
another where the relation between the second (modifying noun) and the
first (head noun) is like that of explicit or implicit nunation.''(Gadalla and
9abdul-Hamid, 2014: 4). The terms ''addition '' is used to translate ''?iDaafah
‫''بًةكد‬, ''possessed noun'' to translate ''?al-muDaaf ‫ ''بٌُٔةف‬and ''possessor'' to
''?al-muDaaf ?ilayh ٚ٤ُ‫''بٌُٔةف ب‬.
D. Genitive Meanings
Genitive by addition has the following meanings:
1-Possessive Genitive: (The student's book ) (407) ‫ظ‬٤ِٔ‫ًسةت بُس‬.
(kitaabu altilmiiði.)
2-Subjective Genitive: (The departure of the plane) (408) ‫ٓـةصعخ بُطةئغخ‬.
( muGaadrati alTaa?irati.)
3-Objective Genitive: (The killing of the ox (409) ‫ع‬ٞ‫ٓوسَ بُط‬.
( maqtalu alѲuuri.)
4-Descriptive Genitive: (the college for women) (410) ‫د بُح٘ةذ‬٤ًِ .
( kuliiatu albanaati.)
5-Genitive of Origin: ( The girl's story) (411) ‫ هود بُلسةخ‬.
( quSatu alfataati)
6-Genitive of Measure: (A day's journey on foot) (412) ّٞ٣ ‫غخ‬٤‫ٓـ‬.
( masiiratu yauumin.)
7-Genitive of Material: (A gold ring) (413) ‫ث‬ٛ‫سةزْ ط‬.
(xaatamu ðahab.)
8-Partitive Genitive: (414) ٍ‫جؼي بُغجة‬. (Some men)
) ba9Du alrid3aali(
9- Genitive of Place:) .‫ض ًغجالء‬٤ٜ‫ٖ ك‬٤‫( بُذـ‬415)Al-Hussein is Karbila's martyr (.
) alHusaiin∫ ahiid karbalaa(.?
-10Genitive of Time ) .‫ةع‬ُٜ٘‫ ب‬ٝ َ٤ُِ‫( ٌٓغ ب‬416):plotting by night and day.)
(34/33) (maker allaiil wa alnahaar (.
-11 Genitive of relation) .‫ؽ‬ٝ‫بُض بُؼغ‬ٝ (417:The father of the bride)
(waalid al9aruusi(.
-12Genitive of naming (appositive genitive ) .‫٘د جـضبص‬٣‫( ٓض‬418The city of
Baghdad) (madiinatu baGdaada(.
-13Genitive of Confirmation) .ٖ٤‫و‬٤ُ‫( دن ب‬419):The very truth and certainty)
(haqu aliiaqiini(.
 32

-14Genitive of Similarity and Differences

) .‫ض‬٣‫غ ػ‬٤‫ ٍةُث ؿ‬٢ٗ‫( جةء‬420):A student but not Zaid came to me.)
(d3aa?anij Taalibun Gaiir Zaidin(.
.‫ض‬٣‫ظب ٍةُث ٓطَ ػ‬ٛ (421)This student is like Zaid.)
(haða Taalibun miѲlu Zaidin(.
-15Genitive of intention) .‫ جـضبص بُؼغبم‬٠ُ‫حر ئ‬ٛ‫( ط‬422):I went to Baghdad, Iraq (.
ðahabtu ?ilaa baGdada al9iraaqi )(
(Aziz,1989:131 and Gadalla9 & bdul-Hamid, 2014: 51-9).
1.3.1.1Genitive by followers
The following sentences are examples on followers in the genitive case:
(I passed by Zaid who is generous.) ( ْ٣‫بٌُغ‬
ِ ُ
‫ ٍض‬٣‫جؼ‬. ‫ٓغعذ‬ 423 ) (marirtu
biZaidin alkariimi.)
The adiective ''alkariim'' is in the genitive case because it follows the word
''Zaidin'' which is in the genitive case because it is preceded by a preposition.
(424) ‫ٓغعذ جي ٗلـي‬ ٌ ( I passed by you). ) marartu bika nafsak.
The word ''nafsak'' is an emphasis to the pronoun and it is in the genitive
case because the pronoun is in the same case, too.
(425)"‫ٗ ٍد‬ٞ‫س‬٣‫هض ٖٓ كجغ ٍخ ٓحةعً ٍد ػ‬ٞ٣"
''Lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive .(35/24)('',
( yuuqad min ∫ad3aratin mubaarakatin zaiituuntin.)
''Zaiituunatin'' is an apposition to ''∫ad3aratin'' and it is in the genitive case
(9abdul-Hamid, 2009: 140,157,162).
F. Pronouns
Pronouns are the nouns that refer to a speaker or an addressee or an absent.
They are pro-forms which stand for nouns phrases. For example, ?ana , ‫بٗة‬
?anta ‫ بٗر‬and huwa .ٞٛ
There are two main types of pronouns. They are explicit and implicit. Each
type has subtypes. Explicit Pronouns can be inseparable and separable .
Separable Explicit Pronouns occur at the beginning of the sentence and
follow?'' illa .'' ‫ ئال‬. They fall in two types. They are:
First :Separable Pronouns in the nominative case .They are ''?anna ‫أٗة‬
and naHnu ''ٖ‫ ٗذ‬for the speaker?'' ;anta? , َ‫ بٗر‬anti? ,‫ر‬ ِ ٗ‫ ب‬antum ,ْ‫بٗس‬
?antunna ''ٖ‫ أٗس‬for the addressee and '' huwa ,ٞٛ hiya ,٢ٛ huma ,‫ٔة‬ٛ hum ْٛ
and hunna ''‫ݩ‬ٛ for the absent .For instance,
(428) "ْٛ ْٛ‫ كةدظع‬ٝ‫بُؼض‬." (''They are enemy , aware them.'')(7/143)
huma algaduufa?ittarhum.
" ٖ٤٘ٓ‫ٍ بُٔإ‬ٝ‫أٗة أ‬ٝ ‫ي‬٤ُ‫ ( " ؿحذةٗي زحر ئ‬429)
Glory be to you To you I turn in repentance, and I am the first to believe (''.
)subHaanaka tubtu ?ilaiika wa? ana? auual almu?imniin) (.NaSif et al ,.
9 ;45 :1911umar, 1994: 27-8 ;and Al-Fuzan, 1998: 83 .(22 ,91,
 33

Second: Separable Pronouns are in the accusative case only. They are twelve
pronouns which are ''?ijaja ١‫ة‬٣‫ ئ‬and ?iyana ‫ةٗة‬٣‫ ''ئ‬for the speaker: ''?iyakia
‫ةى‬٣‫ئ‬, ?iyaki ‫ةى‬٣‫ب‬, ِ ?iyakuma ‫ةًٔة‬٣‫ئ‬, ?iyakum ًْ‫ة‬٣‫ئ‬, and ?iyakunna ًٖ‫ة‬٣‫ ''ئ‬for the
addressee and ''?iyah ٙ‫ة‬٣‫ئ‬, ?iyaha ‫ة‬ٛ‫ة‬٣‫ئ‬, ?iyahuma ‫ٔة‬ٛ‫ة‬٣‫ئ‬, ?iyahum ْٛ‫ة‬٣‫ ئ‬and
?iyahunna ٖٛ‫ة‬٣‫ ''ئ‬for the absent. They are called accusative pronouns because
they are always parsed as fronting objects. For example,
('' You do we worship , ……'' ((1/5)
430) " ‫ةى‬٣‫? ( "ٗؼحض ئ‬iyaaka na9budu).
(431) " ٙ‫ة‬٣‫ب ئال ئ‬ٝ‫" أ َٓ َغ أال زؼحض‬
''He has commanded that you worship none but him (40/12)(''
?''amar ?an laa tagbudu ? ilaa ? iyaah ) (''.Al-Fuzan.(3-91 :1998 ,
Inseparable Explicit Pronouns do not come at the beginning of the sentence
and do not follow?" ilaa":
First: They are in the nominative case only. They are five pronouns . They
are ''altaa? ‫ بُسةء‬which has a mark ( i.e., its taa? Alfa9il َ‫)زةء بُلةػ‬, ?alif
al?iѲnaiin ٖ٤٘‫بُق بالض‬, plural waw ‫ بُجٔةػد‬ٝ‫ب‬ٝ, addressee yaa? ‫ةء بُٔشةٍحد‬٣ and
feminine nun‫ٕ بالٗةش‬ٞٗ ( alniswa nun ‫خ‬ٞ‫ٕ بُ٘ـ‬ٞٗ)'':
(432) " ‫ًَ ػؼٓرَ كاطب‬ٞ‫ كس‬٠ِ‫ " هللا ػ‬.
"Then ,when you have taken a decision, put your trust in Allah (159/2)(''.
fa?ðaa 9azimta fatauuakal 9alaa allah
ً ‫اة‬٤‫ة ٖٓ هللا ك‬٤٘‫ـ‬٣ ِْ‫( " ك‬433)
and they profited nothing before Allah on their account')(66/10
falam yuGniilaa9, anhumaa min Allahi ∫aii?aan .
(434) " ٢ٌِ‫ ك‬٢‫بكغج‬ٝ ١‫هغ‬ٝ ً‫٘ة‬٤‫" ػ‬
so eat and drink and cool ( your) eye (26/19)(''
(''Fakulii wa ?israbii wa qurii 9aiinaan.''
Divorced women shall wait'') (2/228 ( ‫بُٔطِوةذ‬ٝ " (435)
" ٖ‫سغجو‬٣
''wa almuTaliqaati jatarabsin.'') )
" ‫ب‬ٞٓ‫ْ هة‬ٜ٤ِ‫ئطب بظِْ ػ‬ٝ " (436)
And when the darkness grows on them, they stand still (20/2)(''.
wa?iða ?aDlama 9alaiihum qaamuu .
Second: They are in the accusative case and in the genitive case. They are
three. They are ''the speaker yaa? ٌِْ‫ةء بُٔس‬٣, the addressee kaf ‫ ًةف بُٔشةٍحد‬and
the absent haa?‫ةء بُـةئث‬ٛ '':
(437) " ٍ‫ة هة‬٣ ٢ٓٞ‫سْ ه‬٣‫ ً٘ر ئٕ أعأ‬٠ِ‫٘ ٍد ػ‬٤‫ ٖٓ ج‬٢‫ عج‬٢ٗ‫بزة‬ٝ ٚ٘ٓ ‫" عدٔ ًد‬
)He said , “O my people ! Do you see ? If I have a Clear (Sign) from my
Lord and He sent Mercy to me from Himself,'')(11/63)
( qaala yaa qauumii ?ar?aiitum ?in kuntu 9alaa baiinatin nin rabii wa ?ataanii
minhu raHmatan.)
 34

" .... َ‫صػَيَ عجُي‬ٝ ‫( " ٓة‬438)Your guardian- Lord has not forsaken you ('' .…
(3/93)
maa wada9aka rabuka''
" ُٙ‫ع‬ٝ‫ذة‬٣ ٞٛٝ ُٚ‫ُ هةدح‬ُٚ ٍ‫( " هة‬439)his companion said to him , in the course
of the argument with him(37/18) ( ''.
qalaa lashu saaHibuhu wa huua yuHaauuruhu".
2. Implicit pronouns
They are not mentioned explicitly in the sentence, but they are understood
from the linguistic context:
")proclaim (or read (!In the name of your ١‫( " بهغأ جةؿْ عجي بُظ‬441
(".‫سِن‬
Lord and Cherisher, who created.") (96/1)
('' ?iqraa? bi?ism rbbuk alðii xalaq.'')
In ,(441) there is an implicit pronoun that is understood from the verb
?''iqara .''?It is?'' anta ''‫ بٗر‬and it is the subject of the verb .In the verb
''xalaq'', there is an implicit pronoun which is the subject and it is'' huwa ''ٞٛ
)NaSif et al9 ;45 :1911 ,.umar 27 :1994 ,and Al-Fuzan .(84 :1998 ,The
implicit pronouns have two types .
The Irregular five Nouns
They are ?ab ‫أت‬, ?ax ‫أر‬, Ham ْ‫د‬, fu ٞ‫ ك‬and ðu ٝ‫ط‬. They are declinable. The
mark of their nominative case is ''alwaw''. Irregular five nouns should be
singular ( not dual nor plural ), they should not be diminutive and they
should be added to other elements except the speaker yaa?. If one of these
three conditions does not occur, they would be declined by diacritics ( Al-
Galaaijni, 1993: 226 and FayaD, 1995: 77-8):
(7 45) ‫ى‬ٞ‫جةء أدـٖ أج‬٥‫ب‬. ( Your father is the best father.)
((?abuuka ?aHsan al?aabaa.
Their accusative mark is '' al?alif ,''for instance ,
. ‫بؿةى‬ٝ ٖٓ ٞٛ ‫( ئٕ أسةى‬458) )Your brother is the one who consoled you (.

?) inna? axaaka man waasaak (.

And their genitive mark is ''alyaa:''
(459) ٕ‫ُي ػ‬ٞ‫ هحَ ه‬ٚ‫ي ٖٓ ُلظ‬٤‫ك‬. (You have to be aware of what you want to
say.)
) Zin qauulaka qabla lafDihi min fik (.
Demonstrative pronouns
They refer to a person or a thing by indication (pointing out). They are:
haða ,‫ظب‬ٛ haðihi ,ٙ‫ظ‬ٛ haðan ,ٕ‫ظب‬ٛ haðain , ٖ٣‫ظ‬ٛhatan ,ٕ‫ةزة‬ٛ hatian ,ٖ٤‫ةز‬ٛ
ha?ulaa? ,‫إالء‬ٛ ?awulaa? ,‫الء‬ٝ‫? أ‬aula ,٠ُٝ‫ أ‬huna ,‫٘ة‬ٛ and .ْ‫ ض‬ninθThey are
indeclinable) i.e ,.they have static diacritics in all cases .(Haða, haðihi ,
 35

?awulaa are indeclinable and their mark is'' alsikuun ''ٌٕٞ‫ بُـ‬in the three
cases'' .Kasra ''is the mark of?'' awlaa ''in all cases and so on. But ,they are in
the nominative ,accusative and genitive cases according to their positions in
the sentences:
(460) ‫ث عجَ طب‬٣‫(أص‬He is an author.) (ða rad3ul ?adiib.)
In (4“ ,(60ða “ is a demonstrative pronoun and it is indeclinable and its
diacritic is alsikuun .It is in the nominative case because it is a topic in the
sentence .
Relative pronouns
The relative pronoun is the one which refers to a person or a thing by a
relation .They are :alaðii ,١‫ بُظ‬alati , ٢‫بُس‬allati ,٢‫ بُالز‬allaaðain , ٖ٣‫بُظ‬allatan
,ٕ‫بُِسة‬allatain ,ٖ٤‫ بُِس‬alaðain ,ٖ٣‫ بُِظ‬allat ,‫ بُالذ‬allati ,٢‫ بُالز‬allaa ‫? بُالء‬and all?i
٢‫بُالئ‬.
They are indeclinable. The mark of some of them is ''alsikuun ٌٕٞ‫ ''بُـ‬as
(alaði, alati, al?aalaa, allati, allaa? and alla?i); the mark of the some is
''kasra'' as ( al?ala?, allat and allaa? and the mark of others is ''fatha'' as
(alðiin). They are in the nominative, accusative and genitive cases according
to their positions in the sentence:
(465) ‫غٕ بُالء‬ٜ‫جةالسسغبع بكس‬. ( Those are the women who became famous
because of their invention.)
allaa?i? i∫taharn bi?il?ixtraa9. ‫غ‬٤‫ُذث بُش‬٣ ْٖ َٓ ‫( أدحث‬466)
Like those whom like goodness .
? aHbb man yuHibu alxaiira.
. ‫( جض جٔة زَج ُض‬467) Give what you can give
d ia dmЗmaa tadЗdu

Interrogative Pronouns
They are indeclinable .They are in the nominative, accusative and genitive
cases depending on their positions in the sentence. They may be in the
nominative case because their position is a topic ,as in:
(474) ْٖ َٓ ?‫ى‬ٞ‫أج‬ (( Who is your father?
)man? abuuka(?
Or a comment, for instance ,
.‫( َٓ ْٖ ٓذٔ ٌض‬475) Mohammad ?Who is(
)man? muHamadun(?
If they refer to place or time ,they are place and time adverbials ,for
example,
(476) " ٕ‫ة‬٣‫ٕ ئ‬ٞ‫ ''( " زُحؼط‬Nor can they perceive when they shall be raised up
for Judgment )''. (27/65)
?))iaan tab9a . iiaθ
 36

Or cognate object
."ٕٞ‫٘وِح‬٣ ‫ ٓ٘وِث‬١‫( " أ‬477)know what vicissitudes their affairs will take(.''!
(227/26 )
? aii munqalibu yanqalibuun(.
Or object, such as,
ٕٝ‫ةذ هللا زٌ٘غ‬٣‫ آ‬١‫(" كأ‬478) Then which of the signs of Allah will
You deny?'' (40/81).
fa?aii? aiit allah tankaruun) (?abu Al9abass . (138 :1998,
?'' aiy ''is declinable in all its states by three diacritics ,for example ,
!) ! َ‫ عج‬١ ُ ‫( سةُ ٌض عج ٌَ أ‬479) he is Khalid is a man ,what a man
)xaalid rad? iaiaЗaiiu rad ) (!iaЗAl-Galaaijni, 1993: 145).
Conditional Pronouns
They are indeclinable .Their case is according to their positions in the
sentence. They may be a topic, for example ,
(480) ْٖ َٓ ْ‫و‬٣ ْ‫ أه‬ٚ‫ ٓؼ‬. (Who stand, stand with him.)
man yaqim ?aqim ma9uh
'' man'' is a conditional noun and it is a topic .Those pronouns may be
adverbs of place, as in:
(481) ٖ٣‫ث أٗر أ‬ٛ‫ث زظ‬ٛ‫ٓؼي أط‬. with you.) Where you go , I go)
?) aiina taðhabu ?aðhab ðmas9aka(.
Or they are cognate object. For instance ,
. ‫ هغبءخ زوغأ أهغأ‬١‫( أ‬482)I will read any thing you read.
? ) aii qiraa?ataa taqraa? ?aqraa?) ?abu Al9-abaas, 1998: 135. (
In short, case in Arabic is a morpho-syntactic property of nouns. It does
not change and its system is declinable. Case is mainly indicated by marks
which are of two types: main and secondary. The main marks are the three
diacritics and the secondary ones are letters and diacritics. Nouns has three
types of case (nominative, accusative and genitive). Each type consists of
many nouns. The diacritics are explicit but sometimes, they are implicit as
almanquS and almaqSur. There are other means rather than diacritics as
position which determines the types of case. The five irregular nouns are
declined by letters. The pronouns are indeclinable but they are declined
according to their positions in the sentences. They are of two types:
separable and inseparable. Demonstrative, relative ,interrogative and
conditional pronouns are indeclinable except some of them and they are
declined according to their positions in the sentences. The types of cases of
nouns and pronouns are determined by some elements which are verb ,noun,
etc .
4. Comparisons and Conclusions
4.1 Comparisons between Case in English and Arabic
 37

There are similarities and differences between case in English and Arabic.
4.1.1 The Similarities
The following similarities are drawn from the comparison of case in English
and Arabic:
1. Case illustrates the relation of one word to other words in the sentence. It
refers to grammatical relation or function in both languages.
2. Case system in English is a nominative / accusative system. The subjects
of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked similarly for
grammatical purpose. This is called nominative case while the direct object
of transitive verbs is marked differently from the case of the subject. This is
called accusative. Arabic case system is declinable. The subjects of
transitive and intransitive verbs are marked similarly by the same diacritics
or the same form. The objects of transitive verbs are marked differently by
other diacritics.
3. Position is a determinative factor which shows the type of case in English.
This is similar to Arabic in one condition that is when the diacritics do not
appear on the final letter of the nouns.
4. The frequency of occurrence of the nominative case is more than the other
cases except in some vocative states in both languages. This point supports
the first hypothesis which states that nominative case is used more the than
other types of cases in both languages. Thus, the first hypothesis is accepted.
5. Most of the sentences have more than two different cases in both
languages.
6. In both languages, the accusative case refers to the object of transitive
verbs and it is used to show adverbs of time and place.
7. Some sentences have two objects, in passive, one of the objects becomes
the subject of the passive sentence (it is called deputy-agent in Arabic) and
the other remains unaffected. This is in English and Arabic languages.
8. The vocative is a type of expression that is used to get attention or to
address one or more person and it has a distinctive intonation. The position
of vocative expressions is free in both languages. It may be initial, medial or
final.
9. Genitive case is a property of nouns in both languages and it is a good
guide to test the word and see whether it is a noun or a verb.
10. The inflected genitive in English is similar to genitive case in Arabic
because both of them are a morpho-syntactic property and both of them have
suffixes which are added finally. Concerning genitive, the meaning and form
are taken into account.
 38

11. In some cases, the genitive suffixes do not appear in both languages. In
English, the suffixes are not added to the regular plural nouns. In Arabic, the
diacritics are not added to almaqsur and almanqus.
12. The genitive case affects the head noun in both languages as in adding
the possessive (s) to the head noun in English and the deletion of nunation in
Arabic.
13. Compound genitive is found in English and Arabic.
14. There are semantic similarities between the two languages in terms of
genitive. The meanings of the addition in Arabic are similar to the meanings
which the English genitive has in most of the cases. Both of them express:
possessive genitive, subjective genitive, genitive of origin, genitive of
measure, genitive of place, genitive of time, genitive of relation, genitive of
substance or subject matter, genitive of appositive and partitive genitive .
15. In both languages, case refers to the variation basically in the actual form
or shape of pronouns. In other words, personal pronouns are inflected for
three cases "nominative, accusative and genitive". It is obvious that
pronouns change their forms when the case changes. This supports the
second hypothesis which states that English and Arabic are inflected
languages in terms of case of pronouns. Thus, the second hypothesis is
accepted.
16. In some cases, the same form of pronoun is used for two or more cases,
as in, ''you'' for the nominative and the accusative cases, "Ka ‫ "ى‬for the
accusative and the genitive cases and "na ‫ "ٗة‬for the nominative, accusative
and genitive cases.
17. The pronoun "we" in English is similar to the pronoun "naHnu' in Arabic
because both of them are separable and the in nominative case.
18. In English, case is assigned under "Government" term and in Arabic,
too. It is called "al9amal" in Arabic. This means that there is an element
which governs the other elements to be in specific cases. This point supports
the third hypothesis which states that the types of case in both languages are
governed by some elements like verb, noun, etc. Thus, the third hypothesis
is accepted.
19. In both languages, the verb governs the subject to be in the nominative
case form and the object to be in the accusative case form. This supports the
third hypothesis.
All these similarities support the fourth hypothesis which states that
there are similarities and differences between case in English and Arabic and
the area of differences is wider than that of similarities.
2.3.2 The Differences
 39

The following differences are derived from the contrastive analysis of

English and Arabic in terms of case:
1. Case is a property of nouns and pronouns in English, but it is a property of
nouns, pronouns and followers (apposition, adjective, emphasis and
conjunction) in Arabic.
2. Case is usually indicated by the position of the word in the sentence in
English, while it is indicated by the suffixes (case marks) which are added to
the end of the word (i.e. whether they are the main marks "diacritics" or the
secondary marks as letters and diacritics") except in some cases in Arabic.
3. Even though both languages are inflected, but Arabic uses inflection more
than English. English uses inflection for one type of cases which is genitive
case of nouns but Arabic uses it for three cases of nouns.
4. The elements which affect the noun case form are only verbal in English
but in Arabic they are verbal and non-verbal and both of them.
5. The history of the syntactic case in English is older than the history in
Arabic. It returned to the grammar of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.
While in Arabic, it returned to the Islamic age when Abu-Alaswad Al
Dua'aliy invented the diacritics nearly in the mid of the first A.H. But this
history is older than the semantic sense of case in English which returned to
C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s.
6. There is a change in the history of case in English. The case of nouns lost
its inflection across time and it survived only the inflection of genitive case.
In Arabic, there is no change at all since Abu Alaswad Aldua'aliy invented
the Diacritics. The reasons lies behind change in English are: the Scandarian
and Norman invasions while the reason behind stability of case in Arabic is
Allah speech in his Holy Qura'an
ْ٤‫بُغد‬
ِ ٖٔ‫بُغد‬
ِ ‫هللا‬
ِ ْ‫ٕ " جـ‬ٞ‫ ُذةكظ‬ُٚ ‫ئٗة‬ٝ ‫"ئٗة ٗذٖ ٗؼُ٘ة بُظًغ‬
In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful "We have, without
doubt, sent down Message, and we will assuredly guard it (from
corruption).'' 15/9 translator (Ali, 2012: 166.(
(''innaa NaHnu nazalnaa alðikra wa inaa lahu laHafiDuun.")
7. English has two main cases of nouns. They are the common "unmarked
case" and the genitive case "marked case". While Arabic has three main
cases of nouns (nominative, accusative and genitive cases), the nominative
and accusative cases of nouns are subtypes of the common case in English,
but in Arabic, they are main types. There are dative, ablative and vocative
cases in English. Arabic does not have these cases. Except vocative that is
subtype of accusative case.
.There are factors which determine whether the noun is a subject and it is in 8
the nominative case. They are: the position of the subject before the verb in a
 40

statement, the concord between the subject and the verb and finally the
inversion of the subject and its verb in the interrogative sentence. in Arabic,
they are two: the nominative case and the concord between the subject and
its verb. The present study shows that the nominative case is indicated by
"dhama", "alif" and "waw" in Arabic and the "diacritics" is one of the means
to show that it is a subject and in the nominative case. There are other means
as position, form, prediction, the sentence is in active voice and others. Also,
this illustration corresponds to the object. This supports the third hypothesis
some the types of case in both languages are governed by which states that
like verb, noun, etc elements.
The nominative case is a syntactic property in English but it is a morph-
. syntactic property in Arabic
10.The nominative case in English refers to the form of the noun when it is
the subject of the verb and there is another opinion which shows that it is the
case of subject and deputy-agent. In Arabic, it refers to many nouns as:
subject, deputy-agent, topic and comment, etc.
11-The reasons which lie behind naming the nominative case in both
languages are different. In English, the term is used to name person(s) or
thing(s). There is another reason which is that all other cases arise from it. In
Arabic, the reason is according to the movement of the mouth, jaws of the
speaker and the shape of his/her lips.
12- The topic and common exist in Arabic and they are in the nominative
case, but in English there is no sentence which is composed of two nouns
only without a verb.
13- In Arabic, there are some nouns which may be two or more in the same
sentence that are in the nominative case because they follow the preceding
nouns. They are called followers. In English, there is no occurrence to the
same case twice or more in a sentence except in the coordinated phrases.
This illustration corresponds to accusative and genitive cases in both
languages.
14- Case is explicit in English, but it is explicit and implicit in Arabic.
15- In Arabic, "diacritics" is the best means to show which noun is the
subject and which one is the object even though there is fronting to the
object and postponement to the subject. But in English there are no such
means which refer to case. If one element is fronted or postponed, the type
of case will change.
16- In English, the accusative case refers to the form of the noun when it is
the object of a verb and its main uses are: objects of transitive or of
preposition, as adverbial adjunct expressing a relation of time, place,
measure or distance. In Arabic, it refers to many nouns as object, cognate
 41

object, exception, the comment of "Kana" and its set, etc. In Arabic, the
accusative case is not used for objects of prepositions.
17- In English, the accusative case is indicated by its position after the
transitive verbs or after the prepositions. In Arabic, the accusative case is
usually indicated by its position after the transitive verbs and by diacritics
"fatha, alalif, and alyaa". The object may be fronted obligatorily or
optionally and keeps its case in Arabic but not in English.
18- In some sentences, ditransitive verbs are used, and there are two objects,
so two cases are found in English. The accusative case is for the indirect
one. In Arabic, the accusative case is used for the two objects or sometimes
three objects when the verb is tritransitive.
19- Even though the sentences in both languages can change to passive but
there are differences. First, the subject of the active sentences may be
deleted or mentioned at the end of the sentence by using the preposition "by"
in English while in Arabic, it is deleted from the sentence. Second, whether
the direct object or the indirect object will be the subject of the passive
sentence in English but in Arabic only the first object becomes a deputy-
agent and the second remains unaffected by any change.
20- In English, the accusative name is derived from mistranslation of the
Greek word which means "causal case". In Arabic, it returns to the
movement of the mouth and jaws of the speaker because they are arisen up
and to the shape of his/her lips.
21- Concerning the nominative and the accusative cases in English, the
meaning is taken into account while in Arabic, the meaning and form are
taken. Concerning vocative case in English, intonation and meaning are
considered, but in Arabic, intonation, meaning and form are considered.
22- In English, the ablative case marks the source of the movement from
some locations. In Arabic, this meaning has no specific case but it is
expressed within the genitive case by using the preposition "min ِٖٓ ". Also,
the ablative case uses the following prepositions to express the concept:
"with, from and by" with the meaning of form in English while in Arabic,
there is only one preposition which is "min ٖٓ".
23- In English, vocative is indicated by a special or distinctive intonation in
speech and by a comma in writing. There is a traditional use of vocative by
using archaic "O" as a vocative particle. In Arabic, it is indicated by a
special intonation in speech and by particles as "yaa, ?a, etc" in speech and
writing. Also, it is indicated by diacritics "dhama, alif and waw" in the
nominative case and "fatha, alif and yaa" in the accusative case. In English,
the comma is used to separate the vocative expression from the sentence but
in Arabic, vocative is a part of the sentence. In addition, vocative can be
 42

achieved by unbound pronoun "you" in English but pronouns are not used in
vocative case in Arabic.
24- Vocative has no function at all within the sentence because it does not
represent a special element as (subject, object, etc) in English. But in Arabic,
vocative has a function because vocative noun is an object in reality and its
verb is deleted.
25- In English, genitive case is expressed by an "apostrophe and s" or by
"apostrophe" or by "of-construction" and it is indicated by them. In Arabic,
it is expressed by prepositions, addition and followers and it is indicated by
prepositions, kasra, yaa and fatha instead of kasraa in diptotes. "An
apostrophe and s" and ''of-construction'' express the same meaning in
English while in Arabic, the preposition, addition and followers express
different meanings.
26- Each possessive relation in English seems to be derived from underlying
strings with the verb "have" used as a transitive verb. While each possessive
in Arabic seems to be derived from underlying strings with the meaning of
the following prepositions: li ٍ, min ٖٓ and fi ٢‫ك‬.
27- The form and the pronunciation of the genitive suffix are different
according to the number of the noun and the type of the plural in English. In
Arabic, the form and pronunciation of the genitive suffixes are different
according to the number, the type of nouns as 'diptotes', gender and
definiteness. The listener(s) cannot distinguish whether the noun (the
possessor) is in plural only or in the plural genitive because they have the
same pronunciation in English. The state is different in Arabic, the hearers
can distinguish them.
28- In English, possessive is one type of genitive case and it is expressed by
inflexion and by post-modification, in Arabic by inflection only even though
it is a type of genitive case.
29- In English, the head noun of the genitive case has no any morphological
change but in Arabic, the head noun "the possessed noun" and the modifying
noun (the possessor) undergo morphological change.
30- In English, the definiteness does not affect the nouns in genitive case
while in Arabic it does.
31- In English, the two numbers of addition should be nouns. In Arabic, the
head can be a substantive for the numerals, and prepositions are substantive,
and adjectives which occur in the position of the defined nouns, have the
force of substantive.
32- In English, the suffix is added to the last word in the sentence in group
genitive, so there is a separation between the head noun (the possessed noun)
 43

and the modifying noun (the possessor), but this case does not occur in
Arabic except in some exceptional states.
33- In English, the possessed noun and the possessor do not affect each
other, but in Arabic they do particularly in relation to gender.
34- The main syntactic difference between English and Arabic genitive
construction is in word order. In English, the modifying noun precedes the
head noun whereas, in Arabic the head noun precedes the modifying noun.
35- In English, elliptical genitive refers to the deletion of the head noun but
in Arabic, it refers to the deletion of either the head noun or the modifying
noun or both.
36- Double genitive is found in English but not in Arabic because the latter
has no periphrastic genitives (i.e., the prepositions do not express
possession).
37- In Arabic, genitive express the meaning of confirmation, similarity and
difference, and of intention but they are not found in English.
38- In English, all the pronouns whether they are in the nominative,
accusative or genitive case forms are explicit (Betti, 2020b: 245). In Arabic,
the pronouns can either be explicit and implicit.
39- All pronouns in the three cases are separable in English while they are
separable and inseparable in Arabic. The pronouns in the nominative case
and accusative are separable in English while in Arabic they are separable
and inseparable. According to genitive case, all pronouns are separable in
English but in Arabic they are inseparable only.
40- There is a problem about using the nominative or the accusative pronoun
forms in certain positions as after the following: verb (be), than, as, but and
except in English. But there is no such a problem in Arabic.
41- The verb "let" is followed by a pronoun in the accusative case in English
as in "Let's = let us'' while in Arabic the verb "da9" is followed by a pronoun
in the nominative case as in "da9na ‫"صػ٘ة‬.
42- In English, there are two interrogative words that are used as pronouns.
They are "who" and "whom". "Who" gets the nominative case, and "whom"
is in the accusative case. But in Arabic all the interrogative pronouns are
used in three different cases and according to their positions in the sentence.
43- In English, pronouns in the genitive case have two forms that function as
determinative and independent, but in Arabic, they are only of one form and
they are inseparable.
44- In English, the verb is usually the element that governs the noun, this is
also in Arabic. But the noun may govern another noun in Arabic but this
does not occur in English. In English, some adjectives may govern the case
noun if they are derived from verbs and used attributively. This supports the
 44

third hypothesis which states that the types of case in both languages are
governed by some elements like verb, noun, etc (Betti, 2020b: 363)..
-45The preposition may govern the noun to be in oblique case form as
dative or ablative in English. In Arabic, the prepositions govern the noun to
be in genitive case form. Also, it supports the third hypothesis which states
that the types of case in both languages are governed by some elements like
verb, noun, etc. Thus, the third hypothesis is accepted .
-46 In English, the verb governs the subject to be in the nominative case
but in Arabic ,the verb and∫ ubh alfi9il govern the subject. This adds support
to the third hypothesis which states that the types of case in both languages
are governed by some elements like verb, noun, etc .
-47 The element that governs the object is the verb or the preposition to be
in accusative or dative cases in English. In Arabic, the element is the verb,
and this is according to Al-BaSrin's opinion and the verb and the subject
according to Al-Kufin's opinion. Other elements that are similar to verbs
govern the object. This point supports the third hypothesis which states that
the types of case in both languages are governed by some elements like verb,
noun, etc. Thus, the third hypothesis is accepted.
-48Sometimes, two elements govern the object in Arabic, but this
phenomenon is not found in English. This adds support to the third
hypothesis which states that the types of case in both languages are governed
by some elements like verb, noun, etc. Thus, the third hypothesis is
accepted .
-49 In Arabic, noun phrase may be ambiguous when there is no explicit
indication to case.

2.2 Conclusions
The main conclusions arrived at the study are:
1. Case as a grammatical feature has a considerable status in defining and
classifying nouns and pronouns in both languages.
2. Position is a crucial factor in determining the types of case in English. The
diacritics are the crucial ones in Arabic.
3. The frequency of occurrence of nominative case is more than other types
of case in both languages .
4. The occurrence of two or more different cases in the sentence is possible
in both languages.
5. In English and Arabic, case of pronouns is an inflected one.
6. There are some elements like (verb, noun, etc) which govern the types of
case in both languages.
 45

7. Although there are differences between English and Arabic in terms of

case, there are similarities but the area of differences occupies a wider space
than the area of similarities.
8. The types of case are not alike in both languages.
9. English has very few morphological markers. It has little formal marking
on either heads or dependents. While, Arabic is a morphological language.
10. English system is a nominative/accusative system and not an
ergative/absolute one and Arabic one is declinable.
11. Vocative is a type of syntactic non-clausal unit in English but it is a
morphological-syntactic and clausal one in Arabic.

English Bibliography
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Celce-Murcia, M .and D . Larsen-Freeman(1999) .The Grammar Book:
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 47

Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc .

Huddleston, R .(1977) . An Introduction to English Transformational Syntax. Longman:
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‫د‬٤‫بُٔوةصع بُؼغج‬

. ‫ صبع بُطالئغ‬:‫٘د‬٣‫ٕ ٓض‬ٝ‫ جض‬.ٞ‫بُ٘ذ‬ٝ ‫ـغ‬٤ُٔ‫ بإلػغبت ب‬.)8443( .٢ِ‫ ٓذٔض ػ‬,‫ بُؼحةؽ‬ٞ‫أج‬-
.‫غ‬٣‫ػ‬ٞ‫بُس‬ٝ ‫ ٓإؿـد بُٔشسةع ُِ٘لغ‬:‫غخ‬ٛ‫ بُوة‬.8ٍ .‫ق‬٣‫ق جةُسوغ‬٣‫ بُسؼغ‬.)7002( ٢ِ‫ ػ‬,ّ‫ بٌُٔةع‬ٞ‫أج‬-
:‫ ٌٓد بٌُٔغٓد‬.ٍٝ‫ بُجؼء بأل‬,٢ٗ‫ بُٔجِض بُطة‬.‫د‬٤‫ ػِْ بُؼغج‬٢‫غ ك‬٣‫ بُحض‬.)7000( ‫ ٓحةعى جٖ ٓذٔض‬,‫غ‬٤‫بجٖ بألض‬-
,ٖ٣‫ بُض‬٢ِ‫ ػ‬.‫صعبؿد ص‬ٝ ‫ن‬٤‫ زذو‬.ٟ‫جةٓؼد أّ بُوغ‬
.‫ بدٔض‬٢‫كسذ‬
,٢ٗ‫عب‬ٞ‫ بُج‬,‫ن‬٤‫ زذو‬.٢ٗ‫ ٓطحؼد بُؼة‬:‫ جـضبص‬.‫ بٌُسةت بُطةُص‬.‫ بُٔوغت‬.)8431( ٖٓ‫ جٖ ٓإ‬٢ِ‫ ػ‬,‫ع‬ٞ‫بجٖ ػول‬-
. ‫ػحض هللا‬,١‫ع‬ٞ‫بُجح‬ٝ ‫بدٔض ػحضب ُـسةع‬
ّ‫ جةٓؼد ب‬.7ٍ .ٍٝ‫ بُجؼء بال‬.‫بئض‬ٞ‫َ بُل‬٤ٜ‫ زـ‬٠ِ‫ بُٔـةػض ػ‬.)7008( َ٤‫ٖ جٖ ػو‬٣‫ةء بُض‬ٜ‫ ج‬,‫بجٖ ٓةُي‬-
.َٓ‫ ٓذٔض ًة‬,‫ جغًةذ‬.‫ ص‬,‫ن‬٤ِ‫زؼ‬ٝ ‫ن‬٤‫ زذو‬.ٟ‫بُوغ‬
٢‫خ ك‬٤ًٞ‫ٕ بُس‬ٌٞٔٔ‫خ ج‬٣‫ بُسوغ‬ٝ‫خ ب‬٤ًٞ‫ بُس‬٠ِ‫خ ػ‬٣‫ كغح بُسوغ‬.)7001( ‫ سةُض جٖ ػحض هللا‬,١‫غ‬ٛ‫بألػ‬-
.َ‫ جةؿ‬,‫ص‬ٞ‫ٕ بُـ‬ٞ٤‫ ػ‬,‫ن‬٤‫ زذو‬.‫ صبع بٌُسث‬:‫ذ‬ٝ‫غ‬٤‫ ج‬.8ٍ .ٞ‫بُ٘ذ‬
.‫د‬٤‫ػةذ بُجةٓؼ‬ٞ‫بُٔطح‬ٝ ‫د بٌُسث‬٣‫غ‬٣‫ ٓض‬:‫٘د‬٣‫ٕ ٓض‬ٝ‫ جض‬. ٞ‫ٍ بُ٘ذ‬ٞ‫ أه‬٢‫ك‬. )8441 ( ‫ض‬٤‫ ؿؼ‬,٢ٗ‫بألكـة‬-
‫ ٍحؼد بُجةٓؼد‬:‫٘د‬٣‫ٕ ٓض‬ٝ‫ جض‬.ٞ‫ٍ بُ٘ذ‬ٞ‫ أه‬٢‫ ُٔغ بألصُد ك‬.)8492( ٖٔ‫ بُحغًةذ ػحضب ُغد‬٢‫ أج‬,١‫بالٗحةع‬-
.‫ض‬٤‫ ؿؼ‬,٢ٗ‫ بألكـة‬,‫ن‬٤‫ زذو‬,‫د‬٣‫ع‬ٞ‫بُـ‬
 ‫‪49‬‬

‫‪-‬بألٗضُـ‪ ,٢‬جٔةٍ بُض‪ ٖ٣‬جٖ ٓذٔض (‪ .)7008‬كغح بُسـ‪ :َ٤ٜ‬زـ‪ َ٤ٜ‬بُل‪ٞ‬بئض ‪ٝ‬زٌٔ‪ َ٤‬بُٔوةهض‪ .‬بُٔجِض بأل‪.ٍٝ‬‬
‫ٍ‪ .8‬ج‪٤‬غ‪ٝ‬ذ‪ :‬صبع بٌُسث ُِؼِٔ‪٤‬د‪ .‬زذو‪٤‬ن بُـ‪٤‬ض‪ٓ ,‬ذٔض ػحض بُوةصع‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بألٗوةع‪ ,١‬أج‪ٓ ٞ‬ذٔض ػحض هللا ( ‪ .)8411‬كغح هوغ بُ٘ض‪ٝ ٟ‬جَ بُوض‪ .88ٍ .ٟ‬بُوة‪ٛ‬غخ‪ :‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬طحؼد‪.‬‬
‫زذو‪٤‬ن‪ :‬ػحض بُذٔ‪٤‬ض‪ٓ ,‬ذٔض ٓذ‪ ٢‬بُض‪.ٖ٣‬‬
‫‪-‬بال‪ٛ‬ضٍ‪ٓ ,‬ذٔض جٖ بدٔض (‪ .)8440‬بٌُ‪ٞ‬بًث بُضع‪٣‬د ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬سٔٔد بالجغ‪٤ٓٝ‬د‪ .‬ظ‪ .8ٍ .8‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪:‬‬
‫ٓإؿـد بٌُسث بُطوةك‪٤‬د‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بالؿسغبجةط‪ ,١‬عً‪ ٢‬بُض‪ٓ ٖ٣‬ذٔض (ص‪ ٕٝ‬ؿ٘د )‪ .‬كغح ًةك‪٤‬د بجٖ بُذةجث‪ .‬بُوة‪ٛ‬غخ‪٤ًِ :‬د صبع بُؼِ‪ :ّٞ‬جةٓؼد‬
‫بُوة‪ٛ‬غخ‪ :‬بٌُٔسحد بُس‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬و‪٤‬د‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بالكح‪ ,٢ِ٤‬أج‪ ٢‬بُذـٖ ػِ‪ .)8443 ( ٢‬كغح جَٔ بُؼجةج‪ .٢‬ظ‪ .8‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ :‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬طحؼد‪ .‬زذو‪٤‬ن‪ ,‬ص‪.‬‬
‫ػغت‪ ,‬ؿِ‪ٓ ٟٞ‬ذٔض‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُحوغ‪ ,١ٝ‬ػِ‪ ٢‬جٖ سِ‪ .) 7000( َ٤‬كغح بُو‪ٞ‬بػض بُحوغ‪٣ٝ‬د ك‪ ٢‬بُ٘ذ‪ .8ٍ .ٞ‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ :‬صبع بُحل‪٤‬غ‬
‫ٓإؿـد بُغؿةُد‪ .‬صعبؿد ‪ٝ‬زذو‪٤‬ن‪ :‬ص‪ .‬بُلجغب‪ ,١ٝ‬ػؼبّ ػٔغ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُحوغ‪ ,١‬أج‪ٓ ٞ‬ذٔض بُوةؿْ (‪ .)8448‬كغح ِٓذد بإلػغبت ُِذغ‪٣‬غ‪ .8 ٍ .١‬بألعصٕ‪ :‬جةٓؼد بُ‪٤‬غٓ‪ٞ‬ى‬
‫بعجض‪ :‬صبع بألَٓ ُِ٘لغ ‪ٝ‬بُس‪ٞ‬ػ‪٣‬غ‪ .‬زذو‪٤‬ن‪ ,‬ص‪ .‬كةص‪ ,١‬كةئؼ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُحؼِحٌ‪ ,٢‬ع‪ٝ‬د‪ .)7080( ٢‬بُٔ‪ٞ‬عص‪ :‬هةٓ‪ٞ‬ؽ ػغج‪ – ٢‬بٌِٗ‪٤‬ؼ‪ .84 ٍ . ١‬ج‪٤‬غ‪ٝ‬ذ‪ :‬صبع بُؼِْ ُِٔال‪.ٖ٣‬‬
‫‪-‬أُحؼِ‪ٓ ,٢‬ذٔض جٖ أج‪ ٢‬بُلسخ (‪ً .)7007‬سةت بُلةسغ ك‪ ٢‬كغح جَٔ ػحض بُوة‪ٛ‬غ‪ .‬ظ‪ .8ٍ .8‬بٌُ‪٣ٞ‬ر‪ .‬جض‪ٕٝ‬‬
‫ٓطحؼد‪ :‬زذو‪٤‬ن‪ ,‬ص‪ .‬سـةعخ‪ٔٓ ,‬ض‪ٝ‬ح ٓذٔض‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُحـضبص‪ ,١‬أج‪ ٞ‬جٌغ بدٔض( ‪ .)8423‬بُٔذِ‪ٝ: ٠‬ج‪ ٙٞ‬بُ٘وث‪ .8ٍ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ٓ :‬إؿـد بُغؿةُد صبع بالَٓ‪:‬‬
‫زذو‪٤‬ن‪ ,‬ص‪ .‬كةعؽ‪ ,‬كةئؼ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُحـضبص‪ ,١‬أج‪ ٞ‬جٌغ ٓذٔض (‪ .)8441‬بأله‪ ٍٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬بُ٘ذ‪ .1ٍ .ٞ‬ج‪٤‬غ‪ٝ‬ذ‪ٓ :‬إؿـد بُغؿةُد‪ .‬زذو‪٤‬ن‪ ,‬ص‪ .‬أُلسِ‪,٢‬‬
‫ػحض بُذـ‪.ٖ٤‬‬
‫‪-‬بُحـضبص‪ ,١‬ػحض بُوةصع جٖ ػٔغ (‪ .)8442‬سؼبٗد بألصت ‪ُٝ‬ث ُحةت ُـةٕ بُؼغت‪ .‬ظ‪ .ٍ .1‬بُوة‪ٛ‬غخ‪ :‬بُ٘ةكغ‪.‬‬
‫ٌٓسحد بُشةٗج‪ .٢‬زذو‪٤‬ن ‪ٝ‬كغح ‪ٛ ,‬ةع‪ ,ٕٝ‬ػحض بُـالّ ٓذٔض‪.‬‬
‫ُِطحةػد‬ ‫‪-‬بُحَ٘ة‪ٓ ,‬ذٔض ئجغب‪ .)8439( ْ٤ٛ‬أج‪ ٞ‬بُوةؿْ بُـ‪ٓٝ ٢ِ٤ٜ‬ظ‪ٛ‬ح‪ ٚ‬بُ٘ذ‪ .8ٍ .١ٞ‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ :‬صبع بُح‪٤‬ةٕ بُؼغج‪٢‬‬
‫‪ُِ٘ٝ‬لغ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُجةعّ‪ ,‬ػِ‪ٝ ٢‬أٓ‪ٓ ,ٖ٤‬وطل‪ .)8411( ٠‬بُ٘ذ‪ ٞ‬بُ‪ٞ‬بًخ ك‪ ٢‬ه‪ٞ‬بػض بُِـد بُؼغج‪٤‬د بُٔضبعؽ بُطةٗ‪٣ٞ‬د‪ .‬ظ‪.8‬‬
‫ٓوغ‪ :‬صبع بُٔؼةعف‪.‬‬
‫جض‪ٕٝ‬‬ ‫‪-‬بُذٔض‪ ,‬ػِ‪ ٢‬ز‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ن ‪ٝ‬بُؼؿح‪ٞ٣ ,٢‬ؿق جٔ‪ .)8441( َ٤‬بُٔؼجْ بُ‪ٞ‬بك‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬أص‪ٝ‬بذ بُ٘ذ‪ ٞ‬بُؼغج‪.7ٍ .٢‬‬
‫ٓض‪٘٣‬د ‪ :‬صبع بألَٓ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُش‪ٞ‬بعػٓ‪ ,٢‬هضع بألكةًَ بُوةؿْ ( ‪ .)8437‬كغح بُٔلوَ ك‪ ٢‬ه٘ؼ‪ ٚ‬بإلػغبت‪ :‬بُٔ‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ ّٞ‬جةُسشٔ‪.ٚ٤‬‬
‫ظ‪ٌٓ .1 , 1 , 7 , 8‬د بٌُٔغٓد‪ :‬جةٓؼد بّ بُوغ‪ .ٟ‬زذو‪٤‬ن‪ .‬بالػط‪ ,ٖ٤ٔ٤‬ػحض بُغدٖٔ جٖ ؿِ‪ٔ٤‬ةٕ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ (‪ .)8443‬زغك‪٤‬خ بُؼَِ ك‪ ٢‬كغح بُجَٔ‪ٌٓ .8ٍ .‬د بٌُٔغٓد ‪ :‬جةٓؼد‬
‫أّ بُوغ‪ .ٟ‬ئػضبص‪ ,‬بُؼٔ‪٤‬غ‪ ,١‬ػةصٍ ٓذـٖ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُضدضبح‪ ,‬أٗط‪ٞ‬بٕ (‪ٓ .)8434‬ؼجْ ه‪ٞ‬بػض بُِـد بُؼغج‪٤‬د ك‪ ٢‬جضب‪ُٞٝ ٍٝ‬دةذ‪ .1ٍ .‬ج‪٤‬غ‪ٝ‬ذ‪ٌٓ :‬سحد ُح٘ةٕ‬
‫ؿةدد ع‪٣‬ةى بُوِخ‪ٓ .‬غبجؼد ‪ :‬ص‪ .‬ػحض بُٔـ‪٤‬خ‪ ,‬ج‪ٞ‬عظ ٓسغ‪.١‬‬
‫‪-‬بُؼجةج‪ ,٢‬أج‪ ٞ‬بُوةؿْ (‪ .)8424‬بإل‪ٌ٣‬ةح ك‪ ٢‬ػَِ بُ٘ذ‪ .1ٍ .ٞ‬ج‪٤‬غ‪ٝ‬ذ‪ :‬صبع بُ٘لةئؾ‪ .‬زذو‪٤‬ن‪ :‬ص ‪ .‬بُٔحةعى‪,‬‬
‫ٓةػٕ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُـةٓغبئ‪ ,٢‬كةًَ هةُخ (‪ .) 8414‬بجٖ ج٘‪ ٢‬بُ٘ذ‪ .١ٞ‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ :‬صبع بُ٘ظ‪٣‬غ ُِطحةػد ‪ٝ‬بُ٘لغ ‪ٝ‬بُس‪ٞ‬ػ‪٣‬غ‪.‬‬
 ‫‪50‬‬

‫‪-‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ (‪ٓ .)7001‬ؼةٗ‪ ٢‬بُ٘ذ‪ .ٞ‬ظ‪ . 7ٍ .8‬بُوة‪ٛ‬غخ ‪ :‬كغًد بُلةزي ُو٘ةػد بٌُسث ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ (‪ .) 7002‬بُجِٔد بُؼغج‪٤‬د زأُ‪٤‬ل‪ٜ‬ة ‪ٝ‬أهـةٓ‪ٜ‬ة ‪ . 7ٍ .‬ػٔةٕ ‪ :‬صبع بُلٌغ ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬أُـحس‪ ,٢‬بجٖ أج‪ ٢‬بُغج‪٤‬غ ػح‪٤‬ض هللا (‪ . )8431‬بُحـ‪ َ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬كغح جَٔ بُؼجةج‪ .٢‬بُـلغ بأل‪ُ .8ٍ .ٍٝ‬ح٘ةٕ ‪:‬‬
‫ج‪٤‬غ‪ٝ‬ذ ‪ :‬صبع بُـغت بالؿالٓ‪ ٢‬زذو‪٤‬ن ‪ٝ‬صعبؿد ‪ :‬ص‪ .‬بُلح‪٤‬س‪ , ٢‬ػحةص جٖ ػحض ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُـغبظ‪ٓ ,‬ذٔض ػِ‪ .)8431( ٢‬بُِحةت ك‪ ٢‬ه‪ٞ‬بػض بُِـد ‪ٝ‬آالذ بألصت‪ .‬بُ٘ذ‪ ٞ‬بُوغف‪ .‬بُحالؿد ‪ٝ‬بُؼغ‪ٝ‬ى‪.‬‬
‫بُِـد ‪ٝ‬بُٔطَ‪ .8ٍ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ :‬صبع بُلٌغ‪ٓ .‬غبجؼد ‪ٝ‬ز٘ـ‪٤‬ن‪ :‬جةكة‪ ,‬س‪٤‬غ بُض‪ ٖ٣‬كٔـ‪.٢‬‬
‫‪-‬بُـؼ‪٤‬ض‪ ,‬ػحض بُِط‪٤‬ق ( ‪ .)7001‬ه‪ٞ‬بػض بُِـد بُؼغج‪٤‬د بُٔحـطد‪ . 1ٍ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د ‪ :‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬طحؼد‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُـ‪ ,٢ٍٞ٤‬جالٍ بُض‪ ٖ٣‬ػحض بُغدٖٔ (‪ٔٛ .) 8443‬غ بُ‪ٜٞ‬بٓغ ك‪ ٢‬كغح جٔغ بُج‪ٞ‬بٓغ‪ .‬ظ‪ .8ٍ .7,8‬جض‪ٕٝ‬‬
‫ٓض‪٘٣‬د‪ :‬صبع بٌُسث بُؼِٔ‪٤‬د‪ .‬زذو‪٤‬ن‪ :‬كٔؾ بُض‪ ,ٖ٣‬بدٔض‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ( ص‪ ٕٝ‬ؿ٘د )‪ .‬بالكحة‪ٝ ٙ‬بُ٘ظةئغ ك‪ ٢‬بُ٘ذ‪ .ٞ‬ج‪٤‬غ‪ٝ‬ذ ‪ :‬صبع بٌُسث بُؼِٔ‪٤‬د‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُلِ‪ٞ‬ج‪ ,٢٘٤‬أج‪ٞ‬ػِ‪ .) 8438 ( ٢‬بُس‪ٍٞ‬اد‪ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ :‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬طحؼد‪ ,‬صعبؿد ‪ٝ‬زذو‪٤‬ن‪ :‬ص‪ .‬بُٔط‪ٞ‬ع ‪ٞ٣ ,‬ؿق‬
‫بدٔض‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُو‪ٔ٤‬غ‪ٓ ,١‬ذٔض ػحض هللا (‪ . )8437‬بُسحوغخ ‪ٝ‬بُسظًغخ‪ .‬ظ‪ ,8ٍ .8‬صٓلن‪ :‬صبع بُلٌغ‪ .‬زذو‪٤‬ن‪ :‬ػِ‪ ٢‬بُض‪,ٖ٣‬‬
‫كسذ‪ ٢‬بدٔض‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُؼؼب‪ٗ ,١ٝ‬ؼٔ‪ ٚ‬عد‪ٝ ْ٤‬كالف‪ٛ ,‬ةكْ ٍ‪ٝ ٚ‬بُطةػٖ‪ ,‬دةزْ هةُخ ‪ٓٝ‬ذٔض‪ ,‬ػحض بُٔذـٖ دِ‪ٝ ٢ٓٞ‬بالُ‪ٞ‬ؿ‪,٢‬‬
‫ٍ‪ .1‬جض‪ٕٝ‬‬ ‫ػحض بُجحةع ػحض هللا ‪ ٝ‬ػحض بُذٔ‪٤‬ض‪ ,‬ػٔغ ُطل‪ .)7000( ٢‬ه‪ٞ‬بػض بُِـد بُؼغج‪٤‬د ُِـةصؽ بألصج‪.٢‬‬
‫ٓض‪٘٣‬د‪ٓ :‬ض‪٘٣‬د بُ٘‪ٞ‬ع‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُؼِ‪ٛ ,١ٞ‬حد هللا جٖ ػِ‪ .)8447( ٢‬أٓةُ‪ ٢‬بجٖ بُلج‪٤‬غ‪ .8ٍ .١‬بُوة‪ٛ‬غخ‪ :‬بُ٘ةكغ ٌٓسحد بُشةٗج‪ .٢‬زذو‪٤‬ن‬
‫‪ٝ‬صعبؿد‪ :‬بُط٘ةد‪ ,٢‬ص‪ٓ .‬ذٔ‪ٞ‬ص ٓذٔض‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُؼٌحغ‪ ,١‬أج‪ ٞ‬بُحوةء ػحض هللا (ص‪ ٕٝ‬ؿ٘د)‪ .‬بُِحةت ػَِ بُح٘ةء ‪ٝ‬بإلػغبت‪ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ :‬جض‪ٍ ٕٝ‬حةػد‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُـال‪ ,٢٘٤٣‬بُل‪٤‬ز ٓوطل‪ .)8441( ٠‬جةٓغ بُضع‪ٝ‬ؽ بُؼغج‪٤‬د‪ .73 ٍ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪٘ٓ :‬ل‪ٞ‬عبذ بٌُٔسحد‬
‫بُؼوغ‪٣‬د‪ٓ .‬غبجؼد ‪ٝ‬ز٘و‪٤‬خ‪ :‬ص‪ .‬بُشلةج‪ ,٢‬ػحض بُٔ٘ؼْ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُلغب‪٤ٛ‬ض‪ ,١‬بُشِ‪ َ٤‬جٖ بدٔض (‪ .)8439‬بُجَٔ ك‪ ٢‬بُ٘ذ‪ .8ٍ .ٞ‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ٓ :‬إؿـد بُغؿةُد‪ .‬زذو‪٤‬ن ص‪.‬‬
‫هحة‪ ,ٟٝ‬كشغ بُض‪.ٖ٣‬‬
‫‪-‬بُل‪ٞ‬ػبٕ‪ ,‬ػحض هللا (‪ .)8443‬صُ‪ َ٤‬بُـةُي بُ‪ ٠‬بُل‪٤‬د بجٖ ٓةُي‪ٓ .‬جِض بال‪ .8ٍ .ٍٝ‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ .‬صبع بُٔـِْ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُوغبك‪ ,٢‬ك‪ٜ‬ةت بُض‪ ٖ٣‬بدٔض (ص‪ ٕٝ‬ؿ٘د)‪ .‬بُو‪ٞ‬بػض بُطالض‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬ػِْ بُؼغج‪٤‬د‪ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ :‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬طحؼد ‪.‬‬
‫بُشةٓؾ‬ ‫زذو‪٤‬ن‪ :‬ص‪ .‬بُو‪ ,٢٘٤‬ػطٔةٕ ٓذٔ‪ٞ‬ص‪ .‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬جِد جةٓؼد بّ بُوغ‪ُِ ٟ‬حذ‪ٞ‬ش بُؼِٔ‪٤‬د بُٔذٌٔ‪ .ٚ‬بُؼضص‬
‫ػلغ‪ .‬بُـ٘د بُؼةكغخ ك‪.8442 ٢‬‬
‫‪-‬بٌُ‪٤‬ل‪ ,٢‬بالٓةّ كٔؾ بُض‪ٓ ٖ٣‬ذٔض (‪ .)8432‬بالعكةص بُ‪ ٠‬ػِْ بالػغبت‪ٌٓ .‬د بٌُٔغٓد‪ :‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬طحؼد ‪.‬‬
‫زذو‪٤‬ن ‪ٝ‬صعبؿد‪ :‬ص‪ .‬بُحغًةذ‪ ,‬ػحض هللا ػِ‪ ٝ ٢‬ص‪ .‬بُؼٔ‪٤‬غ‪ٓ ,١‬ذٔض ؿةُْ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُٔغبص‪ ,١‬بُذـٖ جٖ هةؿْ (‪ .)8447‬بُج٘‪ ٠‬بُضبٗ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬دغ‪ٝ‬ف بُٔؼةٗ‪ .٢‬ج‪٤‬غ‪ٝ‬ذ‪ :‬صبع بٌُسث بُؼِٔ‪٤‬د ‪.8ٍ .‬‬
‫زذو‪٤‬ن‪ :‬ص‪ .‬هحة‪ ,ٙٝ‬كشغ بُض‪ٝ ٖ٣‬بالؿسةط‪ .‬كةًَ‪ٓ ,‬ذٔض ٗض‪.ْ٣‬‬
‫‪-‬بٌُٔ‪ٞ‬ص‪ ,١‬أج‪ ٞ‬ػ‪٣‬ض ػحض بُغدٖٔ (‪ .)8441‬كغح بٌُٔ‪ٞ‬ص‪ ١‬ػِ‪ ٠‬بُل‪٤‬د بجٖ ٓةُي‪ .‬ظ‪ .8‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ :‬جةٓؼد‬
‫بٌُ‪٣ٞ‬ر‪ .‬دوو‪ٝ ٚ‬ػِن ػِ‪ .ٚ٤‬ص‪ .‬أُغبجذ‪ ,٢‬كةٍٔد عبكض (‪.)8448‬‬
‫‪-‬بُ٘ذ‪ ,١ٞ‬أج‪ ٞ‬ػِ‪ .)7007( ٢‬بُٔـةئَ بُؼـٌغ‪٣‬ةذ ك‪ ٢‬بُ٘ذ‪ ٞ‬بُؼغج‪ .٢‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ :‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬طحؼد‪ .‬صعبؿد‬
‫‪ٝ‬زذو‪٤‬ن‪ :‬بُٔ٘و‪ٞ‬ع‪ :١‬ػِ‪ ٢‬جةجغ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُ٘ذ‪ ,١ٞ‬أج‪ ٞ‬بُلسخ ػطٔةٕ (‪ .)8427‬بُِٔغ ك‪ ٢‬بُؼغج‪٤‬د‪ .‬ظ‪ .8‬بٌُ‪٣ٞ‬ر‪ :‬صبع بٌُسث بُطوةك‪٤‬د‪ .‬زذو‪٤‬ن‪ :‬كةعؽ‬
‫كةئؼ‪.‬‬
 ‫‪51‬‬

‫‪-‬بُ٘ذ‪ًٔ ,١ٞ‬ةٍ بُض‪ ٖ٣‬أج‪ ٢‬بُحغًةذ (‪ .)8331‬أؿغبع بُؼغج‪٤‬د‪٤ُ .‬ضٕ بُٔذغ‪ٝ‬ؿد‪ٓ :‬طِؼد جغ‪.َ٣‬‬
‫‪-‬بُ٘ذ‪ٞٓ ,١ٞ‬كن بُض‪ ٖ٣‬جٖ ػِ‪( ٢‬ص‪ ٕٝ‬ؿ٘د)‪ .‬كغح بُٔلوَ‪ٓ .‬جِض‪ .8‬ظ‪ .8‬بُوة‪ٛ‬غخ‪ :‬بٌُٔسحد بُس‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬و‪٤‬د‪ .‬دوو‪ٚ‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬كغح ك‪ٞ‬ب‪ٛ‬ض‪ ,ٙ‬بدٔض‪ ,‬بدٔض بُـ‪٤‬ض‪ .‬عبجؼ‪ًٝٝ ٚ‬غ ك‪ٜ‬ةعؿ‪ ,ٚ‬ػحض بُـ٘‪ ,٢‬بؿٔةػ‪ َ٤‬ػحض بُج‪ٞ‬بص‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُ٘ذةؽ‪ ,‬أج‪ ٞ‬جؼلغ بدٔض (‪ .)7004‬ئػغبت بُوغإٓ‪ .‬ظ‪ُ .8ٍ .8‬ح٘ةٕ‪ .‬ج‪٤‬غ‪ٝ‬ذ‪ .‬صبع بد‪٤‬ةء بُسغبش بُؼغج‪.٢‬‬
‫‪-‬بُ٘ذةؽ‪ٓ ,‬وطل‪ ٖٓ .)8449( ٠‬هٌة‪٣‬ة بُِـد‪ .8ٍ .‬بٌُ‪٣ٞ‬ر‪ :‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬طحؼد‪.‬‬
‫جض‪ٕٝ‬‬ ‫‪-‬بُ٘‪ ,٢ِ٤‬زو‪ ٢‬بُض‪ ٖ٣‬ئجغب‪ .)8443( ْ٤ٛ‬بُول‪ٞ‬خ بُول‪٤‬د ك‪ ٢‬كغح بُضعخ بألُل‪٤‬د‪ .‬بُجؼء بأل‪ :ٍٝ‬بُوـْ بأل‪.ٍٝ‬‬
‫ٓض‪٘٣‬د‪ :‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬طحؼد‪ .‬زذو‪٤‬ن بُؼٔ‪٤‬غ‪ٓ ,١‬ذـٖ جٖ ؿةُْ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬بُ‪٤‬ـةع‪ ,١‬كؼالٕ ػحض ػِ‪ٓ .)7087( ٢‬ذةًغبذ ك‪ٓ ٢‬ل‪ ّٜٞ‬بُؼةَٓ‪ ,‬ك‪ٞ‬بئض بإلػغبت‪ ,‬بُذةالذ بإلػغبج‪٤‬د‬
‫‪ٝ‬بُؼالٓةذ‬
‫‪©UniversityofBabylon.7080.7088http://www.uobabylon.edu.iq/uobcoleges/lecture.aspx‬‬
‫‪?fid=10&Icid=25598‬‬
‫‪.‬ك‪ ٢‬بُجةٓؼد بُٔوغ‪٣‬د ‪ 8474‬أُِوة‪ٛ‬ة ٓذةًغبذ ‪:‬بُسط‪ٞ‬ع بُ٘ذ‪ُِ ١ٞ‬ـد بُؼغج‪٤‬د ‪).‬جغجـسغبؽ (‪- 8441‬‬
‫‪.‬بُس‪ٞ‬بت‪ ,‬عٌٓةٕ ص‪.‬ػحض‪ٝ.‬هذذ‪ٝ ٚ‬ػِن ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬أسغج‪. ٚ‬بُوة‪ٛ‬غخ‪ٌٓ .‬سحد بُشةٗج‪7ٍ. ٢‬‬
‫‪ -‬جغ‪ ,١‬ػحض هللا (‪ .)8439‬كغح ك‪ٞ‬ب‪ٛ‬ض بإل‪ٌ٣‬ةح ألج‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٢‬بُلةعؿ‪ .٢‬بُوة‪ٛ‬غخ‪ :‬بُ‪٤ٜ‬اد بُؼةٓد ُلإ‪ٕٝ‬‬
‫بُٔطةجغ بإلؿالٓ‪٤‬د‪ .‬زوض‪ٝ ْ٣‬زذو‪٤‬ن‪ :‬ص‪ .‬صع‪٣ٝ‬ق‪ ,‬ػحض ٓوطل‪ٓ .٠‬غبجؼد‪:‬ص‪ .‬ػالّ‪ٓ ,‬ذٔض ٓ‪ٜ‬ض‪.١‬‬
‫ػحض‬ ‫‪ -‬جٖ ه٘حغ‪ ,‬أج‪ ٞ‬جل‪٤‬غ ػٔغ‪ً .)8433( ٝ‬سةت ؿ‪٤‬ح‪ .1ٍ .ٚ٣ٞ‬بُوة‪ٛ‬غخ‪ :‬بُ٘ةكغ ٌٓسحد بُشةٗج‪ .٢‬زذو‪٤‬ن ‪ٛٝ‬ةع‪,ٕٝ‬‬
‫بُـالّ ٓذٔض‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬جٖ هةؿْ‪ ,‬ػحض بُغدٖٔ جٖ ٓذٔض (ص‪ ٕٝ‬ؿ٘د )‪ .‬دةك‪٤‬د بالجغ‪٤ٓٝ‬د‪ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬طحؼد‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬جٖ ً‪٤‬ـةٕ‪ ,‬أج‪ ٞ‬بُذـٖ ٓذٔض (‪ .)8429‬أُٔ‪ٞ‬كو‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬بُ٘ذ‪ٓ .ٞ‬جِض‪ .1‬جـضبص‪ٗ :‬لغ ك‪ٓ ٢‬جِ‪ :ٚ‬بُؼضص بُطةٗ‪.٢‬‬
‫‪-‬جٖ ٓةُي‪ ,‬جٔةٍ بُض‪ ٖ٣‬أج‪ ٢‬ػحض هللا (‪ٛ8184‬ـ)‪ .‬زـ‪ َ٤ٜ‬بُل‪ٞ‬بئض ‪ٝ‬زٌٔ‪ َ٤‬بُٔوةهض ك‪ ٢‬بُ٘ذ‪ٌٓ .8ٍ .ٞ‬د‪:‬‬
‫بُٔطحؼد بُٔ‪٤‬غ‪٣‬د‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬جحغ‪ٓ ,‬ذٔض ػحض هللا (‪ .)8431‬بٌُٔةئغ ك‪ ٢‬بُِـد بُؼغج‪٤‬د‪ .8ٍ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ :‬صبع بُٔؼةعف‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ (‪ .) 8433‬بألؿِ‪ٞ‬ت ‪ٝ‬بُ٘ذ‪ .8ٍ .ٞ‬جةٓؼد بإلؿٌ٘ضع‪٣‬د‪ :‬صبع بُضػ‪ٞ‬خ ُِ٘لغ ‪ٝ‬بُس‪ٞ‬ػ‪٣‬غ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬جحَ‪ٓ ,‬ذٔض دـٖ (‪ .)8444‬صكةع ػٖ بُوغإٓ بٌُغ‪ :ْ٣‬أهةُد بإلػغبت ‪ٝ‬صالُس‪ ٚ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬بُٔؼ٘‪ .٠‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪:‬‬
‫بُحغجغ‪ُِ ١‬طحةػد ‪ٝ‬بُ٘لغ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬دـةٕ‪ ,‬زٔةّ (‪ .)7001‬بُِـد بُؼغج‪٤‬د ٓؼ٘ة‪ٛ‬ة ‪ٓٝ‬ح٘ة‪ٛ‬ة‪ .9ٍ .‬بُوة‪ٛ‬غخ‪ :‬ػةُْ بٌُسث‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬دـٖ‪ ,‬ػحةؽ (جض‪ ٕٝ‬زةع‪٣‬ز)‪ .‬بُ٘ذ‪ ٞ‬بُ‪ٞ‬بك‪ٓ .1ٍ .٢‬وغ‪ .‬صبع بُٔؼةعف‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬ػحض بُذٔ‪٤‬ض‪ٓ ,‬ذٔض ٓذ‪ ٢‬بُض‪ .)7004( ٖ٣‬كغح بجٖ ػو‪ :َ٤‬ػِ‪ ٠‬بُل‪٤‬د بجٖ ٓةُي‪ .‬بُوة‪ٛ‬غخ‪ :‬صبع بُطالئغ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬ػحض بُـ٘‪ ,٢‬بدٔض ػحض بُؼظ‪ .) 8440( ْ٤‬بُوةػضخ بُ٘ذ‪٣ٞ‬د‪ .‬بُوة‪ٛ‬غخ‪ :‬صبع بُطوةكد‪.‬‬
‫ك‪٢‬‬ ‫‪-‬هةُخ‪ٓ ,‬ذٔض ؿةُْ (ص‪ ٕٝ‬ؿ٘د)‪ .‬أه‪ ٍٞ‬بُ٘ظغ‪٣‬د بُـ‪٤‬ةه‪٤‬د بُذض‪٣‬طد ػ٘ض ػِٔةء بُؼغج‪٤‬د ‪ٝ‬ص‪ٝ‬ع ‪ٛ‬ظ‪ ٙ‬بُ٘ظغ‪٣‬د‬
‫بُس‪ٞ‬هَ ئُ‪ ٠‬بُٔؼ٘‪.٠‬‬
‫‪-‬ػحض هللا‪ ,‬ػحض بإلُ‪ ٚ‬ئجغب‪ ْ٤ٛ‬ػحض بُجةؿْ‪ ,‬ػحض بُؼحةؽ ‪٤ٛٝٝ‬ث‪ ,‬ؿ‪ٜ‬ةّ ػح‪ٞ‬ص ‪ٝ‬بُوغ‪٣‬ل‪ٞٓ ,٢‬ؿ‪ ٠‬دـ‪ٖ٤‬‬
‫(‪ .)7081‬ك‪ٞ‬بئض بُِـد بُؼغج‪٤‬د ُِوق بُطةٗ‪ٓ ٢‬س‪ٞ‬ؿَ‪ .9ٍ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬طحؼد‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬ػٔغ‪ ,‬بدٔض ٓشسةع ‪ ٝ‬ػ‪ٛ‬غبٕ‪ٓ ,‬وطل‪ ٠‬بُ٘ذةؽ ‪ٝ‬ػحض بُِط‪٤‬ق‪ٓ ,‬ذٔض دٔةؿد (‪ .)8441‬بُ٘ذ‪ ٞ‬بألؿةؿ‪.٢‬‬
‫بٌُ‪٣ٞ‬ر‪٘ٓ :‬ل‪ٞ‬عبذ طبذ بُـالؿَ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ك‪٤‬ةى‪ ,‬ؿِ‪ٔ٤‬ةٕ (‪ .)8449‬بُ٘ذ‪ ٞ‬بُؼوغ‪ :١‬صُ‪ٓ َ٤‬حـَ ُو‪ٞ‬بػض بُِـد بُؼغج‪٤‬د‪ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ٓ :‬غًؼ بأل‪ٛ‬غبّ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٍ -‬و‪ٞ‬ؽ‪ ,‬جـةّ (‪ .)7000‬بُٔشسوغ ك‪ ٢‬بُ٘ذ‪ٝ ٞ‬بإلٓالء ‪ٝ‬بُسغه‪ .8ٍ .ْ٤‬ص‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ض‪٘٣‬د‪ .‬جض‪ٓ ٕٝ‬طحؼد‪.‬‬
 52

‫ صبع‬. ‫ةى‬٣‫ بُغ‬.‫غ‬ٛ‫د ػ٘ض ػحض بُوة‬٤‫د بُحالؿ‬ٜ‫ج‬ُٞ‫د ٖٓ ب‬٣ٞ‫ث بُ٘ذ‬٤ً‫ بُسغب‬.)‫ٕ ؿ٘د‬ٝ‫ ػحض بُلسةح ( ص‬,ٖ٤‫ الك‬-
.‫ز‬٣‫بُٔغ‬
‫ف‬ٝ‫دغ‬ٝ ‫بُوغف‬ٝ ٞ‫ بُ٘ذ‬٢‫ بُغبؿث ك‬ٚ٤٘ٓٝ ‫د بُطةُث‬٤٘‫ ؿ‬.) ‫ـ‬ٛ8733( ١‫ بدٔض أك٘ض‬,‫ بئث‬ٞ‫ع بُج‬ٞ‫ ٓذ‬-
. ‫ بئث‬ٞ‫ بُج‬:‫٘د‬٣‫ٕ ٓض‬ٝ‫ جض‬.8ٍ .٢ٗ‫بُٔؼة‬
.‫ٕ ٓطحؼد‬ٝ‫ جض‬:‫غخ‬ٛ‫ بُوة‬.7ٍ . ٞ‫ةء بُ٘ذ‬٤‫ بد‬.)8447( ْ٤ٛ‫ ئجغب‬,٠‫ ٓوطل‬-
.‫د‬٤‫ٌد بُؼغج‬ُٜ٘‫ صبع ب‬:‫ذ‬ٝ‫غ‬٤‫ ج‬.8ٍ .ٚ‫وةز‬٤‫ زطح‬ٝ ٞ‫ بُ٘ذ‬٢‫ ك‬.)7000( ‫ص‬ٞٔ‫ ٓذ‬,٢‫ ٓطغج‬-
.‫ ٓإؿـد بُغؿةُد‬: ‫ذ‬ٝ‫غ‬٤‫ ج‬.7ٍ . 8‫ ظ‬.‫د‬٤‫جالؿ‬ٝ ‫د‬٣ٞ‫وةذ ٗذ‬٤‫ زطح‬. )8447( ُْ‫ ػحض بُؼةٍ ؿة‬,ّ‫ ٌٓغ‬-
ْ‫صخ ًةظ‬ٞ‫ ػ‬,٢٘‫بُذـ‬ٝ ْ٣‫ ػحض بُجحةع ػحض بٌُغ‬,١ٞ٘‫ بُـ‬ٝ ‫ عبكغ بؿؼض‬,٢ٗ‫بُؼة‬ٝ ٖ‫ْ دـ‬٣‫ ًغ‬,‫ ٗةهغ‬-
:‫٘د‬٣‫ٕ ٓض‬ٝ‫جض‬ .8ٍ .‫ِد‬٤ٔ‫ٕ بُج‬ٞ٘‫ض بُل‬ٛ‫ٓؼة‬ٝ ٖ٤ِٔ‫ض بػضبص بُٔؼ‬ٛ‫ ُِوق بُطةُص ٓؼة‬:‫د‬٤‫بػض بُِـد بُؼغج‬ٞ‫ ه‬.)7087(
. ‫ٕ ٓطحؼد‬ٝ‫جض‬
‫ظ‬٤ٓ‫د ُسال‬٣ٞ‫ؽ بُ٘ذ‬ٝ‫ ًسةت بُضع‬. )8488( ٠‫ ٓوطل‬,ّٞ‫ٍٔط‬ٝ ‫ ٓذٔض جي‬,‫ةت‬٣‫ط‬ٝ ‫ جي‬٢‫ دو‬,‫ ٗةهق‬-
.‫د‬٣‫غ‬٤ٓ‫ بُٔطحؼد بأل‬:‫٘د‬٣‫ٕ ٓض‬ٝ‫ جض‬:‫ ٓوغ‬.81ٍ .1‫ ظ‬.‫د‬٤‫بُٔضبعؽ بالجسضبئ‬
.‫د‬٤‫ّ بُؼغج‬ِٞ‫ صبع بُؼ‬:‫٘د‬٣‫ٕ ٓض‬ٝ‫ جض‬.8ٍ .‫د‬٤‫بػض بُِـد بُؼغج‬ٞ‫ ه‬٠ُ‫َ ئ‬٤ُ‫ بُض‬.)8441( ‫ دـٖ ٓذٔض‬,ٖ٣‫عبُض‬ٞٗ -
.‫ٕ ٓطحؼد‬ٝ‫ جض‬: ‫٘د‬٣‫ٕ ٓض‬ٝ‫ جض‬.9 ٍ .٢‫ بُؼغج‬ٞ‫ بُ٘ذ‬٢‫د ك‬٤ٗ‫ث بإلٗـة‬٤ُ‫ بألؿة‬.)7008( ّ‫ ػحض بُـال‬,ٕٝ‫ةع‬ٛ-
Appendix: I: A List of the Symbols of English and Arabic Phonemes1
English Symbols1
/i/ as in 'pit' /pit/ /i:/ as in 'key' /ki:/
/e/ as in 'pet' /pet/ /a:/ as in 'car' /ka:/
/a/ as in 'pat' /pat/ /o:/ as in 'core' /ko:/
/8/ as in 'putt' /p8t/ /u:/ as in 'coo' /ku:/
/o/ as in 'pot' /pot/ / 3:/ as in 'cur' /k 3:/
/u/ as in 'put' /put/
/ə/ as in 'about' /əbaut/
/ei/ as in 'bay' /bei/ /əu/as in 'go' /g əu/
/ai/ as in 'buy' /bai/ /au/ as in 'cow' /kau/
/oi/ as in 'boy' /boi/
/iə/ as in 'peer' /piə/
/eə/ as in 'pear' /peə/
/uə/ as in 'poor' /puə/
/p/ as in 'pea' /pi:/ /b/ as in 'bee' /bi:/
/t/ as in 'toe' /təu/ /d/ as in 'doe' /dəu/
/k/ as in 'cap' /kap/ /g/ as in 'gap' /gap/
/f/ as in 'fat' /fat/ /v/ as in 'vat' /vat/
Ѳ/ as in 'thing' / Ѳiŋ/ /ð/ as in 'this' /ðis/

1
1The English and Arabic symbols are taken from Betti (2007: 409-10) and
Roach (1988: 6)
 53

/s/ as in 'sip' /sip/ /z/ as in 'zip' /zip/

/∫/ as in 'ship' /∫ip/ / 3/ as in 'measure' /me3ə/
/h/ as in 'hat' /hat/
/m/ as in 'map' /map/ /l/ as in 'led' /led/
/n/ as in 'nap' /nap/ /r/ as in 'red' /red/
/ŋ/ as in 'hang' /haŋ/ /j/ as in 'yet' /jet/
/w/ as in 'wet' /wet/
/t∫/ as in 'chin' /t∫in/ /d1/ as in 'gin' /d1in/
Arabic Symbols
/f/ as in /fiil/ ‘an elephant’
/Ѳ/ as in /Ѳa4lb/ ‘fox’
/ð/ as i /ðabha/ ‘he threw it’
/D/ as in /DabuT/ ‘an officer’
/s/ as in /suug/ ‘market’
/S/ as in /Sabur/ ‘patience’

/z/ as in /zraar/ ‘button’

/t1/ as in /t1aali/ ‘bank of the river’
/∫/ as in /∫maalak/ ‘What is wrong with you’
/x/ as in /xubuz/ ‘bread’
/G/ as in /Graab/ ‘crow’
/h/ as in /hnaa/ ‘here’
/H/ as in /Hariim/ ‘women’
/b/ as in /baab/ ‘door’
/t/ as in /timman/ ‘rice’
/T/ as in /TamaTa/ ‘tomatoes’
/d/ as in /tdanna/ ‘be nearby’
/D/ as in /Daal/ ‘staying’
/k/ as in /ka4ak/ ‘cake’
/q/ as in /qadiim/ ‘old’
/?/ as in /?ams/ ‘yesterday’
/d1/ as in /d1amaal/ ‘beauty’
/g/ as in /ga4ad/ ‘he set down’
/m/ as in /minhuu/ ‘Who is it?’
/n/ as in /nibaH/ ‘barked’
/l/ as in /limna/ ‘gather us’
/w/ as in /wajjaana/ ‘with us’
/j/ as in /jamta/ ‘when’
 ‫‪54‬‬

‫‪/4/‬‬ ‫‪as in‬‬ ‫‪/4aali/‬‬ ‫’‪‘high‬‬

‫‪/r/‬‬ ‫‪as in‬‬ ‫‪/ramul/‬‬ ‫’‪‘sand‬‬
‫‪/p/‬‬ ‫‪as in‬‬ ‫‪/parda /‬‬ ‫’‪‘curtain‬‬
‫‪/i/‬‬ ‫‪as in‬‬ ‫‪/mi4da/‬‬ ‫’‪‘stomach‬‬
‫‪/ii/‬‬ ‫‪as in‬‬ ‫‪/biina/‬‬ ‫’‪‘in us‬‬
‫‪/a/‬‬ ‫‪as in‬‬ ‫‪/saliim/‬‬ ‫’‪‘healthy‬‬
‫‪/aa/‬‬ ‫‪as in‬‬ ‫‪/salim/‬‬ ‫’‪‘safe‬‬
‫‪/oo/‬‬ ‫‪as in‬‬ ‫‪/tilifoon/‬‬ ‫’‪‘telephone‬‬
‫‪/u/‬‬ ‫‪as in‬‬ ‫‪/ummii/‬‬ ‫’‪‘my mother‬‬
‫‪/uu/‬‬ ‫‪as in‬‬ ‫‪/4uud/‬‬ ‫‪‘stick,‬‬

‫الخــــــالصــــــــة‬

‫زؼض ‪ٛ‬ظ‪ ٙ‬بُضعبؿد بُذةُ‪٤‬د صعبؿدً ‪ٝ‬هل‪٤‬د ٓوةعٗد‪ .‬زوق بُذةُد بإلػغبج‪٤‬د ك‪ ٢‬بُِـس‪ ِٖ ٤‬بالٌِٗ‪٤‬ؼ‪٣‬د ‪ ٝ‬بُؼغج‪٤‬د‪ًٔ .‬ة أٗ‪ٜ‬ة زل‪٤‬غ‬
‫ئُ‪ٗ ٠‬وةٍ بُسلةج‪ٝ ٚ‬بالسسالف ج‪ٜٔ٘٤‬ة‪ .‬بُحذص ‪٣‬شسحغ بُذةُد بإلػغبج‪٤‬د ًشةه‪٤‬د ٖٓ سوةئن بألؿٔةء ‪ٝ‬بٌُٔةئغ ك‪ًَ ٢‬‬
‫ٖٓ بُِـس‪ ٖ٤‬بالٌِٗ‪٤‬ؼ‪٣‬د ‪ٝ‬بُؼغج‪٤‬د‪.‬‬
‫ز‪ٜ‬ضف بُضعبؿد ئٍى ٓوةعٗد ‪ٝ‬بًسلةف أ‪ٝ‬ج‪ ٚ‬بالسسالف ُِذةُد بإلػغبج‪٤‬د ك‪ ٢‬بُِـس‪ ٖ٤‬بالٌِٗ‪٤‬ؼ‪٣‬د ‪ٝ‬بُؼغج‪٤‬د ػٖ ٍغ‪٣‬ن‬
‫زؼغ‪٣‬ل‪ٜ‬ة ‪ٝ‬ج‪٤‬ةٕ زةع‪٣‬ش‪ٜ‬ة ‪ٗٝ‬ظةٓ‪ٜ‬ة ‪ٝ‬طًغ أٗ‪ٞ‬بػ‪ٜ‬ة ‪ٝ‬ز‪٤ًٞ‬خ ‪ٛ‬ظ‪ ٙ‬بألٗ‪ٞ‬بع وج‪٤‬ةٕ بُٔض‪ ٟ‬بُظ‪ ١‬زسلةج‪ ٚ‬أ‪ ٝ‬زشسِق ك‪ ٚ٤‬بُِـسةٕ‬
‫ك‪ًٞٞٓ ٢‬ع بُذةُد بإلػغبج‪٤‬د‪.‬‬
‫‪ُٝ‬ـغى زذو‪٤‬ن أ‪ٛ‬ضبك‪ٜ‬ة بكسغًر بُضعبؿد بؿسشضبّ دةُد بُغكغ أًطغ ٖٓ بألٗ‪ٞ‬بع بألسغ‪ ٟ‬ك‪ ٢‬أٗ‪ٞ‬بع بُذةُد‬
‫بإلػغبج‪٤‬د ك‪ ٢‬بُِـس‪ٖ٤‬و زذضص أٗ‪ٞ‬بع بُذةُد بإلػغبج‪٤‬د جسأض‪٤‬غ جؼي بُؼ٘ةهغ ك‪ً ٢‬ال بُِـس‪ً ٖ٤‬ةُلؼَ أ‪ ٝ‬بالؿْ بُز‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝٝ‬ج‪ٞ‬ص زلةج‪ ٝ ٚ‬بسسالف ج‪ ٖ٤‬بُِـس‪ ٖ٤‬ك‪ٔ٤‬ة ‪٣‬شن بُذةُد بإل ػغبج‪٤‬د ‪٣ ٝ‬ذسَ بالسسالف ٓـةدد أ‪ٝ‬ؿغ ٖٓ بُسلةج‪. ٚ‬‬
‫زوق بُضعبؿد بُذةُد بإلػغبج‪٤‬د ك‪ ٢‬بُِـد بالٌِٗ‪٤‬ؼ‪٣‬د جةالػسٔةص ػِ‪ٞٔٗ ٠‬طظ ز‪٤ُٞ‬ل‪ٓ ٢‬سٌ‪Onions ٖٓ ٕٞ‬‬
‫(‪ )1541( Quirk et al ٝ )1531‬بُذةُد بإلػغبج‪٤‬د ك‪ ٢‬بُِـد بُؼغج‪٤‬د جةالػسٔةص ػِ‪ٞٔٗ ٠‬طظ ز‪٤ُٞ‬ل‪ٓ ٢‬سٌ‪ٖٓ ٕٞ‬‬
‫حسان (‪ )2002‬عبد الحميد (‪.)2005‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬هض ز‪ٞ‬هِر بُضعبؿد ئُ‪ ٠‬ان ُِذةُد بإلػغبج‪٤‬د أ‪٤ٔٛ‬د ٓؼسحغخ ك‪ ٢‬زؼغ‪٣‬ق ‪ٝ‬زوـ‪ ْ٤‬بألؿٔةء ‪ٝ‬بٌُٔةئغ ك‪٢‬‬
‫ًال بُِـس‪ ٖ٤‬والى وجود زلةج‪ ٚ‬ج‪ ٖ٤‬بُِـس‪ ٖ٤‬بالٌِٗ‪٤‬ؼ‪٣‬د ‪ٝ‬بُؼغج‪٤‬د ك‪ًٞٞٓ ٢‬ع بُذةُد بإلػغبج‪٤‬د ػِ‪ ٠‬بُغؿْ ٖٓ‬
‫‪ٝ‬ج‪ٞ‬ص بالسسالف ج‪ٜٔ٘٤‬ة‪.‬‬

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