PM SHRI KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA

SHALIMAR BAGH

ACADEMIC YEAR:2024-2025

Investigatory project

NAME:Tushar
CLASS:XII-A
ROLL NO:
SUBJECT:Physics
SUB CODE:042

PROJECT GUIDE:Mr. Jaideep Saini

PGT(Physics)
Kendriya Vidyalaya sangathan
 Certificate

This is to hereby certify that the original and

genuine investigatory project has been completed
sincerely and satisfactorily by Tushar of Class XII A
under my guidance and supervision.

I am satisfied with their initiative and efforts for the

completion of project file as a part of curriculum of
CBSE Class XII Examination.

Teacher’s Signature Examiner’s Signature

 Acknowledgement

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all

these individuals for mentoring and supporting me
in completing this project.

My teacher Mr.Jaideep Saini, for providing me with

invaluable insights and direction.
Our esteemed principal Mr.Durgesh kumar
srivastava for fostering an environment of learning
and creativity within our school.

To my parents, their constant encouragement,

patience, and understanding have been the pillars
of my success.
I am grateful to my friends who contributed ideas
and perspectives that enriched the project. Thank
you everyone for shaping this project and
enhancing my learning experience.
 INDEX

Sr No. Title
➢ 1. Introduction
➢ 2. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
➢ 3. SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
➢ 4. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
➢ 5. ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
➢ 6. REFLECTING TELESCOPES
➢ 7. Bibliography
 Introduction
Optical instruments are the devices processing light
waves to enhance an image for a more clear view. The use
of optical instruments, such as a magnifying lens or any
complicated device like a microscope or telescope,
usually makes things bigger and helps us see in a more
detailed manner. The use of converging lenses makes
things appear larger, and on the other hand, diverging
lenses always give smaller images.

With the use of a converging lens, one must recall that if

an object is at a larger distance, then the image is
diminished and will be very nearer to the focal point.
While the object keeps on moving in the direction of the
lens, the image moves beyond the focal point and
enlarges. When the object is placed at 2F, which is two
times the focal distance from the lens, the image and
object become of the same size. When the object moves
from 2F towards the focal point (F), its image keeps
moving out of the lens and enlarges till it goes to infinity
when the object reaches the focal point, F. As the object
moves closer to the lens, the image moves towards the
lens from negative infinity and becomes smaller as the
object approaches the lens.
 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Optical instruments are the devices which processes light wave to

enhance an image for more clear view. You use an optical
instrument usually to make things bigger and to see fine details
of objects with the help of something very simple like a
magnifying glass or any complicated device like microscope or
telescope. To make things look bigger, you should always use the
converging lenses as diverging lenses always gets you smaller
images. While using a converging lens, it’s important to
remember the rules of thumb. And the first rules is, if any object
is very far away, the image will be tiny and very close to the focal
point. While the object moves towards the lens, the image moves
out from the focal point and grows. The image and object are of
the same size when object is placed at 2F which twice the focal
distance from the lens. While moving the object from 2F towards
the focal length (F), the image keeps moving out from the lens
and grows till it goes to infinity. As the object moves closer to the
lens, the image steadily moves towards the lens from minus
infinity and gives you smaller the closer the object is to lens.
 SIMPLE MICROSCOPE

A microscope is an optical instrument which is used to see

highly magnified images of tiny objects such as bacteria,
cells , viruses and protozoans etc. because these tiny
objects cannot be seen by naked eyes. There are two types
of microscopes: 1. Simple microscope 2. Compound
microscope Simple Microscope A simple microscope is also
called magnifying glass. It is actually a convex lens of small
focal length, which is used for seeing the magnified images
of small objects.

Principle of Simple:-

Microscope A simple microscope works on the principle

that when a tiny object is placed within its focus, a virtual,
erect and magnified image of the object is formed at the
least distance of distinct vision from the eye held close to
the lens.
Working of Simple Microscope:-

The ray diagram to show the working of simple

microscope is shown in figure. A small object AB which is
to be magnified is placed between the principal focus F’
and optical centre C of the convex lens. Now, a ray of light
AO parallel to principal axis which is coming from the
point A of the object passes through the focus F along the
straight line OX after getting refracted by the convex lens.
A second ray of light AC coming from the point A of the
object passes through the optical centre C of the convex
lens along the straight line CY. As is clear from the figure
that the two rays i.e. OX and CY are diverging rays so these
rays can intersect each other only at point A’ when
produced backward. Now, on drawing A’B’ perpendicular
from point A’ to the principal axis, we get the image A’B’ of
the object which is virtual, erect and magnified.
Uses of Simple Microscope:-
Following are the important uses of simple microscope:

➢ 1. The simple microscope is commonly used by watch

makers to see the magnified view of small parts of a
watch.
➢ 2. It is also used by the jewelers to see the magnified
view of the fine parts of jewellery.
➢ 3. Simple microscope is used to see the enlarged image
of letters of a book, textures of fibers or threads of a
cloth.
➢ 4. Simple microscope is used to see the magnified view
of different particles of different types of soils.
➢ 5. It is used by palmists to see enlarged view of the
lines of our hand.
➢ 6. Simple microscope is used by skin specialists to find
out various diseases of skin.
➢ 7. It is also used to see the details of stamp and
engravings.

Magnification of Simple Microscope:-

The magnifying power of a simple microscope is given by:

𝑀=1+𝐷/𝐹
Where, D = least distance of distinct vision
F = focal length of the convex lens
It should be noted that the focal length of the convex
lens should be small because smaller the focal
length of the lens, greater will be its magnifying
power. Also the maximum magnification of a simple
microscope is about 10, which means that the object
will appear 10 times larger by using the simple
microscope of maximum magnification.

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

A compound microscope is an optical instrument

consisting of two convex lenses of short focal lengths
which is used for observing the highly magnified
images of tiny objects. The compound microscope can
magnify the image of a tiny object up to 1000.

Principle of compound microscope:-

A compound microscope works on the principle that
when a tiny object to be magnified is placed just beyond
the focus of its objective lens, a virtual, inverted and
highly magnified image of the object is formed at the
least distance of distinct vision from the eye held close
to the eye piece.

Construction of compound microscope:-

A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses: an

objective lens O of small aperture and an eye piece E of
large aperture. The lens which is placed towards the object
is called objective lens, while the lens which is towards our
eye is called eye piece. These two convex lenses i.e. the
objective and the eye piece have short focal length and are
fitted at the free ends of two sliding tubes at a suitable
distance from each other. Although the focal length of both
the objective lens and eye piece is short, but the focal
length of the objective lens O is a little shorter than that of
the eye piece E.
The reason for using the eye piece of large focal length and
large aperture in a compound microscope is, so that it may
receive more light rays from the object to be magnified and
form a bright image.
Working of compound microscope:-

The ray diagram to show the working of compound

microscope is shown in figure. A tiny object AB to be
magnified is placed in front of the objective lens just
beyond its principal focus fo’. In this case, the objective
lens O of the compound microscope forms a real, inverted
and enlarged image A’B’ of the object.
Now A’B’ acts as an object for the eye piece E, whose
position is adjusted so that A’B’ lies between optical centre
C2 and the focus fe’ of eye piece. Now the eye piece forms a
final virtual, inverted and highly magnified image A”B”.
this final image A”B” is seen by our eye hold close to eye
piece, after adjusting the final image A”B” at the least
distance of distinct vision of 25 cm from the eye.
Magnification of compound microscope:-

The magnification of compound microscope is given by:

where,
D = Least distance of distinct vision (25 cm)
L = Length of the microscope tube
fo = Focal length of the objective lens
fe = Focal length of the eye-piece lens

ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE

A telescope is an optical instrument which is used to see

the distant objects. Telescopes are of two types:
1. Astronomical telescope
2. Galilean telescope or Terrestrial telescope
Astronomical Telescope:-
An astronomical telescope is an optical instrument which
is used to see the magnified image of distant heavenly
bodies like stars, planets, satellites and galaxies etc.

The final image formed by an astronomical telescope is

always virtual, inverted and magnified.

Principle of Astronomical Telescope:-

An astronomical telescope works on the principle that
when an object to be magnified is placed at a large distance
from the objective lens of telescope, a virtual, inverted and
magnified image of the object is formed at the least
distance of distinct vision from the eye held close to the eye
piece.

Construction of Astronomical Telescope:-

An astronomical telescope consists of two convex lenses :

an objective lens O and an eye piece E. the focal length fo of
the objective lens of astronomical telescope is large as
compared to the focal length fe of the eye piece. And the
aperture of objective lens O is large as compared to that of
eye piece, so that it can receive more light from the distant
object and form a bright image of the distant object. Both
the objective lens and the eye piece are fitted at the free
ends of two sliding tubes, at a suitable distance from each
other.
Working of Astronomical telescope :-
The ray diagram to show the working of the astronomical
telescope is shown in figure. A parallel beam of light from a
heavenly body such as stars, planets or satellites fall on the
objective lens of the telescope. The objective lens forms a
real, inverted and diminished image A’B’ of the heavenly
body. This image (A’B’) now acts as an object for the eye
piece E, whose position is adjusted so that the image lies
between the focus fe’ and the optical centre C2 of the eye
piece. Now the eye piece forms a virtual, inverted and
highly magnified image of object at infinity. When the final
image of an object is formed at infinity, the telescope is
said to be in ‘normal adjustment’. It should be noted that,
the final image of object (such as stars, planets or
satellites) formed by an astronomical telescope is always
inverted with respect to the object. But it does not matter
whether the image formed by an astronomical telescope is
inverted or not, as all the heavenly bodies are usually
spherical is shape.

Magnifying Power of an Astronomical

Telescope:-

The Magnifying Power of a telescope is given by

𝑚=𝑓𝑜/𝑓𝑒
Where, fo = Focal length of the objective lens
fe = Focal length of the eye-piece lens
And the length (L) of the tube of telescope is equal to the
sum of the focal lengths of the objective lens and the eye
piece. Thus,
L = fo + fe

REFLECTING TELESCOPES

The principal optical element, or objective, of a reflecting

telescope is a mirror. The mirror forms an image of a celestial
object (Fig. 3) which is then examined with an eyepiece,
photographed, or studied in some other manner.

Viewing a star with a reflecting telescope. In this

configuration, the observer may block the mirror unless it is a
very large telescope. Reflecting telescopes generally do not
suffer from the size limitations of refracting telescopes. The
mirrors in these telescopes can be as thick as necessary and can
be supported by mechanisms that prevent sagging and thus
inhibit excessive distortion. In addition, mirror materials
having vanishingly small expansion coefficients, together with
ribbing techniques that allow rapid equalization of thermal
gradients in a mirror, have eliminated the major thermal
problems plaguing telescope mirrors. Some advanced
reflecting telescopes use segmented mirrors, composed of

many separate pieces.

By using a second mirror (and even a third one, in some
telescopes), the optical path in a reflector can be folded
back on itself, permitting a long focal length to be attained
with an instrument housed in a short tube. A short tube can
be held by a smaller mounting system and can be housed in
a smaller dome than a long-tube refractor.

In refracting telescope, the aperture of objective should be

very large to make the image of a distance object bright.
But in lenses of large aperture and large focal length there
arise spherical and chromatic aberrations. Moreover it is
difficult to prepare lenses of large aperture and they are
very costly. That is why in reflecting telescope concave
mirror of large aperture is used in place of convex lens. By
the use of concave mirror, the defect of chromatic
aberration is completely removed but the defect of
spherical aberration still exists. To remove the spherical
aberration too, the paraboloidal mirror is used in place of
objective lens.

Construction : It consists of a concave mirror of large

aperture and large focal length fitted at one end of a wide
tube. This mirror is called objective. The other end of tube
is open and is directed towards the distant object. The tube
carries a plane mirror M2 which is placed just before the
principal focus of concave mirror and is inclined at an
angle 45° to the principal axis of concave mirror M1 There
is a narrow tube arranged in the side of wide tube. This
tube carries a convex lens E of small aperture and small
focal length. This lens E is called eye-piece. The eye-piece
may be moved to and far in the tube.

Working : Suppose AB is a distant object. The rays starting

from AB fall on concave mirror M1 The reflected rays move
towards principal focus of M1 but before being focussed
they are reflected by plane mirror M2 The rays reflected
from mirror M2 form real, diminished image A'B' This
image acts as an object for eye-piece E and its position is
adjusted between eyepiece and its first principal focus. The
eye-piece forms a magnified virtual image A''B'' Thus the
final image A''B'' formed by telescope is magnified. Fig. (a)
represents Newtonian telescope. Cassegrain modified
Newtonian telescope by using a convex secondary mirror
to focus the rays coming from large objective mirror. The
rays reflected from convex mirror pass through a hole in
the objective mirror fig. (b). It is known as cassegrain
telescope after its inventor.
Advantages of reflecting telescope
➢It is free from all chromatic aberration.
➢It have very large aperture thus increase the
light gathering ability and revolution.
➢It is very cost effective.
➢It has very light weight.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

➢ Comprehensive lab manual of physics APC Publication

GRB
➢ Publication Physics class XII
➢ Websites:
⚪ www.icbse.com
⚪ www.wikipedia.com