LECTURE NOTES FOR HTC (SEC) YR.

1 - SECOND SEMESTER
SOCIAL STUDIES – GOVERNMENT OPTION

TOPIC - ONE

DEFINITIONS OF GOVERNMENT

This topic deals with the under mentioned sub- topics.

§ Government as an Institution of the State

§ Government as an academic field of study
§ Government as an art of governing
§ Features of a Government as an Institution of the State
§ Functions of Government as an Institution of the State
§ The importance of government as an academic field of study

Definition of Government as an Institution of the State

• Government as an institution of the state is defined as a body of persons and

institutions that make and enforce policies and laws of a state through the legislature,
executive and judiciary.
• It can also be explained as machinery for carrying out the affairs of the state.
• It is defined as the executive arm of government. That is, the body of persons
empowered by the constitution to carry out the administration of a state.

The features of Government as an Institution of the State

The under mentioned are some of the features (characteristics) of the government of a
state:
• One feature of Government is revenue or income - Money is important for the carrying out
of programmes. The government of any state cannot effectively perform its functions without
money or funds. To execute its programmes, the Government of any state has a lot of ways
through which it collects or raises funds or revenue. It is this revenue that is used to build
schools, hospitals, pay salaries, construct roads, to provide electricity, to build low cost
houses, to name but a few.
• The Government of any state should have basic rules and regulations and constitution that
do control the actions, activities and behaviour of the people. These rules and regulations are
commonly called laws. The laws define the activities of people, the rights and duties of
citizens and those of government. Without these rules and regulations, societies or
communities can become animal kingdoms where only the strong can survive.
• Again, the Government should have qualified people or personnel (work force) .Any
effective government should have a work force that is capable of performing the functions of
law making, executing laws, interpreting laws and punishing law breakers. There is no

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 government without personnel. With qualified people, the government can make a lot of
achievements.
• Political power and authority is another feature of government of the state. This political
power gives the government the ability to influence the activities of its citizens and to carry
out its policies. With political power, the Government can compel its citizens to stop
activities that are against the law through sanctions (punishment).
• Provision of social services is a feature of government. The government provides social or
essential services like electricity, pipe-borne water, low cost houses etc. This is done in order
to improve the welfare of its citizens and prevent them from revolting against the
government.
• Public support is also another important feature of government. For peace and stability, any
government needs public support which gives it legitimacy. A government without the
support of the people is illegal and should seek fresh mandate from the people.
• The government is also subject to change. The state is permanent but governments come
and go. Between 1992 and 2020, Sierra Leone has witnessed many governments. For
example, between this period, there are governments like the National Provisional Ruling
Council (the NPRC- led government- 1992-1996), the Sierra Leone People’s Party led
government between 1996 and 2007, between 2007 and 2018, it was the All People’s
Congress led government and by April 2018, the people of Sierra Leone voted for a new
government which brought the Sierra Leone People’s Party back to power.
So, Governments come and go. A government is brought to power and voted out of power in
an election.

The functions of Government as an Institution of the State

According to Thomas Hobbes, life in a society without a government is short, solitary,
poor, brutish and nasty. From the dark ages (primitive days) up to the modern days, the
formation of a government is very important. This is because the government performs a
lot of functions. The following are some of them.
• The government provides social services. The citizens of a country usually pay taxes to
the government. The money realized from these taxes and other funds is used by the
government to provide social services like pipe borne water, electricity, hospital, low cost
housing, educational services and good roads. These services are provided for the people
through the executive. These services are provided in order to improve the welfare of the
citizens and prevent them from revolting against the government.
• Also, the government respects, promotes and protects fundamental human rights.
This is done through the judiciary, Public complaint commission and the Ombudsman.
• The Government performs political function. That is, through an electoral
commission, the government conducts periodic elections like presidential, parliamentary
and local government elections.
• Government maintains law and order. Law and order is important for peace, stability
and development. A society or community without a government is an animal kingdom-
where the strong survives. All countries want their citizens to live decently and embark

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 on developmental programmes. In order to enhance this, mechanisms are usually put in
place to maintain law and order. Law and order is maintained through the police, the
military and other agencies.
• For good governance, it is also the responsibility of the government to make laws, In
order to regulate or control the activities of people living in a particular society or state,
laws are made by the legislature, carried out by the executive and interpreted by the
judiciary.
• Also, the government maintains external relations with other countries. No country lives
in isolation. A country has to interact with other countries in the world. The government
has the duty to establish and maintain external or friendly relations with other
countries. To achieve this, Embassies and High Commissions are usually established in
foreign countries to be headed by Ambassadors and High Commissioners respectively.
• Moreover, the government provides social justice. This social justice is provided
through the judiciary and other conflict resolution machineries like the Administrative
tribunals, special tribunals and the other courts in the country.
• The government provides employment opportunities. In Africa, the government is the
largest employing agency or sector. In order to divert the attention of its citizens from
criminal and other bad activities, the government provides employment for its citizens.
This brings peace and unity because the jobs the citizens engage in keep them away from
criminal and unlawful activities.
• The government protects lives and property. Every citizen has the rights to live and
own property. These rights are usually entrenched in the constitutions. It should not be
violated. However, since we are living in a world of wickedness and selfishness where
people have no fear to kill and deny others the rights to live and own property,
governments usually set up the police force and law courts to protect lives and property.
• Furthermore, the government has the responsibility to provide security against
external aggression (that is, it defends the state). A country sometimes faces internal
strife (Insurrection) and external aggression or attack. In order to put down internal strife
or repel external attack, the government builds a standing army that is capable of
providing security.
• The government distributes the resources of the state through the executive subject
to the approval of the legislature.
• The government also holds periodic consultations with its people on matters that affect
them through members of the legislature.

Definition of Government as an Academic field of study or as a Subject

• As an academic field of study, government means the study of political institutions

and theories that deal with the acquisition and use of political power.
• Also, government is one of the Social Sciences that are taught in schools and in higher
institutions where it is called Political Science.
It has developed different methods and techniques to achieve systematic propositions
which are being used to solve problems that confront various governmental systems.

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 • As an academic field of study, government is related to other subjects as economics,
sociology, mathematics, history, philosophy, psychology, to name a few.
• Government as an academic field of study is defined as the study of agencies, political
institutions and dynamics of the state. It also studies about the functions of these
institutions and their relationship. It studies the relationship between the state and other
states in the world. Also, it studies about the international organisations like the United
Nations, African Union, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and
many more.

Government as an academic field of study has many branches. Some of them are
mentioned below:
• Public Administration
• International Relations
• Political Theories
• Political Behaviour
• Political Thoughts
• Comparative Government and Politics
.

The importance of Government as a Subject

As an academic field of study, Government is important in the following ways:

• Government provides knowledge to the people to be conscious of their rights, privileges,
duties and obligations to the state.
• As a field of study, government enables the citizens to have a proper assessment of the state,
its institutions and the principles of government.
• It prepares the students of government to take an active part in the government of their
country.
• Government as an academic field of study provides fundamental knowledge for further
studies in the fields of political science, sociology, law, mass communication etc.
• Government also helps students to find solutions to some political problems.
• As an academic field of study, government enables the people to know how societies,
communities or countries are ruled.
• It also gives the people an insight into the formulation of foreign policy and how the
countries conduct relations among them.
• Government as an academic field of study guides the people in their choice of the right and
most suitable form of government for the state.
• It is also instrumental to good government and stable political system.
• Finally, as an academic field of study, government provides people with the basic
knowledge to occupy responsible position in national and international institutions. E.g.
Head of State, foreign Diplomats etc.

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 The definition of Government as an Art of Governing

Government as an Art of governing is the process of carrying out the day to day administration
of the affairs of a state which involves making, enforcing and interpreting laws. It is also a
process of state administration which involves making, enforcing and interpreting laws.
Government as an Art of governing is important in the following ways:
• Government maintains law and order through the police force, immigration department,
customs and excise department etc.
• Government as an art of governing guarantees the fundamental human rights of its
citizens.
• Government as an art of governing provides social amenities. E.g. electricity, schools,
roads, libraries, hospitals, housing etc
• It also provides external security through the armed forces.
• The government also uses the judiciary to promote and maintain social justice through
the courts.
• The government as a process or art of governing maintains external relations with other
countries.
• Also, government promotes economic development e.g. it provides infrastructural
facilities and the enabling environment.
• Finally, as an academic field of study, government enacts laws to promote governance

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. (a) Explain the term Government as an Institution of the State

(b) Identify any five features of the Government of a State.
2. In what six ways is Government important as an Institution of the State?
3. (a) What is government as an academic field of study?
(b) Describe any three branches of government

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 TOPIC TWO
BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT

This topic is divided into two sub topics. By the end of this topic, the students shall understand
the following:

• The Basic Concepts of Government

• The Principles of Government

The Basic Concepts of Government

1. Power
• Power is defined as the ability to control the actions of others through the use of
sanctions.
• It is also defined as the ability to control the behaviour of others by a person or group of
persons who possess the instrument of coercion. With power, people may be forced to
change their actions against their will and command obedience on their part.
So, in power, sanction (punishment) is prominent as an instrument used or applied when there is
no compliance.
Power is acquired from various sources. The under mentioned are some of the ways
through which power is acquired.
• Power is acquired from the constitution. That is, the legislature, executive and
judiciary derive the power they exercise in the state from the constitution.
• Another source of power is the electorate (voters or electors). The voters
exercise this power during elections by voting for the people who should be in the
main executive and legislative positions in the state especially in a Democracy.
• Also, a source of power in many developing countries is coup d’état
• Charisma is another source of power. That is, the special ability possessed by
an individual (charisma) may be a source of power.
• Economic might (wealth) of an individual or state can be a source of power.
• Political power is acquired through inheritance
• Military might is also another source of power
• In a Parliamentary syst1em of government, the prime minister emerges by
convention
• Finally, technological strength of a state can also be a source of power

Types of Power

• Economic power
• Political power
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 • Physical power
• Military power

2) Authority
Authority is defined as the right to give orders and enforce obedience. Authority gives one the
right to command others to obey as a duty.

The main sources of political authority are mentioned below

• Traditional or customary authority, E.g. Monarchy/chieftaincy
• Authority is also acquired through legality or law (constitution).
• Authority is acquired through the consent of the people
• Another source of authority is the charisma or exceptional personal character of a leader

Types of Authority
• Functional Authority-- this is an authority exercised by a person or group of
persons as a result of the position they hold in an organisation. It is a legitimate
right to direct or command both human and other resources. (Positional authority)
• Institutional Authority-- is the authority exercised by a person or body of
persons who lawfully occupy public office with the capacity to determine public
goals and policies and direct the execution of such goals and policies. For
example, the authority exercised by the school principal, by the head of state,
native authority, judicial authority etc.
• Political Authority-- this is an authority exercised by somebody holding a
political office. For example, the authority exercised by the President of a
Country.
• Legal Authority- this authority that is acquired from law or the constitution and
is exercised through the three organs of government.
• Traditional Authority-- the exercise of this authority is based on customs and
traditions of the people. For example, the authority exercised by the Monarchy or
Chieftaincy
• Charismatic Authority.- This is the authority exercised based on the exceptional
personal character of the leader.

Differences between Power and Authority

POWER AUTHORITY
• Power cannot be delegated to Authority can be delegated to a person or
anybody or Group of people group of persons
• Power may not be legitimate. For Authority is always legitimate or lawful
example, the power exercised by
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 the military junta (the soldiers)
• The exercise of power requires Authority is exercised without applying
some element of force and sanction force.
• Punishment used in power for non- Punishment used in authority is less grave
compliance is too grave or heavy than the one used in power.
than the one listed in authority

3. Legitimacy

Legitimacy as a political concept comes from the Latin word Legitimus.

• It means lawful or according to law.
• Legitimacy could be defined as the recognition and acceptance of the rulers of
the state by the people as expressed in compliance to the authority.
• It also means the general acceptance of a government or administration as being
in line with the laws of the land. A government is considered legitimate if it
comes to power through constitutional means. Elected governments are
legitimate. For example, the former A. P. C led government and the current
S. L. P. P. led government are all legitimate because they are elected according
to the laws of Sierra Leone

Legitimacy can be acquired through the following ways:

A government or an administration is legitimate if it is:
• Accepted by the International Community
• If it observes the rule of law
• If it comes to power through free and fair elections
• If the government adopts an open door administration and opportunities for debates and
criticisms are allowed
• If the ideology (socialist or capitalist) of the Government is accepted by the people.
(Popular support).

Features of legitimacy

A legitimate government is a government that is recognised and accepted by the people as

expressed in compliance to the authority. It also means a government or administration that is
generally accepted as being in line with the laws of the land. A government is considered
legitimate if it comes to power through constitutional means. For instance, the former A. P. C.
led government; the current S. L. P. P. led government in Sierra Leone, the government of Alpha
Kondeh of Guinea, the government of George Weah of Liberia, etc. All these governments are
legitimate because they are elected according to the laws of their countries.

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 The features of legitimate are the factors that determine legitimacy. Some of these
features are:
• A government is legitimate if it is democratically elected. That is, if it is voted for
in a free and fair election.
• A government is also legitimate if it has popular support. This means that if the
policies or ideology of the government is accepted by the people.
• Another feature of Legitimacy is political participation. In other words, a
government is legitimate if it adopts an open door administration by involving all
sections or interest groups in governance and allows opportunities for debates and
criticisms.
• Another factor that determines the legitimacy of a government is acceptance by the
international community. If a government adopts foreign policy objectives that are
accepted by other countries, it would give it legitimacy.
• A feature of legitimacy is the government or administration observes the rule of
law.

4. Sovereignty

• It simply means supremacy or over-riding power. It also means the supreme

power of the state over its citizens.
• Sovereignty can also be defined as the absolute power of the state to exercise
supreme legal authority within its territory without any form of external control.
Anybody or group of persons having such power is known as a sovereign.

Sovereignty was introduced in the field of politics by a French political philosopher called Jean
Bodin. He was born in 1530 and died in 1596. It was later developed by political scientists like
Jean Jacques Rousseau; Albert Venn Dicey; Hugo Grotius, John Locke, John Austin and many
more.

Features or characteristics of Sovereignty

Any state that is sovereign enjoys the following things:

• Absoluteness: - This means that any state that is sovereign has powers that are wide. Its
powers cannot be restricted or limited within its borders.
• Independence: - Any state that is sovereign exercises power within its territory without
any form of external control. That state is independent and therefore, cannot be controlled
by a foreign country.
• Sovereignty cannot be divided or shared. Any state or person that is sovereign is supreme
and has coercive powers over everybody. This is called Indivisibility.
• Sovereignty is also Permanent. It continues as long as the country exists.

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 Types of Sovereignty

• Legal Sovereignty- this is exercised by a group of persons having the power to

make and unmake laws which is normally the legislature.
• Political Sovereignty- this is also known as popular sovereignty. This sovereignty
is exercised by the electors or voters during elections. During elections, the
electors vote for people they want to give power to. It is this power that is used by
voters to vote people out of office and vote others in office.
• Internal Sovereignty- this refers to the power of the state to make, amend, and
enforce laws within its borders without external control or interference.
• External Sovereignty- this is the supreme power of the state to conduct external
relations or interact with other countries on equal basis without being controlled.
• De facto Sovereignty- this sovereignty is one that is acquired through the use of
force or coercion. The person or body of persons exercising this sovereignty is not
democratically elected by the people. Therefore, he has to use force to command
obedience from the people.
• De jure Sovereignty- this is the supreme power exercised by a person or body of
persons without the use of force. This power is acquired through constitutional
means (according to the laws of the land). Therefore, this power can be accepted
and obeyed by the people without the use of force.

Limitations to the Sovereignty of a State

The sovereignty of a state can be limited by external and internal factors.
The following are the external limitations to the exercise of sovereignty of the State.
• External Aids: External aid reduces or limits the sovereignty of a state. In other words,
if an aid is given to a developing country by a developed or donor country as
economic or military assistance, the donor country has to dictate the activities of the
developing country. This dictation or interference in the affairs of the developing
country has reduced or limited its sovereignty.

• Membership of international organisations: If a country is a member of an

international organisation like the UN; OAU (A.U) ECOWAS etc its sovereignty will
be limited. This is because the policies and regulations of these international
organisations most times regulate the activities of these member States.
• International laws and Conventions: To maintain international peace and security,
international laws and conventions are made. In most times, these laws and
conventions regulate the activities of member states.
• Dominance or influence of Powerful States: There are states like Russia, China,
Britain, France, United States, to name but few. These states usually interfere in the
affairs of weaker or smaller states. Even the foreign policies of the weaker or smaller
states are carefully made in order to prevent conflict with the powerful states.

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 • International Financial Institutions. Example, World Bank, International Monetary
fund (IMF)

• International Treaties or Agreements

• External Trade

• Diplomatic Immunity

• More Economically advanced Countries Influence the exercise of Sovereignty of poor

Countries

Internal limitations to the Sovereignty of a State

• The supremacy of the constitution

• The military in government
• The voting power of the voters
• The influence of public opinion

5) State

A State means a country. It also refers to a political and legal entity that has a sovereign
government exercising supreme Authority over a fixed population within a well-defined
territory. Examples of States are: Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia etc.
The main features or characteristics of a State are:
• Sovereignty
• Population
• A defined territory
• Government
• Permanence
That is, all the states or countries in the World have certain things in common. These are: They
exercise sovereignty over their citizens within their borders, they are permanent (continue to
exist) have people (population) government and have borders (defined territories).

6) Nation

People usually inter change the terms Nation and State in their everyday conversation.
Technically speaking, the two words are not synonymous. A Nation is a group of people who
have some sense of shared historical experience generally rooted in a common language or other
characteristics as well as shared identities. In order words, a Nation is a group of people who feel
they have the following things in common; history, language, religion and culture.
From this definition, it is clear to note that there is no true or real nation in the world. For
example, Sierra Leone as a nation has no common religion or culture. The only group of people

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that is very close to a nation is Israel because the Israelis have a common history, language,
religion and culture.
7) Political Culture

• It refers to the attitudes, beliefs, ideas and norms of people that guide or control their
behaviour towards politics.
• It simply means the way the people behave in their political activities.
• The perceptions, beliefs and the attitudes of people towards politics is what are referred
to as political culture. Political culture includes things like the history of the political
system and the reaction of people towards elections
The Components of Political Culture

There are three components of political culture. These are:

Affective Orientation
This is about the feeling of the people towards their government. That is, it is all about
the support, loyalty of the people towards their government and how they feel about the
performance of their government.

Evaluative Orientation
This refers to the extent the people evaluate or critically assess the activities of those in
power and the functioning of their government. In such assessment, the people should be
able to assess the activities of those that control the affairs of the state plus the efficiency
and effectiveness of their policies.

Cognitive Orientation
It is about the beliefs, knowledge or understanding the people have about their
government or political system. It includes the beliefs of the people about the government
and the roles of government officials.

8) Political Socialization
• Political socialization is the process of acquiring training that shapes a citizen’s political
behaviour.
• It is also defined as a process by which the citizens are educated on the values, attitudes
and beliefs of their political system. The political culture of a country or society is
transmitted from one generation to another through political socialization. Also, with an
effective political socialization, the citizens of a country are made to be aware of their
political system or government, the role they are expected to play in the system, their
loyalty, pride, patriotism and even the nationalistic feelings of people are raised through
political socialization.

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(b)The following are some of the agents of political socialization

The Family
This is the first or earliest agent of political socialization. It helps to shape the attitudes and
perceptions of people. The first school or teacher of a child is the home or house. At home,
children learn mainly through observation. By observing the political behaviour of their parents,
they tend to copy or learn from them. Most of the children form politically active families tend
to be more politically aware and interested in politics.

The School
The school is the second institution that provides education to the child. Educational institutions
play a very important role in educating the citizens on the political activities. These institutions
teach people about their society. In schools, (educational institutions), political theories are
studied, people read and learn about political actors like the presidents, ministers, members of
parliament and other actors in the various countries. This would tend to change the behaviour of
certain people about politics. For example, if girls or women who are not interested in politics
study or read about Margaret thatcher and Theresa May of Britain, Dr. Zainab Hawa Bangura,
Dr. Kady Sesay, Dr. Bernadette Lahai, Dr. Sylvia Blyden of Sierra Leone and former President
Ellen Johnson Saarlef of Liberia, they would tend to develop interest in politics.

The Mass media

The newspaper, radio, television and magazine make up the media. The media plays an
important role in socializing or educating the people on politics. This is done through the process
of information dissemination. The people are socialized through what they watch, listen to and
read in the media.

Religious Institutions
These institutions also educate or socialize their faithful or followers politically. In Sierra Leone,
Islam and Christianity are the two leading religions. They can go a long way to socialize the
people on politics. The Mosque and Church directly teach their members on their political rights,
duties and their responsibility as citizens to take part in political activities.

Peer groups
These groups politically socialize or educate their members through interactions. People’s views(
including their views towards politics) can be influenced or changed by their play-mates and
friends.

Workshop
The attitudes or perceptions of people towards politics are changed through discussion in their
work places.

Political Parties -are also instrumental in educating or socializing members of society towards
politics.

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 Through its orientation programmes, government can socialize the people politically.
Also, people are educated on politics through the community or society. Interest or pressure
groups politically socialize their members.

9. Totalitarianism

This is a political concept whereby through the setting up of certain political institutions, the
government controls every aspect of people’s lives in a state. In other words, it is a form of
government in which the state has absolute control of everything. Totalitarianism was practised
in the former Soviet Union in the 1920s and later in Italy and Germany.
In such a state, it is the government that controls the economy, the political system, religion, the
media, education and even the private life of people.

Features or characteristics of Totalitarianism

In a Totalitarian state:
• There is only one political party
• The head of state is a dictator or authoritarian
• There is absolute control of the mass media
• All forms of opposition are oppressed
• The government uses force and terror to command obedience
• There is no application of the rule of law
• The government uses the police and detention camps to suppress political opponents

10.Fascism

This concept comes from a Latin word called “FASCES” which means Bundle of rods or wood.
Fascism is a system of government which believes in the exercise of absolute power. This
concept started in Italy in 1922 and it was led by BENITO MUSSOLINI. It was later practiced in
Germany by ADOLF HITLER in the form of NAZISM. Like Totalitarianism, the Fascist system
advocates that the state should have absolute control of power over the lives of citizens. It has
control over the press, education, trade, religion and everything essential in the state. The
Fascists advocate for peace, democracy and the rule of law which according to them were
brought by war.

Features of Fascism

In a Fascist state:
• There is only one political party
• The head of State is a dictator

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 • There is absolute control of the mass media
• The government uses terror and force to command obedience
• There is no application of the rule of law
• The Fascists support war because according to them it brings peace
• It condemns communism
• It is against socialism and capitalism
• It is a group of aggressive nationalists

11. Nazism

This concept was practised in Germany by Adolf Hitler in the 1940s. Nazism was also a
totalitarian system based on the idea that the German people were superior and were destined to
rule the whole world. The ambition to control the whole world among other things influenced
Adolf Hitler to start the Second World War (1939 – 1945).
P lease note: The features or characteristics of Totalitarianism can be used as the features
of Nazism.

12. Democracy
Democracy - is a concept that emanates from two Greek words “Demos” meaning “The People”
and “Kratia” or “Krytum” which means to rule. From the two words, democracy simply means
“Rule by the people” It is also defined as a government supported by the will of the masses.
According to Abraham Lincoln, (the 16th American President), democracy is a government of the
people, for the people and by the people.
The tendency today is all countries call themselves democracies. However, there are
certain conditions or factors that should prevail in a country before it is considered to be
democratic. The under mentioned are some of the conditions or features.
• No intimidation of voters before, during and after elections
• There should be equality before the law
• The principle of the rule of law should be applied
• There should be an independent and impartial judiciary
• There should exist an organized opposition
• Fundamental human rights should be recognized and protected
• Freedom of the press should exist
• There should exist freedom of speech as long as it is done constructively
• Freedom of Assembly and Association
• Elections to be conducted by secret ballot
• Supremacy of the constitution
• Application of Universal Adult suffrage
• The rights of the minority must be recognized, etc.
Please note: These conditions could also be used as the features or characteristics of Democracy

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Types of Democracy

There are two main types of democracy. These are:

Direct Democracy
This is where in all the citizens of a particular community or society assemble or gather in a
common place and take part in making decisions that affect them. This type of democracy was
practiced in the small city states (Athens, Sparta etc) of Ancient Greece. This was possible
because those city- states were small in size with small population.

Indirect or Representative Democracy

As a result of the increase in the population and size of modern states, it is not possible for all the
citizens of a particular society or state to assemble in one place to take decisions that affect them.
This problem has made direct democracy largely useless and came to be replaced by Indirect or
representative democracy.
In this type of democracy, the citizens elect those who will represent them in a particular area or
country. The elected representatives govern the area or state on behalf of the people that elect
them. The elections of the Presidents, Members of Parliament, Mayors, and Councilors are all
examples of indirect or representative democracy

The merits of democracy are:

• Application of the rule of law
• Democracy promotes stability
• In democracy, free choice of leaders is respected
• There is equal opportunity for all in democracy
• Democracy also gives legitimacy to the elected government
• In democracy, decision is reached by discussion

The demerits of democracy are:

• It is too expensive to operate
• It leads to slow decision making
• Incompetent people may be in government
• Democracy may produce irresponsible and selfish minded individuals
• In may produce opposition from different interest groups

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 13. Feudalism

Feudalism is a system that was practised in France, Germany, Italy and Sicily. The system was
based on land tenure (Ownership) system. Feudalism is also defined as a socio-political and
economic system that existed during the middle ages which was based on land ownership
between the Lords and Serfs
The demerits of feudalism are mentioned below:
• Feudalism was undemocratic. This was because the tenants were not allowed to
choose their leaders.
• It did not encourage personal initiative and creativity. This is simply because the
tenants were not allowed to think out better ways of doing things but made to
dance to the dictates of the Lords.

• Feudalism encouraged domination.

That is, it produced very powerful Lords who controlled and dictated
the social, economic and political lives of the tenants.

• It also encouraged injustice. In other words, the Land Lord presided over
disagreement between himself and the Land Tenant.

• Feudalism was exploitative. The land tenant (Vassals, Serfs and Peasants) were
used and dumped.

• In Feudalism States, there were constant wars, (anarchy and confusion among the
Lords for the search for more territories.

• Again during Feudalism, there was no security of land ownership. The land
worked upon by a Peasant or slaves or Serfs could be taken from him and given to
another. The landlord could even loose the land because of war.

• Finally, Feudalism weakened the sovereignty of the state, since every Lord had
some political power. Put simply, the system produced a weak central government.

Features or characteristics of Feudalism

Some of the features of feudalism are mentioned below:

• Ownership of the land called fief is hierarchical or in a ladder form. The land is owned by
a land lord or King
• Feudalism is the holding of land or fief by a vassal or serf and that land is given to him by
a lord
• There is a personal bond between the land lord and the vassal
17
 • If the vassal or serf dies, the land would go back to the land lord
• The land is called fief
• The vassal or serf performs some duties to the land lord.
• The vassal or serf forfeits the land if he is guilty of treason.

14. Communalism

Communalism was significant and mainly practised in pre-colonial Africa. It was a socio-
political and economic system based on common ownership of natural resources and in which
the sense of togetherness in the community is the factor of unity. In other words, it was a system
where in property is owned collectively and members of a community co-operated in carrying
out their development projects. In a communal system, members of the community collectively
pursue a common goal. Natural resources like land were owned collectively and shared among
members on equal basis.
Feudalism and Communalism were different in a number of ways. Some of these
differences are listed below

FEUDALISM COMMUNALISM

§ There is a Feudal Lord § There is no Feudal Lord

§ The Land belongs to the Lords § The land belongs to everybody in the
community
§ The main features of Feudalism are conquest § The main features are peace and
and subjugation tranquility
§ Feudal Lords and Serfs may not share § Members share common culture and
common culture and identity identity
§ There is segregation in social status § There is equality in social status
§ There is discrimination in income § There is equitable distribution of income
distribution
§ There is a bond between the Land Lord and § There is no bond
the Vassals
§ The Vassals are ruled by the Lords § The community is ruled by a traditional
ruler
§ The Serfs (slaves) render compulsory § No rendering of compulsory services
services to the Lords

Features or characteristics of Communalism

• There is no private ownership of land

• Property was collectively owned by members of the community.
• There is no room for exploitation
• Members of the community cooperate in carrying out developmental projects
• Members of the community were discouraged from pursuing individual objectives

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 • One man’s problem was every body’s problem
• It was practised in Africa in pre-colonial era
Please note: The 18th Century saw the emergence of the Industrial Revolution in Europe.
During this period, capital came to be more important than land (Feudalism). Therefore,
capitalists acquired more power than the Feudalists. As a result, Feudalism was replaced by
capitalism

15. Capitalism

Capitalism is an economic and political system in which all the means of production and
distribution are privately owned and controlled for private profit. It is a system based upon
LASSEZ –FAIRE. This is a French word and a policy of allowing private businesses to develop
without government control or interference. Capitalism is the direct opposite to socialism and
communism. In a capitalist state, the government plays little or no part in the economic activities.
The decisions on when, how and what to be distributed are taken by private individuals.
Examples of countries that are practicing capitalism are United States, Britain, and France etc.
The features of capitalism are:

• There is competition among the producers

• Production is based on the consumer’s choice
• There are forces of demand and supply
• The government plays limited role in the production and distribution of goods and
services
• There is private ownership and control of means of production and distribution
• The consumers have freedom to choose what they want
• The main aim of a capitalist is to make profit
• There is exploitation of many people by few
• Government participation is very low

Merits of Capitalism

Capitalism allows for competition

It helps the country to be self-reliant
It also encourages faster economic development
There is consumer sovereignty. That is, the consumers are free to choose and buy what they
want
The system encourages democracy
Initiatives are encouraged

Demerits of Capitalism

• It leads to unhealthy rivalry among the producers

• Capitalism leads to social classes (the rich and the poor)
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 • It encourages exploitation of many people by the few
• Producers make excessive profits
• There is political and economic inequality

16. Socialism

This is a political and economic system where in the means of production and distribution are
owned collectively and controlled by the state. Socialism argues that there should be no private
ownership of property. The factories, firms and public corporations that produce the goods and
services in the state are owned and controlled by the government. The goods and services are
produced for the sole aim of satisfying the wants of the citizens. Socialism completely opposes
profit making and exploitation of the poor by the rich. Examples of counties that practised
socialism are former Soviet Union, China, Cuba, Guinea, Tanzania, Ethiopia, to name but a few.
Socialism operates according to the slogan “From each according to his ability to each
according to his work”. This means that, people in the state can work according to their ability
and goods and services are distributed according to the way people work

Proletariat is a socialist concept of exploited workers or class in a capitalist system. They do not
own the means of production but earn their living through wage labour. In order words, it is a
class of ordinary people who earn money by working. The people that belong to this class
(proletariat) do not own any property and they are called “PROLETARIANS”

Features of Socialism

• The means of production and distribution are controlled by the state.

• Only one political party is allowed to exist.
• Goods are mainly produced to satisfy the needs of the people and not for profit
making
• There is equitable distribution of income. This is done according to contributions
(work) of the citizens
• There is a centralized planned economy
• All members of the society cooperate to sustain the economic
• Full employment of all able bodied citizens
• All factors of production are fully employed in order to produce goods and services.
• Free social services (education, health etc)

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 17. Communism

Both Socialism and Communism originated from Karl Marx and Frederic Lenin. Communism
is an economic and political system in which all the means of production and distribution are
owned by everybody but totally control by the state. This concept was popularized by Karl Marx
in his book titled the “Communist Manifesto” published in 1848. Communism is the highest
stage of Socialism. It calls for the total elimination of all Capitalist institutions and the creation
of a classless society in which everything is owned by everybody under the control of the state.
Goods and services are distributed according to the slogan “from each according to his ability, to
each according to his needs”. That is, the people could work or contribute to national
development according to their capability or ability, but goods and services are distributed
according to their needs. Communism was practised by former Soviet Union, China, Poland,
Cuba and many more. Unfortunately, there was no country in the world that was able to practise
a complete form of communism.

Please note: For the features of Communism, read the features of Socialism
Similarities between Socialism and Communism

• There is only one political party in both systems

• Their governments are totalitarian
• The economies of both systems are centrally planned.
• In both systems, the means of production and distribution are totally controlled by the
state
Differences between Socialism and Communism
SOCIALISM COMMUNISM
• The goods and services are • Goods and services are distributed
distributed according to the according to the needs of people.
contribution or the way people
work.
• Its objectives are achieved through • The communists believe in open
constitutional or peaceful means confrontation and revolution in achieving
their objectives.

18. Mixed Economy

This is a political and economic system in which the means of production of goods and services
are in the hands of both the government and the private individuals. The system has a
combination of Socialist and Capitalist policies.

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 Characteristics of Mixed Economy

• There is application of the rule of law

• The means of production of goods and services are in the hands of the government
and private individuals
• The system allows for competition among the citizens
• Both the government and the private individuals contribute to the economic
development.
• There is political and economic inequality

19. Theocracy
This is a system of government ruled according to religious principles. Example, the system of
government adopted by Ahmadu Lobbo in Macina during the 19th century and the system of
government adopted in the Vatican city of Rome.

20. Aristocracy
This is a system of government in which the best people rule. In this system, only a few people
rule. The system puts emphasis on the quality of people and not the quantity. For this system, the
best people rule best.

21. Plutocracy
This is a system of government in which the rich people rule

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1.(a) What is power?

(b) Identify any five sources of power

2. (a) What is legitimacy in government?

(b) Outline any five ways of acquiring legitimacy

3. (a) What is sovereignty?

(b) State five factors that can limit the Sovereignty of a State.

4. a. What is Political Socialization?

b. Identify any five agents of Political Socialization (WASSCE- NOVEMBER- 2006)

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5. a. Define democracy
b. What conditions are necessary for the successful operation of democracy?

6. a. What is Communalism?
b. State any five (5) differences between Feudalism and Communalism.

2. The Principles of Government

(i)The Rule of Law

The principle of the rule of law has a lot of interpretations and definitions. According to Lord
Hewart, the rule of law means predominance or supremacy of the law over everybody both the
rulers and the ruled. However, the rule of law was developed and popularized by a British
Professor called Albert Venn Dicey. In his book titled “Introduction to the law of the
constitution”, published in 1885, A.V Dicey said “those entrusted with the administration of a
country should exercise their authority according to the established laws of the land and those
laws should be supreme”.
Principles of the Rule of Law

Professor A. V Dicey further explained the meaning of the Rule of Law in three principles or
features. These features are:
The principle of equality before the law
This principle states that, the laws should apply equally to all citizens of a country no matter
their status. Equality before the law states that, the law is not a respecter of any body.
Therefore, the law should not be bent to favour any person. A citizen of a country should
enjoy equal access to law facilities, legal advice in law court and equal right to fair hearing
no matter his status.

The principle of Impartiality

According to A. V Dicey, nobody should be punished or made to suffer both in body and
property except he violates an established law of the land. Even an accused person should be
presumed innocent until he is found guilty in a court of law

The Principle of Fundamental Human Rights

According to A. V Dicey, the citizens of any country have their own rights and liberties
(Freedom). For example, the rights to freedom of movement, speech, assembly, association,
right to life and own property, freedom from arbitrary arrest, to name but a few. Therefore,
these rights should be recognized and protected by governments. To protect these rights, the
constitution should be based on them. The citizens should have the liberty to seek redress in
law courts if these rights and liberties are violated.

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Conditions or features of the rule of law

Today, the rule of law is very important in the governments of societies. It is a cardinal
feature or condition of democracy. If the rule of law is to be fully practised, the following
should exist in a state.
• There should be supremacy of the law over everybody
• The Judges must be impartial and independent
• The people should have access to legal facilities
• An accused person should be presumed innocent until he is found guilty in a court of law.
• A person who has been accused of a crime should be taken to a court of law as quickly as
possible
• People should have the right to appeal against a judgment in higher courts.
• An accused person should be given the opportunity to hire a lawyer. If he is too poor, the
state should provide him with one.
• Trials in courts should be conducted in the open and not in secret. This is because justice
must not only be done but must be seen to be done
• The media should have freedom

The principles and features of the rule of law have just been discussed. Democracy thrives where
these principles and conditions (features) are upheld. Sometimes, the rule of law is violated by
governments of certain states. It is violated in the following ways.

• The principle of the rule of law is violated by a government of a state through manipulation
of the constitution to suit or satisfy the selfish interest of the executive. (The president,
Prime Minister, Civil servants, etc) instead of the national interest.

• It is also violated through interference with the independence of the Judiciary.

According to A. V Dicey, justice would be dispensed without fear or favour if the judiciary
is independent and impartial. Unfortunately, the independence of the Judiciary is usually
interfered with by the executive. Therefore, it is a violation of the Rule of Law.

• Also, the inability of the legislature to check the excesses of the executive violates the
rule of law. The executive performs a lot of functions like signing bills into laws, appointing
senior members of the Judiciary, exercising prerogative of mercy and many more.
In performing these functions, the legislature should serve as a watchdog to prevent
excesses or misuse of power by the executive. Unfortunately, sometimes, the legislature
cannot check the excesses of the executive.

• According to the third principle of the rule of law, any government should recognize and
protect fundamental human rights. This is why these rights are usually entrenched in the
constitution of the state. What usually happens is disrespect for these fundamental human
rights by government and its agents. For example, citizens are usually imprisoned
beyond seventy- two hours without trial. Some are beaten by the police and other
government agencies without being found guilty in a court of law and the freedom of speech

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 of others is usually restricted through outdated laws. All these are violations of the rule of
law.

• Again, if accused persons are denied defense lawyers, especially of their own choice, it
is a violation of the rule of law.

• The principle of the rule of law is also violated by government through flouting of
decisions of the judiciary by the executive and the legislature

• During emergency periods like wars, riots, earthquakes, the rights and freedoms of
citizens are usually limited or restricted by the government through curfew order. This is
a violation of people’s rights according to A.V Dicey.

• The establishment or the setting up of special courts and extra Judicial bodies also
violates the rule of law. According to one feature or condition of the rule of law, all trials
should be conducted in the open and not in secret. The setting up of these special courts is a
violation of the rule of law. This is because, trials conducted in special courts and extra
judicial bodies are limited to the eye seeing of few people. That is, their trials are conducted
in secret and not everybody is allowed to witness. In this case, justice is only done but not
done to be seen. Therefore, it is a violation of the rule of law.

• Another violation of the rule of law by government of a state is the undue delay of trials of
suspects by government. According to Professor A. V Dicey, an accused person should be
presumed innocent and taken to a court of law as quickly as possible for trial. Again, trials
should be conducted speedily to avoid denial of justice. Unfortunately, in some countries,
cases are so plenty that trials of accused persons are delayed. Therefore, they are denied
justice. This is because, according to the rule of law, “Justice delayed is justice denied”

• Some governments also engage in secret trials of suspects. This violates the rule of law.
• The government of a state violates the rule of law by misusing the Para-military
organizations. E.g. the military, Special Security Divisions like the Former SSD of late
Siaka Stevens of Sierra Leone and the Anti-Terrorist Unit of Charles Taylor of Liberia.

• Again, social and political discriminations by government based on religion, gender or

ethnicity also violates the rule of law.

• Finally, denial of the right of appeal also violates the principle of the rule of law.

The limitations to the application of the rule of law

The meaning of the rule of law has been examined according to Professor A. V. Dicey. In the
governance of modern states, the rule of law is a key component for the successful practice of
democracy. Unfortunately, the application of the rule of law is usually blocked, prevented or
25
 limited by some factors. These factors that prevent the successful operation of the rule of law are
called short comings, limitations or criticisms. Some of them are mentioned below:

• Diplomatic Immunity limits or prevents the full application of the rule of law. The rule of law
says, there should be supremacy of the law. That is, the law is above everybody both the rulers
and the ruled. Unfortunately, there are certain people that cannot be prosecuted no matter the
crime they commit. For example, Judges can say or do anything when in their chambers.
Ambassadors, High Commissioners, visiting heads of state, and employees of international
organizations in certain countries have freedom from prosecution (diplomatic immunity). For
example, if an Ambassador or High Commissioner kills or tramples upon the rights of any Sierra
Leonean, the worst that could be done to him is to send him back to his country but would not be
prosecuted. If this is done, it violates the rule of law which advocates for supremacy of the law.

The application of the rule of law is also blocked, prevented or limited by the immunity of the
parliament. That is, members of parliament (MPs) also have freedom from prosecution
(immunity). Their position or status has made them unequal before the law with other citizens.
They cannot be prosecuted for any crime they commit while in parliament no matter how serious
that crime is.

• Customs and traditions also limit or prevent the application of the rule of law. According to the
rule of law, the fundamental human rights should be recognized and protected. Unfortunately,
the customs and traditions of certain societies or communities violate some of these rights. In
Sierra Leone for example, when members of a particular secret society like the Poro or
gbangbani are performing their ceremonies especially in the evening or at night, non- members
are expected to be indoors. This violates people’s right to freedom of movement.

• State of emergency (curfew order) can also limit the application of the rule of law. There are
times a state is faced with emergency periods like civil wars, earthquakes, riots, flooding etc. In
order to maintain security of a state when any of these arises, the people can be arrested and
detained without trial, their movement is restricted and their property can be confiscated. All
these are violations or limit the application of the rule of law.

• The existence of special courts also limits the application of the rule of law. According to
Professor A. V Dicey, all trials should be done in the open for people to believe that justice is not
only done but must be seen to be done. In Africa and other parts of the world for example,
special courts and other extra judicial bodies are set up to try certain people. The trials conducted
by these courts are in secret not in the open. Therefore, it is against the rule of law

• The type of government in a state can also limit or prevent or block the application of the rule
of law. Some states are ruled by a one party system or by the military. The governments of such
states can be totalitarian or dictatorial. Therefore, they can impose restrictions on the
fundamental human rights. For instance, no opposition is allowed and such governments also do
not believe in the practice of the rule of law.

26
• Also, the principle of impartiality has been tampered with by the governments of certain
states. The principle states that, nobody should be made to suffer both in body and in property
until he is found guilty in a court of law. Unfortunately, people merely accused of stealing,
raping and other crimes are beaten and imprisoned before they are tried in courts of law. Also,
private lands are taken from citizens by the governments for the purpose of development with
little or no compensation. This limits the application of the rule of law which advocates for the
principle of impartiality.

• Finally, delayed justice also limits the application or operation of the rule of law.

The individual liberty safeguarded by the rule of law

The main aim of the rule of law is to protect or safeguard the liberty or freedom of the people in
a society or country. This freedom is safeguarded in a number of ways. The following are some
of them:

• The rule of law prevents the arrest of people without being told of the offence they have
committed.
• It also protects a person from forfeiting his property without compensation.
• It condemns the concentration of power in the hands of one authority to prevent tyranny.
• The individual liberty is safeguarded by the rule of law because it is against the exercise of
arbitrary power.
• The rule of law emphasizes equality before the law.
• To safeguard the individual liberty, the rule of law states that nobody should be made to
suffer both in body and in property until he is found guilty in a court of law.
• It also maintains that an accused person should be presumed innocent until he is found
guilty in a court of law.
• To safeguard the individual liberty, the rule of law advocates for supremacy of the law over
everybody.
• To safeguard the liberty of the individual, the rule of law advocates for the right of the
people to appeal in higher courts.

The necessity or importance of upholding the principle of the rule of law.

The Rule of Law is cardinal in the promotion of democracy. There is need or it is important to
uphold the rule of law. This is because of the following:
If the Rule of Law is upheld,
• It guarantees or ensures the freedom of the media
• The right of the citizens to appeal in higher courts is ensured
• The fundamental human rights of citizens would be protected
• If the rule of law is upheld, law and order will be maintained
• Also, if the rule of law is upheld, the citizens would be protected from arbitrary rule
• If the rule of law is upheld, equality of all citizens would be ensured, etc.

27
 (ii) Constitutionalism

Constitutionalism is when the powers of the organs of government are limited, defined and
regulated by the constitution so that the rulers can rule or govern without violating human
dignity.

Importance of Constitutionalism

Having a constitution to limit, define and regulate the activities of the organs of government is
important because of the following:

(i) It would limit the exercise of functions by the government

(ii) It would also guarantee the right of the citizens to vote and contest elections
(iii) It ensures equality of all citizens before the law
(iv) It promotes the protection of the people’s rights

(iii) The Principle of Separation of Powers

The principle of Separation of Powers was originally introduced in the field of Politics by an
English Philosopher called John Locke. Others like Aristotle, Plato, Jean Jacques Rousseau and
Jean Bodin also expressed their views on the principle of separation of powers.
However, this principle was popularized by the French Political Expert and Jurist. His name was
Charles Baron de Montesquieu. He popularized separation of powers in his book titled Esprit
Des Lois, which means the spirit of law. The book was published in 1748. In that book, Charles
Montesquieu argued that, the concentration of the powers of the three organs of government in
the hands of a single individual or institution would lead to tyranny and abuses the rights and
freedom of citizens .He suggested that, if the rights and freedom of citizens are to be maintained
and guaranteed, the organs of government should be separated and their functions performed by
different individuals.

Montesquieu further explained separation of powers as below:

Separation of Personnel- This means that the three organs of government should be
occupied by different individuals. One person should not occupy more than one organ of
government. For example, a member of the legislature must not at the same time be a
member of the executive or judiciary.

Separation of functions
This also means that each of the three organs should carry out only functions given to it
by the constitution and not to encroach upon the functions of another organ.

Separation of control
This simply means that every organ should formulate or make rules that can control its
operations but not subject to the control of another organ.

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 Unfortunately, there is no country in the world that has succeeded in Practising the theory
of separation of powers to the letter. In order to make it practicable, it needs to be modified. This
is what is done by the United States which is a notable example of a country that is Practising
separation of powers.

The Doctrine of checks and balances

The principle of checks and balances means the use of one organ of government to check the
activities of the other organs. It says, since the three organs are mutually independent, each
should act as a watch dog on the others to avoid abuse of power and to create balance of power.
The main aim of Montesquieu was to prevent tyranny and to protect the freedom of the people.
He brought the doctrine of checks and balances because according to him, if the three powers of
government are completely separated, it would prevent co-operation and coordination among the
organs of government. Therefore, this would lead to a standstill in the administration and in the
long run, one organ will grow completely more powerful than the others. In order to prevent this,
the principle of checks and balances was introduced.
The under mentioned are some of the merits of the principle of checks and balances.

o It does not allow one organ to dominate the others due to the doctrine of checks
and balances.
o It promotes efficiency in the administration of the country
o It makes for a peaceful administration
o It is democratic
o It safeguards the freedom of people.
o Freedom of an individual is guaranteed
o It prevents the possibility of the emergence of a dictatorial government.

Separation of powers in a Presidential system of government

Separation of Powers implies that the three organs of government are separated in personnel and
functions
The United States is a notable example of a country that is Practising separation of powers and it
also has a presidential system of government.
In a presidential system of government like the U.S, Separation of powers operates in the
following ways:

• None of the three organs of government interferes with powers and functions of the other
two organs.
• The president can only be removed from office by impeachment.
• The president is democratically elected by the people and not drawn from parliament.
• The Judges who belong to the judiciary are to be independent of the executive.
• The president and the cabinet ministers are not drawn from members of parliament
• Parliament cannot be dissolved by the president
• There is no fusion of powers

29
 • The ministers are individually responsible to the president (individual responsibility)
• The president has veto power over the laws passed by the parliament (the congress)
• The chief justice (head of the judiciary) is not a member of the other two organs.
• The judiciary has the power to review the activities of the legislature and the executive.
• There is the operation of checks and balances.
• Finally, there is separation of powers

Separation of Powers in a Cabinet System of government

A Cabinet system is also known as Parliamentary System of government. A notable example of a

country that is Practising parliamentary or cabinet system is Britain.

In a cabinet system, there is fusion of powers

• Members of the executive (the Ministers are drawn from parliament)
• Parliament can remove the cabinet by passing a vote of no confidence.
• The Lord Chancellor who is the head of the Judiciary is also a cabinet minister
(executive) and a member of parliament
• The house of Lords (part of the legislature) serves as the final court of appeal
(which is part of the judiciary)
• Senior members of the judiciary are appointed by the executive to be approved by
the legislature
• The Prime Minister is the real head of the executive and also a member of
parliament ( he is the head of the majority party in the House of Parliament
• Cabinet Ministers (members of the executive) are collectively responsible to the
parliament for their action

(iv) Representative Government

Representative Government is also known as Indirect Democracy. It is a type of government in

which people directly elect their representatives in an election periodically. Due to the increase
in population and size of modern states, it is impossible to gather everybody in one place to take
decisions that affect them. As a result of this, citizens now elect their people (representatives) to
govern the state on their behalf.
The features or characteristics of a representative government are listed below:

§ There should exist a constitution

§ Freedom of the press
§ Application of the rule of law
§ Universal Adult suffrage
§ An independent electoral commission
§ An independent judiciary

30
§ Free, fair and regular elections
§ Fundamental human rights should be protected
§ There should be separation of powers
§ Minority interest should be protected
§ There should also exist organized opposition parties

The conditions necessary for a representative government

The under mentioned are some of the conditions necessary for a representative government

§ Free and fair elections

§ Up to date electoral register
§ Proper constituency delimitation
§ Existence of more than one candidate to contest election
§ Politically enlightened voters
§ Existence of multi-party system
§ The existence of well-articulated political party programme or manifesto
§ An independent electoral commission
§ Existence of an electoral law
§ An independent judiciary
§ Existence of the rule of law
§ The existence of universal adult suffrage

(v) Political Participation

It is the involvement of people in the political activities of the country. It is also defined as a
Process where in people take part in making decisions and selecting their rulers.

Political participation is divided into three main forms or types

• Active participation
• Passive participation
• Partial participation

• Involving actively in the political activities of a country is referred to as Active

Participation. The people who actively take part in politics are called political activists.

• Passive Participation refers to the involvement or taking part of people in the political
activities by observation. They are called political passivists. The people do not identify
themselves with any political party. They only observe the political events and take part in
listening to radio, political debates and discussions on the television.
• Partial Participation is inactive involvement of people in the political activities of a
country. They only participate partially by only attending political rallies and writing
articles on newspaper.

31
The people take part or involve in the political activities (politics) of their countries because
they want to:
• Take part in decision-making
• Make friends
• Increase their self-image
• Effect positive change in the country
• Add or increase their economic and material gains

Factors that affect Political Participation

• Fear of intimidation by political opponents

• Illiteracy
• Poverty
• Fear of military coup. That is, frequent removal of governments by the soldiers.
• Lack of trust in the governments

Please note: All the above points discourage people from taking part in politics

Factors that promote Political Participation

• The adoption of universal adult suffrage

• Acceptance of multi- party system
• Equal opportunity in politics
• Independent and impartial judiciary
• The existence of the rule of law
• Political education
• The existence of the rule of law
• Good government
Please note: The above mentioned points give more encouragement to people to take part in
politics

(vi) Political Apathy

This is the direct opposite of political participation. Political Apathy is when the people (citizens)
show no interest in the political activities of their country. It does not mean that nobody
participates in the politics of the country. Basically, it means that while some citizens take active
part in politics, others show no interest (lack of interest in politics). According to them, politics is
not an issue or something decent but a brutish and nasty game.

32
In modern times, people lack interest in politics due to the following factors:

• Illiteracy - Many of those who cannot read and write lack interest in politics. For
them, politics is for the educated and not for the uneducated.
• Frequent military intervention can also discourage people from taking part in the
political activities of their countries.
• Religion – Some people are not allowed by their religion to actively take part in
politics
• A One Party System with a dictator would discourage people from taking part in
politics
• Sexual discrimination – In some countries, women are intimidated or harassed
during elections. This would force them to develop political apathy
• Racial segregation – Some people are prevented from taking part in politics because
of their skin colour. In South Africa before 1994, many blacks lacked interest in
politics because they were racially segregated by the whites who were in control of
the government.

(Vii) Centralization

Centralization is a system of administration in which all powers of government are concentrated

in a single central authority.
In this system, the constitution does not provide for power to be shared between the central
authority and any other body. The central government can delegate (give) powers to subordinate
bodies but powers can never be shared between them. Centralization is practised in unitary states
like Sierra Leone, Britain, France, Guinea etc. In such unitary states, there is only one
legislature, one executive and one judiciary.
The under mentioned are some of the features of centralization:
• Centralization is practised or used in small states
• It allows the usage of delegated legislation
• Authority flows from top to bottom
• All powers of government are vested in a single central authority
• All organs of government are concentrated at the centre
• Centralization is practised in homogenous states
• It is also common in a socialist society
• It is practised in a state with limited resources

Centralization is usually adopted because of the following reasons. It is adopted where

there is:
• Absence of tribal differences
• Less economic inequality
• Where the size of the country is small
• Absence of fear of domination
• Strong loyalty to the central government

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 • Absence of minority groups

Merits of centralization
• In a centralized administration, decisions are made quickly
• It promotes national unity
• It is simple to operate
• It is less bureaucratic
• It is less expensive
• There can be no conflict of authority
• It has the same level of development
• It has a stable government
• It prevents waste

Demerits of Centralization
• In a centralized administration, the central government is over burdened
• Centralization encourages dictatorship
• It prevents local autonomy (Semi independence of the regions)
• The majority groups always dominate the minority groups
• The government is far removed from the people
• It does not encourage wide participation

(viii) Decentralization
This system of administration is the direct opposite of centralization. It is a system of
government in which powers are shared between the central government and the local
government units. Decentralization is common in a federal state. In decentralization, there are
areas of authority that are exclusively reserved for the central government.
These areas are Foreign Affairs, Currency, Defence, immigration and Emigration. Nigeria,
United States are examples of countries of countries that practice decentralization.

Types of Decentralization
There are two types of decentralization. These are:

• Devolution
• Deconcentration

Devolution is a form or system of administration in which power is delegated from a central

government to a government in the regions. That is, powers from the central government to local
government. An example of a country that is Practising devolution is Britain.
In order words, devolution is an administration in which regional governments are created with
defined functions but subordinate to the central government.

34
Deconcentration is a system of administration where in powers are shared between the central
government and the regional bodies but the regional bodies are not directly subordinate to the
central government. This is practiced in France.

(ix) Delegated Legislation

Delegated Legislation refers to the laws made by Public Corporations, Ministers and local
councils under power conferred to them by laws made by the legislature.
It can also be defined as the laws, rules and regulations made by ministers, local councils and
public corporations under an Act of parliament.
Modern Parliaments have heavy work to do. This has made it very difficult form parliament to
make and oversee all laws in the country. To facilitate the law making process, the legislature
delegates or gives part of its law making functions to individuals or body of persons to regulate
their operations. These laws that are made by individuals to regulate their operations are called
Delegated Legislation.
The features of delegated legislature are:
• It allows for experimentation in law-making
• It encourages greater participation by public cooperation and local authorities
• Delegated legislation suits the local customs and needs of the people. That is, it can be
adjusted to meet changing circumstances
• It is useful for emergencies
• It reduces work load of parliament
• It saves parliamentary time
• It is useful where technical languages are involved in the parent Act.

The above features are also the merits or importance or reasons for delegated legislation.
These points are explained below:

• The argument for or reason for delegated legislation is to bring the government closer
or nearer to the people

• Delegated legislation reduces the work load of Parliament. The functions of the State
have increased and become complex. As a result of this, the law making process will be
slowed down if parliament alone is to make detail laws on all aspect of human life. In
order to save time and relieve itself of some pressures, parliament makes laws in broad
terms and leaves the details to be filed by non-parliamentary bodies.

• The need or importance of delegated legislation is its flexibility. In other words,

delegated legislation promotes flexibility because it takes into account changing needs of
time. The laws made by parliaments are broad and do not take into consideration all
future possibilities or contingencies when bills are passed into laws. With delegated
legislation, it is easy to change laws when the local conditions change. In addition, the
method of amending delegated legislation is easier than that of a parliamentary law.

35
 • Another feature or need or importance or argument for delegated legislation is for
experimentation. That is, delegated legislation provides room for experimentation for
things like town and country planning, the establishment of health centres and many
more. When a project becomes successful in one area, another area may adopt it. Again,
if it fails, other areas may not embark on similar project given the conditions which led to
the failure of the first project. As a result of this, the resources of the state would not be
wasted.

• Delegated legislation is also useful because of the technicality of some legislation. This
means that, some laws are technical in nature and require or need people with special and
expert knowledge before they can be written in details. Although members of the
legislature are believed to be versatile and well informed, yet, some members of
parliament may not be able to cope with laws on technical subject like aquatic biology,
banking, building technology, electrification of railway lines, to name but a few.
Therefore, the best way to solve this problem is to consult experts in those fields. This
brings the need for delegated legislation

• Delegated legislation avoids rigidity

• It also enhances greater participation in law-making process by non-parliamentary

bodies.

Types of Delegated Legislation

The following are some of the types of delegated legislation

Bye-Laws-
These are rules and regulations made by public corporations, ministers and local governments for
the smooth running of their activities. Bye –Laws only operate within the areas controlled by the
authorities that make them.

Statutory Instruments -
These are also known as ministerial orders. They are orders or rules issued by ministers under
the authority conferred on them by Acts of Parliaments in order to achieve specific objectives.

Orders-in-council-
These are powers delegated to the British king or Queen to give orders on some matters which
have the force of law. Orders –in-council are also called Prerogative orders. They are exercised
by the British Monarch to be approved by the Privy Council.

Supreme-court rules-These are rules developed by the courts with the main aim to foster fair
dispensation of justice.

36
Control of Delegated Legislation
Delegated legislation is controlled because of the following reasons:

• To protect the rights and liberties of citizens from bad laws which might be made if
delegated legislation is not controlled.
• The control of delegated legislation can promote democracy
• Delegated legislation controlled in order to prevent misuse of powers
• To prevent the non-parliamentary bodies that are exercising delegated legislation from
usurping the powers of parliament (to prevent ultra virus)
• Also, to prevent the bodies that are exercising delegated legislation from making bye-
laws that would transform them into dictators.
• To prevent corrupt practices
• To maintain law and order.
• To maintain accountability and responsibility to the public

Delegated legislation is controlled through the following ways:

• Parliamentary control
The power to make rules and orders is delegated to ministers, local councils and public
corporation by parliamentarians. Therefore, parliament is also the main source of control
of delegated legislation. Certain Acts of Parliament require all the rules and regulations
made under them to be laid before it for questioning and approval. This enables members
of parliament to know what has been done by a minister or what he proposes to do. With
this, parliament has the authority to withdraw the powers it has conferred on individuals
or institutions if they do not abide by the procedures outlined by the Act that sets up
delegation legislation.
• Ministerial control
This is the control exercised by ministers over public corporations and other bodies under
their ministries. That is, ministers have the power to approve and control bye-laws made
in their ministers and public corporations under them. The ministers are held responsible
for bad delegated legislations.
• Ministerial accountability
Parliament always makes delegated legislations accountable to it. That is, ministers are
frequently invited by parliament to give an account and explain some of the rules and
regulations and bye-laws made in their ministries.
• Judicial or Court control
This is the control exercised by the courts over the rules, regulations and orders made
under delegated legislation. This is done in order to ensure that the rules, regulations and
bye-laws made are according to the Act of parliament that authorizes the making of such
legislation. If the rules, regulations or bye-laws made are beyond the powers given by the
Act of parliament, the courts have the power to declare such delegated legislation
unconstitutional or ultra vires.
• Popular control
This is the control exercised by the public (public opinion) over the bodies exercising
delegated legislation. Members of the public who feel aggrieved about a particular

37
 legislation can formally make their grievances known by the public complaint
commission for the amendment of such legislation.
• Financial control
Local councils may be empowered by the central government to levy taxes on local
residents in order to add the grant received from the central government. These taxes are
always subject to approval by either the legislature or the executive before collection
begins. Also, institutions or persons with delegated legislation are controlled by the
government by sending auditors to audit their accounts. This is done in order to prevent
them from using public funds and making laws that will protect them after misusing
public funds. Again, the central government through parliament can withdraw or deny the
funds for the execution of their functions.

Demerits/criticisms/argument against Delegated Legislation

• Delegated legislation is criticized because it is undemocratic in nature. Due to the

work load and the pressure on parliament, ministers or government departments are often
given an unlimited opportunity to fill in the necessary details in the several laws passed
by parliament. It is argued that, the laws made by the civil servants (In ministries) and
public corporations are undemocratic because those given the power to make those laws
are not democratically elected and they cannot adequately make laws that would reflect
the wishes of the people.
• Delegated legislation is a violation of the rule of law. Some critics argue that, delegated
legislation violates the fundamental requirements of the rule of law because it reduces the
protection extended to the citizens by the law courts. Wide discretionary powers are
conferred on the bodies exercising delegated legislation. These bodies can make and
amend laws indiscriminately. There are many examples in Africa where the government
because of its development programmes has forcefully required the lands and properties
of citizens and uses force to eject the citizens from their homes and lands. Although
compensation is paid to the disposed citizens, yet, sometimes no attempt is made to
provide them with new lands where they would build new houses. In these
circumstances, citizens would find it difficult if not impossible to obtain justice in court.
• Some political observers also argue that delegated legislation violates separation of
powers. Charles Montesquieu states that, in order to prevent tyranny, the three organs of
government should be separated. Unfortunately, in delegated legislation, the people that
make the bye-laws are the same people that implement them and also sitting in courts as
judges to try those that violate those bye-laws.
• Delegated legislation is also criticized because it lacks adequate publicity and
consultation. In other words, many laws made by ministers or local councils or public
corporations under delegated legislation are not adequately made known to the public. As
a result, many people do not know that such laws are existing. Added to this, there is also
an argument that sufficient consultations are not held with those affected before certain
delegated legislations come into effect. The people are kept ignorant of the laws that
would affect their lives. A person who is charged with an offence under delegated

38
 legislation cannot plead in court that he is innocent of the law because ignorant of the law
is no excuse.
• Another demerit or criticism levied on delegated legislation is that it lacks effective
control. A lot of efforts are usually made to control the use of delegated legislation. For
example, there are parliamentary, ministerial, judicial, financial and popular controls.
Unfortunately, these controls most times are not effective. For example, it has been very
difficult to challenge the abuses of delegated legislation in courts because of the wide
discretionary powers conferred on the executive. Again, the legislature is so over
burdened with work that it is not practicable for it to check every possible misuse of
delegated legislation.
• Delegated legislation leads to usurpation of power. This is because the Act of parliament
which delegates power to ministers or local councils is sometimes so complex that it
enables these individuals or institutions to modify the Acts themselves. This may lead to
the usurpation of the main function of the legislature.
• Delegated legislation also encourages dictatorship. This is because the executive arm
of government is given wide powers especially during emergency period,

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. In what six ways can a government of a State violate the principle of the rule of law?

2. Identify six merits of the principle of checks and balances in a modern government

3. a)Describe Separation of Powers

b) How does separation of powers operate under the presidential system of
government?

4. a) What is a representative government?

b) State five features of a representative government
c) Outline three conditions necessary for a representative government

5. Identify four factors that cause political apathy

6. a)What is centralization
b) Outline any five features of centralization

7. a) What is Delegated Legislation?

b) Outline five features of delegated Legislation

8. a)Identify three types of delegated legislation

b) Give three reasons for the control of delegated legislation in West Africa

9. Identify four ways used to control delegated legislation

39
 TOPIC THREE

CITIZENSHIP

Topic two deals with the basic concepts and principles of government. This topic shall
attempt to discuss areas like:
§ The definition of citizenship
§ Methods of acquiring citizenship
§ Conditions to be satisfied before acquiring citizenship
§ Fundamental Human Rights and their limitations
§ Duties or obligations of a citizen and
§ The qualities or characteristics of a good citizen, bad citizen and passive citizen

Citizenship is a position or status of a person within a state who is accorded full civil and
political rights (constitutional rights). Not everybody that lives in a particular state is a citizen.
Some of them are non-citizens (aliens or foreigners). The rights of foreigners are limited in any
country

Citizenship can be acquired through the following methods or ways:

§ By Birth - A person acquires citizenship by birth if he is born to parents that are citizens
of a particular country like Sierra Leone
Again, in countries like Britain and the United States, if a person is born in any of these
countries even though his parents are not born in Britain or the United States, the person
becomes a citizen of these states.

§ By Naturalization - A person can acquire citizenship through naturalization. That is, a

person who has lived in another country for a long time can apply to become a citizen of
that country if he so desires. The application is then scrutinized by the government. If the
applicant fulfills the conditions set by the government, his application is then approved.
The conditions for approval vary from country to country. If the application is accepted,
the applicant is required to take the oath of loyalty and a Certificate of naturalization
would be given to him.

§ By Marriage or Registration - If a woman is married to a man of a different nationality,

she can acquire citizenship of the man’s country. For example, a Liberian woman who is
married to a Sierra Leonean man is obviously going to be a Sierra Leonean if she so
desires.

§ Citizenship is also acquired by Descent. A person can claim citizenship of a country

where his grandparents came from. For example, some black Americans claim
citizenship of many African States because their great grand parents came from those
countries.

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 § Honorary Citizenship
This is when citizenship is accorded or granted to an eminent foreigner as a mark of
honour.

The conditions an alien must satisfy before acquiring the citizenship of another country are
mentioned below

• He must have attained at a specific age (maturity age)

• Members of the locality where he lives must accept the person
• He must be capable of meaningfully contributing to the development of the
country.
• He must have lived in the country for a specific period.
• He must take an oath of loyalty.
• If the constitution does not allow dual citizenship, he must renounce the
citizenship of his former country.
Note: The above mentioned conditions are also known as the qualifications for citizenship

Fundamental Human Rights and their limitation

Some fundamental human rights of a citizen are mentioned below.

(i) Right to life
(ii) Right to dignity of human being
(iii) Right to own property
(iv) Right to education
(v) Right to vote and to be voted for
(vi) Right to freedom of movement
(vii) Right to freedom of Association
(viii) Right to private and family life
(ix) Right to personal liberty
(x) Right to freedom of expression
(xii) Right to freedom from unlawful arrest and detention
(xiii) Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion
(xiv) Right to fair hearing
(xv) Right to freedom and protection from slavery and forced labour
(xvi) Right to freedom from discrimination
(xvii) Right to gainful employment

These rights mentioned above can be limited through a lot of ways. For example,
• The right to life can be limited through wars, diseases, riots, disasters and the criminal
being killed through due process of the law.
§ The right to own property can be limited through Court order, wars, declared state of
emergence, the constitution, law of inheritance (a will) political ideology of the state
(socialism or communism) etc.

41
§ Right to dignity of human being can be limited by disaster, ignorance, illiteracy, law
enforcement brutality, and type of government in power.
§ The right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion can be limited by the type of
government in power, culture, peer group, parents and school community.
§ The right to freedom of expression can be limited by laws of scandal, libel, sedition, type of
government in power, absence of independent judiciary, culture, secret policing, law
enforcement brutality, etc.
§ The rights to freedom of Assembly and Association can be limited by war, declared state of
emergence, disease, violence, law on cultism and secret society, and detention.
§ The right to freedom of movement can be limited by police arrest and detention of suspects,
imposition of curfew order, violence, war, disease etc.
§ The right to freedom from discrimination can be limited by disease, sex, race, partisan
politics, and absence of independent judiciary, religion, tribalism, and statism.
§ The right to private and family life can be limited by the type of government, religion, law
enforcement brutality etc.

Fundamental Human Rights are inalienable freedoms and privileges that individuals are
entitled to in a state. For instance, right to life, right to fair hearing, right to freedom of
movement, etc.
The means used to safeguard fundamental human rights are mentioned below:

• Fundamental human rights are safeguarded by entrenching them in the constitution of the
state.
• These rights are also safeguarded by the existence of an impartial, free and independent
judiciary
• Fundamental human rights can be safeguarded by making laws that protect the rights of
individuals
• The existence of a free and independent media can also safeguard fundamental human
rights
• Another means of safeguarding fundamental human rights is, citizens must be educated
to be able to defend their rights.
• Adherence to or respect for the doctrine of separation of powers and checks and balances
can safeguard the rights of human beings
• Fundamental human rights can be safeguarded by the existence of institutions such as the
Ombudsman and the public Complaints Commission
• Respect for International Laws and Conventions can safeguard fundamental human rights
• Respect for the rule of law can also safeguard human rights
• In order to safeguard human rights, public opinion must be effectively used to protect any
violations of the rights of the citizens

42
The duties or obligations of a citizen

The duties of a Citizen to the State are:

• Obedience to the laws of the state. In order to ensure good governance, protect lives
and property, a citizen must obey the law of the state. If citizens refuse to abide by the
laws, there will be chaos in society and very little progress will be done.

• Payment of taxes and rates. The government provides social services like pipe borne,
water, low cost houses, electricity, to name but a few. To provide these essential services,
the government raises money from various sources. Taxes and rates are some sources the
government raises funds from. Therefore, citizens are obligated to pay all taxes and rates
to enable the government to provide its essential services.

• Loyalty to the state is a duty of a citizen. The primary duty of a citizen is to give full
loyalty or allegiance to the government or community he belongs. This is important in
order to provide an orderly and peaceful environment. A citizen is expected to respect his
national flag and should stop and stand to attention when the national Anthem is being
played. No leader or government would succeed without the allegiance or loyalty of the
citizens

• Defending the territorial integrity of the country is also a duty of a citizen. There are
times when the security of a country is threatened by war, riots or disaster. The citizens
should always be ready to defend their country. When it is invaded or its security is
threatened. This is done by given information to government about any possible invasion
or an incident that would threaten the security of the states.
• To vote
• Assisting the law enforcement agencies like the police, jury system is a duty of the
citizen. This assistance is given by serving as a witness or given information to the police
or courts when it is needed.
• Another duty of a citizen is to protect public properties and prevent misappropriation of
public funds.
• To respect the dignity, religion and rights of other citizens in another duty.
• Performing compulsory national services is also a duty of a citizen.

Citizens should perform their duties to the state because of the following reasons:
• To protect the state against external aggression
• To ensure peace and tranquility in the state
• To secure life and property
• To avoid punishment
• To enable the government generate or raise funds for its activities
• Finally, the citizens should perform their duties to the states in order to qualify for
appointments or elections into political office

43
The qualities or virtues of a good citizen

• He does what is right and does not break the law

• He is honest
• He pays his taxes
• He is patriotic
• He is helped to others

The characteristics of a bad citizen

• He is selfish and thinks only about himself

• He is uncooperative
• He is dishonest and is bud influence to others
• He breaks the law at will

The attributes of a passive citizen

• He is interested in the development of his commonly

• He only helps his community when he is forced to do so
• He sometimes obeys the law and pays his taxes
• He is indifferent to whether others act dishonestly or break the la

Rights are freedoms and privileges that individuals are entitled to in a state
Examples are right to life right to property, right to vote and to be voted for etc.

Some limitations on the rights of a citizen are:

• Wars, diseases, riots, and disasters can limit the right of a citizen to life
• State of emergency, court order, law of inheritance (a will) can also limit the citizens’
right to own property.
• Laws of scandal, libel, sedition, secret policing, the type of government in power can all
limit the right of a citizen to freedom of expression (speech)
• War, state of emergency, diseases and detention can limit the right to freedom of
assembly and association
• The right to freedom of movement can be limited by curfew order, war, disease, violence
and police arrest and detention
• Law enforcement brutality, the type of government in power can limit the right to private
and family life
• Disaster, law enforcement brutality and the type of government can also limit the right to
human dignity, etc.

44
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. a)Highlight three methods of acquiring citizenship
b) Outline three conditions an alien must satisfy before acquiring the citizenship of
another country.
2. a) Outline any three fundamental human rights of a citizen
b) What are the limitations to these rights?
3. a)Define fundamental Human Rights
b) Highlight five means of safe guarding fundamental Human Rights in a state
4. Identify any three duties of a citizen to the state
5. Why should citizens perform their duties to the state?
6. a) What are rights?
b) Highlight four limitations on the rights of a Citizen.

45
 TOPIC- FOUR

THE ORGANS OF GOVERNMENT

The most important areas to be dealt with in this topic are:

• The Legislature,
• The Executive and
• The Judiciary
Modern governments have a lot of functions to perform. These functions or powers are divided
into three broad parts. They are: law-making, implementation of laws and interpretation of laws.
To perform these functions, the government divides itself into three organs, arms or branches.
The three main functions are performed by three organs or branches of government. These
organs are: the Legislature, which is responsible for the making of laws, the Executive assigned
to implement the laws and the Judiciary with the functions to interpret the laws and to punish law
breakers.

THE LEGISLATURE

The legislature is the law making body of the government. It has different names in different
countries. In Sierra Leone, it is known as the “Parliament”. In the United States, it is called the
“Congress”. In some Countries, it is known as the Assembly or the Council

Functions of the Legislature

Making laws:
In any country, laws are made to serve as a guide for both the rulers and the ruled. These laws
can be amended or changed in order to meet the existing circumstance or if the need arises. So,
the making and amending of laws in a state is a primary function performed by the legislature.

Amending the constitution:

Constitutions are drafted to control the activities of the government and protect the rights of the
citizens. Sometimes, some paragraphs or clauses in the constitution are outdated and therefore do
not meet the changing needs of the people.
In order to meet the changing needs of the citizens, the constitution or some parts of the
constitution have to be amended or changed. The institution that is responsible for amending the
constitution is the legislature.

Removal of the president:

In a presidential system of government like the United States for example, the president is
removed from power through impeachment. If the president behaves or unlawfully or violates
the constitution, he is removed from office by the legislature by impeaching him.

46
Checking the powers of the executive:
The executive is one of the three organs of government. It is made up of the president, prime
ministers, ministers and the civil servants. It is to implement or carry out the policies or laws
made by the legislature. Sometimes, the executive becomes so powerful that it abuses its power.
In order to prevent this, the legislature is given constitutional power to check the powers of the
executive.

Controlling the raising and spending of money by the executive:

In order to effectively carry out its functions, the executive has to raise money from different
sources. It is the legislature that decides how much money to be raised, how it is to be spent, and
how much money is to be spent by each department and for which purposes.

Ratification of treaties:
The head of government (the president or prime minister) enters into diplomatic relations or
sings treaties (agreements) with other states. Any treaty or agreement that is made or the
executive enters into has to be approved by the legislature before it becomes valid.

Judicial function:
In Britain, for example, House of Lords (the Upper House) serves as the final court of appeal.

Approval of appointments:
There are certain appointments that are made by the President in a country. For example, the
Ministers, Senior Judges, Head of the Electoral Commission, Ombudsman, to name but a few.
All these appointments are made by the President but have to be approved by the Legislature.

Removal of Judges:
Any Judge that fails to perform his judicial functions to expectation, he will be removed from
office by the legislature.

In some countries, the President is elected in to office by the Parliament.

Finally, the legislature also approves the declaration of war.

Types of Legislature

47
Basically, the legislature is divided into two. These are: the (a) UNICAMERAL
LEGISLATURE, and the (b) BICAMERAL LEGISLATURE

(a) Unicameral Legislature

This type of legislature is also known as Unicameralism

It is a legislature or parliament with only one house or chamber that makes laws for the state.
Sierra Leone, the Gambia, Ghana, Israel are examples of countries that have a unicameral
legislature. Its members are directly elected by the voters. In Unicameralism, there is no delay in
making laws because the laws are immediately presented to the president for his assent after
going through the Assembly

The need, merits, advantages or reasons for the adoption of a Unicameral Legislature

1. It is less expensive to maintain than a two chamber parliament (Bicameralism)

2. The law-making process is quick
3. Unicameralism is ideal for small states
4. It easily allocates responsibility
5. It does not provide a dumping ground for defeated politicians

Identify five demerits of a unicameral legislature

• Unicameral legislature can easily produce a dictatorial government
• There is no enough check against possible hasty, rush and ill-considered legislature.
There are more chances for errors of judgment in legislation.
• Unicameralism is not appropriate or suitable for a federal system of government because
there is no second chamber to represent the interest of the minority.
• Unicameralism enables the legislature to dominate the executive arm of government.
That is, it can give rise to despotic legislation.
• It is easier for the dominant party to manipulate the legislature than in bicameralism.
• In unicameralism, it is difficult to tap the wisdom and resources of distinguished citizens
because there is no second chamber into which such distinguished citizens could be
nominated.
• There is no provision for adequate representation
• The entire legislative work is concentrated in one chamber

48
(b) Bicameral Legislature
Bi-cameral legislature is also known as Bicameralism. It refers to a parliament with two
chambers or houses. These are the lower house (the first chamber) and the upper house (the
second chamber). A bill must pass through the two chambers before it is presented to the
President or Prime Minister for his assent. Examples of countries that have bi-cameral legislature
are Nigeria, Britain, the United States, India and many more. In Britain, the lower house is
known as the House of Commons and the upper house is called the House of Lords. In the
United States, the lower house is the House of Representatives and the Upper House is called the
House of Senates.

Bi-cameral legislature is more popular than unicameral legislature because of its many
advantages. The under mentioned are some of them:

• Bi-cameral legislature reduces the work load on one house

• A second chamber prevents the passing of hasty laws.

• It is more democratic

• In Bi-cameralism, there is healthy exchange of ideas between the two chambers.

• In a Bi-cameral legislature, the second chamber checks the excesses of the first
chamber
Men with political and administrative experiences are nominated to the second
chamber. Therefore, it allows people with political and administrative experiences
to take part in the law-making process.

• It makes possible for the making of better laws

• The second chamber helps to protect the interest of the minority, especially when
the upper house is based on equal representation.

• In a Bi-cameral legislature, the government finds it difficult to manipulate the two

chambers.

Demerits or criticisms of Bi-cameralism

§ Bi-cameral legislature seriously delays the law-making process.

§ It is too expensive to maintain two chambers
§ It encourages duplication of functions which leads to waste of resources
§ A second chamber is undemocratic because its members are not elected but nominated as in
Britain
§ It leads to unhealthy competition between the two houses especially if each house is
controlled by a different political party.

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§ The second chamber may be used as a means of finding employment for defeated politicians
at elections
§ Some of the members nominated to the second chamber are inactive because they are old.

Bills
A Bill is a proposed legislation (law). Before a bill becomes a law, it has to go through a lot of
stages including the assent given by the president.

Types of Bills

i. Private Bill
This bill does not affect the entire public or the whole country. It is about particular
interest and affects a specific locality. For example, laws made by Local Councils and
Public Corporations are from private bills.

ii. Private Member’s Bill

It is a bill that is introduced in parliament by an ordinary member of parliament or a non-
minister.

iii. Public Bill

This bill deals with problems or matters that affect the whole country or any section of
the country. It is usually introduced in parliament by a minister (the executive). An
example of a public bill is money bill.

iv. Money Bill

This bill deals with the raising and spending of money by government. It is also
introduced in parliament by the Executive organ of government

Stages of a Bill

As stated earlier, a bill has to go through some stages before it becomes a law. These stages
are:
1. First Reading
2. Second Reading
3. Committee Stage
4. Report Stage
5. Third reading
6. Assent

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FIRST READING
In this stage, the draft of a bill is presented to the clerk of the House of parliament by a Minister
or a member of parliament. The clerk would inform members of parliament about the presence of
the bill and reads its title. A date is fixed for the second reading of the bill. The bill is printed into
leaflets and given to members of parliament to study it before the date for the second reading.

SECOND READING
During second reading, the minister or Member of Parliament that brings the bill to parliament
would explain its purpose. The explanation is followed by a debate. In that debate, members of
parliament are free to speak for or against the bill. No amendment would be proposed but a vote
is taken by members of parliament. If the bill is voted against, that would be its end, but if the
vote is in favour of the bill, it then moves to the Committee Stage.

COMMITTEE STAGE
In this stage, the bill is sent to one of the standing committees of parliament. If it is a money bill,
it would be sent to the committee of the speaker. If it is an anti- corruption bill, it is sent to the
Public Account Committee as in the case of Sierra Leone. This committee would discuss the bill
clause by clause and word by word. Amendment could be proposed and a vote is taken. After
completing its work, the committee reports back to the House. It is then sent to the next stage
(Report Stage)

REPORT STAGE
In this stage, all the findings of the various standing committees are reported to the house. The
bill can only be reported or brought to the house after making amendments. The speaker then
reads the bill in its amended form to the house before it is sent to the next stage.

THIRD READING
During the third reading, the amended bill is placed before the house in order to take the final
vote. No amendment is allowed but errors can be corrected. It is then sent to the president for
assent.

ASSENT
In a Bi-cameral legislature, the bill is sent to the president for his assent or signature after going
through the two houses of parliament. After his assent, the bill then becomes a law

THE EXECUTIVE

The Executive is another organ of government. Its major function is to implement or execute or
carry out the laws or polices made by the legislature. In a Presidential system of government, the
executive is made up of the President, Ministers, Governors (the heads of the component states)
and the civil servants.
In a Parliamentary form of government, the executive consists of the Prime Minster, Ministers,
and civil servants.
In Sierra Leone, the Executive is made up of the President, Ministers and Civil Servants

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The functions of the Executive

The under mentioned are some of the functions of the executive in a modern state

• The primary function of the executive is to implement or carry out the laws or policies
passed by the legislature. That is, it makes sure that the laws of the state are obeyed by
the people or the policies of the government are executed.

• The executive also formulates polices. Both the domestic and foreign polices (plans of
action) of the state are determined by the executive. For example, the executive
determines the system of education to be adopted, it determines the amount of fess to be
charged in primary and secondary schools, and it also decides which countries to relate
with.

• The executive prepares the annual budget. The annual budget is composed or made up
of the proposed revenue of government and its proposed financial expenditure for any
financial year. It is the executive (the Ministry of Finance) that has the mandate to
prepare the annual budget.

• The executive gives assent to bills. Before a bill becomes a law, it has to go through six
(6) stages. The last stage is the Assent. No bill becomes a law without the signature
(Assent) of the President who is the Chief Executive.

• It also provides social services to improve the lives of the people. There is need for the
provision of social services like pipe borne water, low cost houses, electricity in order to
improve the lives of the people and prevent them from revolting against the government.
These social services are provided by the executive.

• . To promote development, democracy, law and order should be maintained. Through the
police and the military, the executive maintains law and order.

• The executive exercises the power of delegated legislation. In order to reduce the work
load of parliament, the Ministers and civil servants are given powers by Acts of
Parliament to make bye-laws and ministerial orders for the smooth running of their
ministries. The ministers and civil servants that make these bye-laws are part of the
executive. Before they have the force of law, these bye-laws and ministerial orders made
by the executive (Ministers and civil servants) have to be approved by the parliament.

• It also performs judicial functions. The president as Chief executive exercises

prerogative of mercy. It also appoints the Chief Justice and Senior Judges in the
Judiciary.

• The executive performs diplomatic functions. That is, the executive represents the state
in her relations with other countries. Also, the president or Prime Minister appoints

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 Ambassadors or High Commissioners and receives those accredited to him from other
countries.

• The executive through the president serves as the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed
Forces and declares war and negotiates peace.
The types of Executive
• Political Executive- this includes the President, Prime Minister, Governors,(in the case
of a federal government) and Ministers
• Official Executive: is made up of the civil servants who are also known as support
officials
The controls exercised on the Executive

• In the exercise of its powers and functions, the executive is controlled by the electorate or
voters through periodic, free and fair elections.

• International sanctions, bans, embargos and boycotts can control the executive in the
exercise of its powers and functions.

• The activities of the executive are controlled by the public through lectures, seminars,
and symposia (public opinions)

• The press can also control the executive in the exercise of its powers and functions. This
is done through its role as watch dog.

• Impeachment of the president and the passing of a vote of no confidence on the executive
can be used to control the activities of the executive.

• In controlling the exercise of its powers and functions, some executive appointments
have to be approved by the legislature in a presidential system of government.

• The activities of the executive can be controlled through judicial application of certain
writs like the actions or activities of the executive could be challenged in the courts and
such actions could be declared illegal, null and void or unconstitutional by the courts.

• The executive is also controlled by the constitution placing limitation on the exercise of
the powers and functions of the executive.

• The international treaties, or charters or protocols or articles of understanding can control

the actions of the executive. For instance, the UN, Commonwealth, OAU, Amnesty
International, I.L.O I.M.F. and many more can control the exercise of the powers and
functions of the executive.

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 THE JUDICIARY

This is the third organ of government. It is made up of all the courts in the state. Its main
functions are to interpret and apply the laws when they are violated.
In the case of disputes between citizens, or between the legislature and the executive, the
judiciary has the power to settle those disputes. It is also the responsibility of the judiciary to
make sure that those who fail to obey the laws of the state are seriously punished.

The functions of the Judiciary

The primary function of the Judiciary is to interpret the laws and the constitutions of the
state.

• It punishes law breakers

• It gives advice to the president on legal matters.
• When the elections of a country are petitioned by certain political parties, the Judiciary
has to hear all the petitions and decide on the right winners
• The Judiciary also protects the constitution from violations by the executive
• It protects liberties and rights of the citizens.
• The Judiciary settles disputes between individuals or between the government and the
citizens.
• It also exercises constitutional or judicial review. That is, it can declare any law of the
executive action null and void or unconstitutional if it is not according to the constitution.

The Independence of the Judiciary and its importance

The Independence of the Judiciary means when the Judiciary is free from control by either the
legislature or executive. There should be no interference in the activities of the Judges. They
should pass judgments without any fear or favour

The following are the importance of the independence of the Judiciary

• If the Judiciary is independent, the rights and liberties of the citizens will be protected.
• An independent Judiciary will be able to check abuse of powers by the government
• An independent Judiciary will be in a better place to properly determine the right or true
winners of elections when election petitions are presented to it.
• If the Judiciary is independent, it would be able to decide disputes between the other two
organs of government without favour
• An independent Judiciary can empower the Judges to perform their functions without
fear.
• If the Judiciary is independent, it can better protect the constitution.

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 • Another importance of the independence of the Judiciary is it prevents the legislature and
executive from controlling the Judiciary.

Fortification or Protection of the Independence of the Judiciary

If the Judiciary is to be independent, the following factors or measures should be adopted;
• Salaries of judges- The salaries of the Judges and Magistrates should be paid from the
consolidated funds (the government main coffers). Their salaries should be attractive. If
their salaries are low they would not be able to perform their functions freely and fairly
§ Immunity for Judges- In order to maintain the independence of the Judiciary, the judges
and Magistrates must be immune or free from any criminal prosecution for what they
may say or do while they are performing their functions.

§ Promotion of Judges- If the independence of the Judiciary is to be maintained, the

judges should be promoted by a neutral body like the judicial service commission and not
the executive.

§ Also, the independence of the Judiciary can only be maintained if the Judiciary is not
funded by the executive.
§ Security of tenure of Judges- That is, Judges should not be dismissed at will. They
should be dismissed only on the grounds of misbehavior and incompetence. This will
give them confidence and dispense justice fairly without favour.

§ The independence of the Judiciary can only be maintained if the Judiciary is separated
from the other organs.

§ If the independence of the Judiciary is to be maintained, the members of the Judiciary

should not take active part in politics.

§ Appointment of Judges- The independence of the Judiciary can only be maintained if

the Judges are appointed by a neutral body like the judicial service commission and not
executive.

Problems or challenges facing the Judiciary

• The salaries of officials of the Judiciary are low

• Lack of adequate judicial personnel. That is, the number of court officials is not enough

• Many members of the Judiciary are corrupt

• The head of the Judiciary is appointed by the Executive ( the President). This destroys the
independence of the Judiciary

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 • Its funds from the executive are not adequate

• The Judiciary is controlled by politicians because the Judiciary is funded by them

• There are congestions in courts and this causes delay of justice.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the functions of the legislature in a modern state.

2. Highlight the main functions of the Executive in a Modern State

3. How is the executive controlled in the exercise of its powers and functions?
4. (a)Explain the term independence of the Judiciary
(b)State the importance of the Independence of the Judiciary in a modern state.

TOPIC FIVE

FRANCHISE AND THE ELECTORAL SYSTEMS

Franchise and the Electoral Systems as a topic covers areas like:

§ Franchise
§ Elections and their importance
§ Free and fair elections
§ Types of voting
§ Electoral Commission
§ Electoral Constituency and
§ Types and characteristics of Electoral Systems

Franchise
This refers to the constitutional right of citizens to vote and be voted for in elections. The citizens
who are qualified by the laws of the state to vote and be voted for in elections are called voters or
electors or electorate. The conditions that qualify a citizen to vote and be voted for vary from
country to country.

Types of Franchise

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 There are two types of franchise. They are: Restricted and Unlimited Franchise

(i) Restricted or Limited Franchise

In countries where this type of franchise is practised, the right to vote and be voted for is not
extended to everybody. It is restricted to certain people with special qualifications. The
qualifications are based on age, sex, religion, race, education and property. For example, in
South Africa before 1994, the Blacks were not allowed to vote and could not be voted for in
public elections. In Sierra Leone, the franchise that was introduced by the 1924 constitution was
based on property and education. In modern times, limited or restricted franchise has been
aborted or abandoned due to the following reasons or demerits:
§ It leads to political apathy
§ The system is discriminatory
§ The representatives or leaders elected are forced or imposed on those disenfranchised.
§ In modern times, limited or restricted franchise has been abandoned due to the following
reasons or demerits.
§ They are not popularly elected.
§ The system is also undemocratic because not all the adult citizens in the state are allowed to
take part in electing their leaders.
§ There is limited political education
§ The system does not allow the citizens to be represented

(ii)Unlimited Franchise or Universal Adult Suffrage-

This type of franchise is practised by all democratic countries today. In this system, the voting
right is granted or opened to all adult citizens of a country. The voting age or the age at which
a citizen is considered an adult varies from country to country. In Sierra Leone, Britain, the
United States and France, the voting age is eighteen (18) years.
Today, a lot of Countries have adopted the Universal Adult Suffrage due to the under
mentioned reasons or merits.

§ It avoids discrimination
§ It creates a sense of political equality among the citizens.
§ Those elected reflect the choice of the majority
§ It is a democratic practice.
§ It makes for a stable government because majority of the adult citizens are allowed to
take part in the elections

Merits of Universal Adult Suffrage

• The system would lead to blind voting because many voters are illiterate
• The system also allows for election malpractices
• Elections are most times violent because many people are allowed to take part in the
process. The political opponents are intimidated

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 • The system lays more emphasis on the number rather than the quality of the voters
• Majority of the voters may lack adequate political education

In some states, voting is made compulsory simply because of the following reasons:

o To overcome voter apathy and indifference in elections

o To reduce the work load of political parties and candidates in trying to convince
voters on polling day
o To make campaigns less expensive
o To enable more voters to have interest in government affairs.
o To make people more conscious of their civil duty as voters
o To make or help more citizens to take decision on crucial issues of elections
o To make elected representatives more reflective of the popular choice of the
electorate
o To increase the number of voters thereby making it difficult to buy them over
o To make for popular choice of party manifestos and programmes

The Electoral Systems

Elections
Election is the process of selecting people that would represent their fellow citizens in parliament
and other positions in government.
Types of Elections
Elections are divided into two: (i) Direct and (ii) Indirect Elections
(I) Direct Election
Is where citizens who are qualified to vote cast votes directly in selecting their representatives
Merits of Direct Election
It is democratic
It is simple to operate
It reflects popular choice of the people
It restores the rights of the citizens
Equality of votes applies

Demerits of Direct Election

• The uneducated may vote wrongly or blindly
• It usually produces violence
• There is usually poor turnout of voters
• It is an election that is characterized by malpractices
• Sometimes, there is lack of adequate security at the polling stations

II) Indirect elections

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Indirect election is where in the citizens elect their representatives indirectly or through an
electoral college. The Electoral College is a body of persons voted for or elected in general
elections who in turn elect people into political office.

The following are some of the demerits of indirect election

• It is undemocratic
• Elected members are imposed on people
• Indirect election can lead to bribery and corruption
• The citizens are denied their right to elect their representatives
• Dishonest leaders may get elected

Qualifications for elections

For a person to exercise the rights to vote and stand for elections in the local councils and for
president, there are certain basic conditions he has to meet. These conditions (qualifications)
include the following:

• The person should have attained the age of 18

• His name should be in the electoral register
• The person should have resided in the country or the constituency for a specific period
• He should have been paying his tax
• The person should have a sound legal record. He should not be found guilty of any
criminal offence.

Elections are held or are necessary due to the following reasons:

• Elections foster democracy. In democracy, it is made possible for people to take part in
the government of their country. During elections, the citizens are allowed to vote for the
people they want to vote for. This would make them feel that they have been consulted
and have indicated their wishes. Therefore, they are willing to accept the government
they vote for.

• Elections are necessary in order to determine or measure the opinions or views of the
public on certain issues.

• Elections are necessary because they educate voters. During the election period, the
voters or electorate are educated or sensitized on their rights, duties, and voting methods
by the electoral commission, candidates and political parties.

• Elections are held in a State because they are used to test the popularity of a
government or representatives of the people in a country.

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 • Elections are necessary in a State because they make it possible for new government to
change or succeed another in a peaceful and orderly manner without violence or
bloodshed.

• Elections promote competition among political parties.

• Elections also legitimize the winning political party to form a government

• Elections are necessary because they bring various groups of people together. Put
simply, elections bring the various ethnic, religious and political groups together in order
to win the elections.

• Elections give an opportunity to the people to choose those they want to be their
representatives.

• Elections help the government or rulers to become accountable. During elections, the
citizens would have the opportunity to vote out of office any government that has not
ruled in their interest. This makes the government to be responsible and accountable to
the people for fear of being voted out for failure to rule in the interest of the people.

Sometimes citizens are restricted from voting by certain conditions. These conditions
are called disqualifications. Some of them are:

Criminals serving sentences are not allowed to vote or contest elections.

A foreigner
A person that is under age. For example, a person that is under 18 years
A person that is mentally insane
A person that is bankrupt
A person that fails to register during the registration period, etc.

The officials used in the conduct of elections on the polling day are:
• Chairman/Electoral Commissioner/ National Returning officer
• Regional Electoral Officer – He is also called Resident or State Electoral Officer (in
federal countries).
• Returning officer
• Supervisor
• Presiding officer
• Polling clerk
• Security Officer
• Polling Agent

The functions of the officials in the conduct of elections are mentioned below

• Overseeing the conduct of the elections and making sure the elections are hitch-free

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 • Supervising the electoral officers
• Supplying of electoral materials
• Checking and ticking names of eligible voters on the voters register
• Issuing of ballot papers to eligible voters
• Protecting election materials, voters and officers
• Applying indelible ink to the voter’s finger nails
• Monitoring the conduct of the elections
• Counting of ballot papers
• Announcing the result of the elections
• Maintaining peace and order and make sure people obey the laid down rules of elections
• Replacing or increasing any election material that is in short supply
• Posting electoral officers to other respective polling stations
• Keeping and accounting for invalid ballot papers
• Presenting winners of the election
• Delivering all used and unused election materials to the appropriate officers.

Free and fair elections

Elections are ‘Free’ when they are open or expansive. They are ‘Fair’ when they are generally
accepted. Simply put, Elections are free and fair when conducted according to the principles of
democracy or when elections are conducted on a level playing field.
• For an election to be free and fair there should be an independent, impartial and credible
electoral commission. The composition of the commission should be non-political.

• For an election to be free and fair, voting should be done in secret to avoid intimidation
of voters. Some people abstain from voting when they are intimidated or harassed. When
this happens, the election is not free and fair.

• To make an election free and fair, the Universal Adult Suffrage system should be
adopted. This is done in order to make sure that all the adults in the society or community
fully take part in choosing their representatives.

• The country should be divided into constituencies. This is what is called Boundary
delimitation

• Compilation of the voter’s register. It must also be revised at fairly regular intervals and
put on public display before ,during and after the election

• Certain persons should be disqualified. For example, lunatic persons, under age persons,
convicted of electoral ad other criminal offences and foreigners should not be allowed to
take part in election

• Adequate political education should be given to the electors or voters.

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 • There should be an opportunity for election results to be challenged in courts.

• Counting and declaration of votes should be done in public to avoid corrupt practices and
to inspire public confidence.

• Security should be provided for the electorate and the ballot boxes. There should be an
independent electoral management body charged with the responsibility to conduct free,
fair and regular elections. Its composition should be non-partisan

Democratic elections

Democratic elections are competitive, inclusive, periodic and definitive elections in which
the citizens select their decision makers to form a government. This selection is usually
done through the process of voting.

Problems connected with elections or the factors that hinder or impede free and fair
elections

In Africa, it is very difficult to hold free and fair elections. This is due to a lot of problems
or factors. The following are some of them:

• The electoral commission lacks adequate funds. The electoral commission is

responsible for conducting elections in the country. To conduct free, fair and credible
elections, the electoral commission should be impartial and independent. However, the
commission can only be impartial and independent if it has enough funds to conduct
elections. Unfortunately, most times, the commission does not have enough money. As a
result, its performance may be adversely affected by selfish politicians who want to
extend their stay in office.

• Malpractices can also impede free and fair elections. In Africa, in order to win elections
at all cost, the people usually engage in malpractices. For example, voting by under age
children, double voting, falsification of election results, stuffing of ballot boxes, illegal
printing of voters’ cards, deliberate refusal to supply election materials to some areas,
changing of electoral officers and announcing results where no elections take place. Due
to these malpractices, elections in Africa are usually not free and fair.

• In Africa, voters and candidates are usually intimidated. The desire for rival
candidates to retain or gain power at all cost would result in intimidation of voters and
rival candidates. Therefore, it is not possible to conduct free and fair elections in an
atmosphere of violence.

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 • Free and fair elections are hindered by bribery and corruption. That is, since some
election officers in Africa are poor, they are usually given money by politicians to rig the
elections in their favour.

• Political interference is a major problem that affects the conduct of free and fair
elections. In order to extend their stay in power, politicians or the government usually
interferes with the duties of the electoral commission. Since the commission is set up and
funded by the government, its activities are most times dictated by the government. In
other words, “he who pays the piper calls the tune”

• Another problem connected with free and fair elections is illiteracy of voters. Most
voters in Africa cannot read and write. Due to this, they can be easily fooled or
influenced by politicians and persuade them to engage in election malpractices, like
under age voting, violence, double voting, ballot stuffing, to name but a few.

• Ethnically also hinders or impedes the conduct of free and fair elections. Some political
parties in Africa are formed along ethnic or regional lines. As a result, voting is also
based on ethnic or regional lines.

• Impersonation of voters can also impede the conduct of free and fair elections.
Impersonation of voters is adopted to increase the number of votes of respective
candidates or political parties in order to win elections

Types of voting

1. Open balloting or voting

This is a system in which the electorate or voters vote in an open place, seen by other people.
This is done by indicating their support for a candidate with their hands up or by toe lining
behind the candidate or behind his or her poster. This system was practised in the small city
states of Ancient Greece like Sparta, Athens etc.
In Sierra Leone, sometimes open voting is used to elect class prefects in schools.

Merits of Open voting

• It is simple and easy to understand
• It prevents rigging
• It does not allow double voting
• Its result is easy to confirm
• It is less expensive
• It discourages falsification of results

Demerits of Open voting

• Open voting leads to violence

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 • It has a lot of waste time
• It provides or creates an atmosphere of insecurity
• Open voting is a return to backwardness in the democratic process
• It can create enmity in the communities and can divide families.
• It brings friendship to an end and voters are exposed to attacks from rival groups.
• Intimidation of voters resulting from open voting may lead to voter apathy
• It encourages the buying of votes

2. Secret voting
This is a system in which the electors cast their votes in a secret place where they are not seen by
anybody or nobody knows the candidate they vote for. This is the type of voting that is widely
used today. Secret ballot is a feature of democracy.

3. Optional voting
This is a system wherein the voter is given the opportunity to decide either to vote or to abstain

4. Compulsory voting
This is where in all eligible adult citizens of a country are forced to vote. This voting system was
used in order to stop voter apathy and reduce the work of the electoral Commission, political
parties and candidates.

5. Proxy voting
This is where certain people as a result of their national duties vote before the schedule time for
voting. For example, in Sierra Leone, the police and the army usually vote two or three days
before the actual day of voting because of the duties they have to perform on the polling day.

(vii) The Electoral Commission

An Electoral Commission is a politically independent and impartial body charged with the
responsibility of organizing and conducting free and fair elections in the country. It has a
chairman and other members. The commission is appointed by the central government. Its
chairman is called the Chief Electoral Commissioner or National Returning Officer.
In Sierra Leone, the members of the Electoral Commission (the chairman and the four other
commissioners) are appointed by the President in consultation with the leaders of all the
registered Political Parties and subject to the approval of parliament.
The number of years for the members of the Electoral Commission is five years. The members
can only leave office on attaining the age of sixty five years and at the expiration of five years
from the date of appointment. A member of the commission may be removed from his office by
the president only for inability to discharge the functions of his office arising from infirmity of
mind and body or for misbehaving.
In Sierra Leone, the following are the guiding principles of the National Electoral
Commission:

• Independence

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 • Transparency
• Credibility and Legitimacy
• Impartiality
• Integrity
• Accountability
• Universality
• Professionalism and Dedication
Some of the functions of the Electoral Commission are listed below:

• It organizes and conducts elections

• It delimits or divides the country into constituencies or electoral districts (boundary
delimitation)
• It registers eligible voters for elections
• It screens and registers candidates for elections
• It registers and determines the eligibility of political parties to take part in the elections
• It recruits, trains and deploys electoral officers
• It procures and distributes election materials and equipment
• It counts votes and declares results
• It fixes the date of elections
• It liaises with the law enforcement agencies (police and the army) in order to maintain
law and order during the elections
• It educates voters on election procedures
• It publishes rules and regulations governing elections
• It gives financial assistance to political parties and audits their financial accounts
• It displays the list of registered voters and deals with objections and claims
• It also acts as a respondent or witness in case of election petition
The features of an Electoral Commission

• The electoral commission is a non-partisan body (it is non-political)

• It is an impartial and independent body of the government
• Its members should be men of integrity
• The electoral commission is headed by a Chairperson called the Chief Electoral
Commissioner or National Returning Officer. He is elected for a period of five years but
could be re-elected.
• The staff of the commission is appointed for a fixed period of time.
• The commission has branches in different parts of the country

(viii) Electoral Constituency

Electoral Constituency refers to a district divided into smaller areas from which one or more
members or representatives are elected into political offices. The people elected from these
constituencies represent the interests of their areas. The division of the country into

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constituencies is called delimitation. The importance of delimitation is to ensure equal
representation of all areas in parliament.

Types of Constituencies

There are two types of electoral constituencies. These are:

(i) Single Member Constituency

(ii) Multi-Member Constituency

(i) Single Member Constituency

This is wherein only one member is returned to parliament or House of Assembly. He is
normally the candidate that secures the highest number of votes in the elections. In a single –
member constituency, the voter is entitled to one vote. This type of constituency was adopted by
Sierra Leone during the 2002, 2007 and 2012 Parliamentary elections

(ii) Multi-Member Constituency

In this constituency, two or more representatives are elected into the Parliament or House of
Assembly. The voters are entitled to two or more votes depending on the number of candidates
to be elected. The candidates who secure the required quota of votes are declared elected

An Electoral constituency the small areas into which a district is divided for the purpose of
electing representatives into political offices. Dividing the country into electoral constituencies is
called delimitation. This is done in order to ensure equal representation of all areas in parliament.
The primary objective for delimiting the country into constituencies is to obtain an equal
distribution of seats. When it comes to the actual delimitation, it is not always possible to create
equal constituencies. As a result of this problem, certain factors or criteria are taken into
consideration. Some of these factors are mentioned below:

• Population
The population is the first factor considered when dividing the country into
constituencies. In urban areas like Freetown and the mining areas where there is high
density of people, they are given separate constituencies even though their size may be
smaller in relation to other rural constituencies. Because of the difference in population,
constituencies are different in size. Presently in Sierra Leone, forty five thousand people
make a constituency.

• Equal size
The electoral commission should also try to make sure that the constituencies are equal in
size. This is the primary objective for dividing the country into constituencies. Usually, it
is not possible to achieve this due to the difference in population.

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 • Administrative convenience
That is, efforts should be made to ensure that constituencies do not cut across
administrative boundaries or borders like mountains, rivers, etc. In some countries,
constituencies are built on local administrative units in order to ease the administration.

• Cultural interests
Towns and villages that have the same customs and traditions are supposed to be grouped
in the same constituency. Problems are likely to occur in some areas where People of
different cultures are placed in the same constituency.

• Historical background or experience

In dividing the country into constituencies, the electoral commission should group
together people with similar historical experience or background. This should be done to
foster unity and avoid violence.

• Geographical Proximity
In dividing the country into constituencies, towns and villages that are close to each other
should be grouped together. These towns and villages should not be separated by large
rivers and mountains.

• Language
In dividing the country into constituencies, the language of the people is also considered.
That is, if the people who speak the same language are grouped together, it would help
for effective administration.

(xi) The Electoral Systems

An Electoral System is the process or method by which the citizens of a country elect their
representatives into political offices.

Types and characteristics of electoral systems

1. Simple Majority System - This system is also known as first-past -the post or simple plurality
system. This system was used in the 2007 and 2012 parliamentary elections in Sierra Leone. It is
also used in Britain, Nigeria, Ghana, United States and many more.
In this system, the candidate who secures the highest number of votes is declared winner
although he may not have the majority of all the votes cast. For example, 20,000 voters voted for
four candidates in a constituency in Mambolo. The following are the results:
Abu Bakarr Soriba Conteh got 8,000 votes
Sulaiman Bampia Kamara got 4,000 votes

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Haja M’mah Conteh secured 6,000 votes and
Morray S. Conteh got 7,000 votes
According to the result, Abu Bakarr Soriba Conteh is the winner because he scored the highest
number of votes although 7,000 + 6,000 + 4,000 votes of candidates Morray S. Conteh, Haja
M’mah Conteh and Sulaiman Bampia Kamara were against him, but since he got the simple
majority of the votes cast, he is elected.

Merits of the system

• Simple majority system makes for elected candidates to be responsible to the voters
• It prevents the formation of coalition government
• It is simple to operate
• It discourages political instability
• The system saves time and resources

Demerits of the system

• Simple majority is undemocratic
• It brings mediocre into power
• It encourages vote rigging
• The large ethnic groups can impose their numerical strength on the minority groups.

2. Absolute Majority System

As the name implies, the main emphasis of absolute majority system is absolute majority. In this
system, a candidate has to score more than fifty percent (50%) of the total votes cast before being
declared elected.
Absolute majority system has a lot of demerits. The under mentioned are some of them:

• It can lead to political tension and violence

• It encourages electoral malpractices
• It is expensive both in time and finance especially when voting is repeated
• It cannot work very well where most of the voters are illiterate
• It is complicated because it involves a lot of calculations and administrative problems
• The result of the election is unnecessarily delayed if a winner could not emerge after the
first voting
• It can lead to voter apathy because voters whose candidates are dropped in the first ballot
may not wish to take part in the second ballot
• The system tends to weaken other small political parties

Merits of Absolute Majority System

• It produces credible candidates
• There is no room for unpopular candidates
• It is a reflection of the wishes of the people

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(3) Second Ballot
This system was popular in France and was used in the 1996 and 2007 Presidential elections in
Sierra Leone. In this system, if no candidate secures an overall majority of the votes cast in the
first election, a second election is conducted for the two leading candidates. The candidate who
secures a majority in the second election is declared winner.

(4) The Alternative Vote System

This is sometimes called the “Australian System" because it was first practised in Australia. Like
the second ballot and the Absolute majority systems, the alternative vote advocates for absolute
majority. In this system, the voter is expected to vote by marking or writing the numbers 1,2,3,4,
etc in order of his preference depending on the number of candidates that are contesting the
election. After voting, the first count is taken but only the first choices on the ballot papers are
taken into consideration. That is, every candidate receives ballot papers in which number one is
marked against his name. If no candidate secures an absolute majority, the candidate with the
lowest number of votes would be eliminated from the contest and his ballot papers are
distributed to the other candidates according to the second or next preference shown on the ballot
papers. This would continue until one candidate secures an absolute majority of the votes cast

Demerits of the system

• The system is very expensive to conduct
• It consumes a lot of time
• A lot of energy is wasted
• It encourages malpractices due to the long time spent

(5) Proportional Representation System

This system is used to elect representatives in multi-member constituencies. In this system, seats
are allocated to a political party in proportion to the votes cast in favour of it. That is, the more
the percentage of votes cast in favour of a political party, the more seats allocated to it. Some
political observers maintain that, this system is the most democratic because all interest groups
are given the chance to be represented in a community.

Proportional Representation is divided into two types;

(1) Single Transferable Vote
(2) Multi- Member List System

In Single Transferable Vote, each constituency elects as many candidates as the law of
elections states. The candidates are expected to source or obtain a particular quota of votes.
During voting, the voters are expected to mark the names of candidates in order of preference.
When the count is taken, any candidate that exceeds his required quota, his surplus votes would
be transferred to another candidate following him. This would continue until the number of
candidates allocated to the constituency is elected. For instance, four candidates are to be
returned or elected to Parliament in a constituency at Kissy in Freetown and each candidate
should secure a quota of twenty percent (20%). After voting, the results are as follows:
Saidu B. Kamara got 40%

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 Mohamed S. Sankoh got 20%
Alpha Y. Bangura got 15%
Kadie Morray got 05%
Morray S. Conteh got 05%
In the above case, since Saidu B. Kamara secured 40% and the quota to be secured by each
candidate is 20%, the number that exceeds the required quota is not wasted but rather transferred
to the Candidate in the second position who is Mohamed S. Sankoh with 20%. So, his 20% plus
the other 20% transferred to him from Saidu B. Kamara would make it a total of 40%. This
process would continue until all the four candidates that are to be elected to Parliament are
elected.
In a Multi- Member List System, the voters do not vote for a particular candidate but for the
party. Each Political party prepares a list in the order it wants its candidates to be elected. So, the
names of these candidates are printed in that order on the ballot papers. After voting, a count is
taken and seats are allocated to the political parties based on the total number of votes secured.
For example, if a political party secures half of the total votes cast in an eight member
constituency; it means that four seats would be allocated to that party.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. a) Define limited franchise

b) State four reasons for making voting compulsory in a state

2. (a) Define Indirect Elections

(b)Highlight five demerits of indirect elections

3. (a) Give three reasons for indirect lection in a State

(b)Identify three factors that can disqualify a person from voting in a democracy

4. Highlight the conditions necessary for free and fair elections

5. a)Define Electoral Commission

b) State four functions of the Electoral Commission

6. (a) Describe an electoral constituency

(b)Highlight five factors that are considered in dividing a country into Constituencies

7. Explain each of the following electoral systems

• Simple Plurality System
• The repeated ballot
• The second ballot
• The alternative ballot

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 TOPIC- SIX

POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEMS.

In topic five, we examined franchise and elections as concepts that promote democracy. In this
topic, we look at Political Parties and Party Systems which are also key components of
democracy.
To comprehensively cover this topic, we shall attempt to discuss the following:
§ Definition of a Political Party and examples
§ Features of a Political Party
§ Types of Political Parties
§ Functions of Political Parties
§ Definition of an Opposition Party and its importance or functions
§ Factors that determine or ensure the electoral success of a Political Party
§ Party System and the types of Party System.

Political Parties

A Political Party Is an organized group of people who share similar political aims and opinions
with the primary aim to contest and win elections in order to put into effect their political
programmes. Examples of Political Parties in Sierra Leone are: the Sierra Leone People’s Party
(S.L.P.P), the All People’s Congress (A.P.C) party, United Democratic Movement (U.D.M)
party, Peoples Movement for Democratic Change (P.M.D.C) National Democratic Alliance
(N.D.A) National Grand Coalition (N.G.C.), to name but a few.

Features or characteristics of Political Parties.

§ Political Parties usually hold conferences, congresses and rallies.

§ They usually conduct party primary elections to choose popular candidates for national
elections.
§ They have programmes (the manifesto) which they want to put into effect if they win
elections.
§ They always contest elections to form government
§ They carry out nomination of candidates
§ They usually campaign to voters to sell their manifestoes

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 § Political parties have ideologies
§ They are highly organized.

Types of Political Parties

• Mass Party- as the name implies, membership of this party is open to everybody. That is,
its members are drawn from all parts of the community or country. Its manifesto aims at
improving the conditions of everybody. Such political parties usually adopt names like
the Peoples Party or Labour Party. Examples of mass parties in Sierra Leone are: the All
Peoples Congress Party, the Sierra Leone Peoples Party, United National Peoples Party,
National Grand Coalition, to name but a few.

• Elitist Party- this party does not draw members from all sections of the community or
country. Such a party leans on peoples with higher status and standing for support. The
elitist party believes in the quality and not quantity of members. According to this party,
the only people that can effectively handle the affairs of a government are those with
substance and not riff-raffs. Members of elitist parties include, Medical Doctors,
Lawyers, Businessmen, Intellectuals, to name a few.

• Broker Party- Such a party is also called mixer party. Its members are drawn from both
the poor and rich classes of the community or country. It advocates for equality of all and
aims at improving the conditions of everybody.

• Religious Party: As the name implies, this party is formed on religious lines or basis.
Such a party strongly leans on religious sections of the community or country in order to
win elections. For example, the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt.

The functions of Political Parties and the problems they encounter

In modern times, there is no democratic country without political parties. This is because of
their functions or importance in the governing of a state. The following are some of the functions
performed by a Political Party

• A political party provides political education. That is, through lectures, symposia,
manifestoes and other social programmes, a political party can educate or sensitize members
of the public on their views, policies, rights, duties and the benefits they would derive when
these policies are implemented. A political party would also suggest or bring in other ideas
that would arouse or inspire the involvement and participation of the citizens in national
affairs.

• A political party also provides a forum or ground where future political leaders are
trained. According to the 1991 constitution of Sierra Leone, all candidates contesting for
president should come from political parties. Before somebody contests for president, the
party executive has to elect him or as party leader, He is trained in the art of governance,
contests election and if he or she wins, he becomes the president of the state. People like Sir

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 Milton Margai, Sir Albert Margai, Siaka P. Stevens, Alhaji Ahmed Tejan Kabba, and Ernest
Bai Koroma were all members of political parties and later became Prime Ministers and
Presidents of Sierra Leone.

• A political party provides a means for peaceful change of government. That is, a bad
government or government that does not deliver on its manifesto can be peacefully changed
through elections. For example, in 2007, the A.P.C provided a constitutional means through
which the S.L.P.P led government was peacefully changed.

• A political party also acts as a source of unity. That is, a political party brings together
people from different communities, interests, regions and ethnic groups. These different
people from different communities meet, interact and plan together in order to win elections.
Therefore, this brings unity among them.

• It makes a government accountable and efficient. In its quest to replace the political party in
power at the subsequent election, the opposition parties constantly watch and criticize the
activities, weaknesses and failures of the government. Through this, the government is kept
alert to respond to the demands of the citizens with a view to win mass support.

• A Political Party organizes the voters to choose between the alternative programmes
which the various political parties put over to them. That is, the voters can only choose
between the programmes presented to them after relevant information about the candidates,
political parties and their manifestoes have been given to them (the voters)

• A Political Party performs welfare, social and humanitarian functions like the provision
of jobs, holding dances, picnics and concerts.

• A Political Party bridges the gap of communication between the government and the
subjects. In other words, a political party disseminates information on government policies
to the public.
The under mentioned are some of the problems of political parties

• Imposition of ideas and candidates on political parties by influential members.

• Irresponsibility of party leaders
• Disloyalty and anti-party activities
• Political struggle within the party

Opposition Party and its importance or functions

An Opposition party is the second largest Political Party in the legislature which could not
secure the majority of electoral votes cast to form a government. It exists mainly in a Cabinet or
Parliamentary System of government. In some countries, the Opposition Party is called Minority
Party.
The functions of an Opposition Party are mentioned below:

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§ It participates in all the deliberations of the Parliament
§ It checks the excesses of the government like human abuses

§ It protects the rights of minority groups

§ It offers alternative policies and programmes to the voters

§ It offers objectionable policies of the government by its voices and votes

§ It influences government by all acceptable methods to modify its policies. That is, it co-
operates with government to implement policies which are of national interests.

§ It creates a favorable atmosphere for itself to win the next general election through political
education and enlightenment.

§ Finally, an opposition party serves as an alternative government which can take over the
administration of the state when the need arises.

The factors that determine or ensure the success of a Political Party in elections

A manifesto is a plan or programme of a political party which it intends to fulfill or implement if

it is elected into power.
The factors that can determine or ensure the electoral success of a political party are listed
below.

• Broad Base Membership. For a political party to be successful, it should not be

regional, religious or ethnically based. The party should cut across regional, ethnic or
religious lines. In Sierra Leone, the A.P.C and S.L.P.P. are successful in elections
because they have a broad based membership.

• A political party would succeed in elections if it has an effective and goal directed
leadership. That is, a strong leadership with integrity would be able to maintain
discipline within the party and attracts voters. For example, Ernest Bai Koroma’s A.P.C
was successful in the 2007 elections because it has an effective and goal directed
leadership.

• The calibre, charisma and reputation of the party’s candidate can lead to its success
in elections. President Ernest Bai Koroma and his A.P.C won the 2007 election due to his
reputation. Also, president Barrack Obama won the American presidential election
because of his calibre, charisma and reputation.

• Transparent electoral process can ensure the success of a political party in elections. If
the electoral commission is impartial and independent, it would be able to conduct free,

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 fair and credible election. So, a political party stands a chance to win elections if they are
conducted in a transparent atmosphere.

• Strong financial base of a political party can ensure its success in elections. A political
party gets funds through fund raising activities like the sale of party hats, badges,
subscriptions from its members and voluntary donations from humanitarian
organizations.

• A political party can win an election if it has effective propaganda machinery through
the radio, newspapers, television etc.

• Proper political education of voters can determine a party’s success in elections. This
education is given to voters through regular rallies, seminars and meetings at local,
district level, regional and national levels.

• Very strong party discipline can determine its success in elections.

• Finally, good policies and programmes (attractive manifesto) of a political party would
attract voters and gain votes during election

Party System

This is a political arrangement made by government in which political parties are allowed to
operate for the purpose of forming a government on political party basis. There are three main
types of political system, these are:

(1). One- party system

(2). Two- party system
(3) Multi-party system

One or Single Party System

In this system, only one political party is allowed to operate by the constitution. The formation
of any other Political Parties is made illegal and regarded as an act of treason. Sierra Leone
adopted a one party system in 1978, Guinea under Ahmed Seku Toure, Ghana under Kwame
Nkrumah, were all under one party system.
Characteristics of One Party System
• There is no official opposition.
• There is no press freedom.
• The formation of another political party is made illega.
• Elections are contested by one political party
• The state has only one ideology
• Political education is limited
• Only one political party is recognize by the constitution

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Merits of One Party System
§ Electoral malpractices are minimized
§ If makes for quick decision
§ It creates political stability
§ It promotes national unity
§ It prevents waste of resources
§ It does not encourage election violence
§ It prevents unhealthy political rivalry because there is only one political party
§ One party system is in accordance with the African traditional democracy. That is, in
African traditional political system, there was no opposition. The Africans believed in the
importance of meetings to resolve their conflicts. So, the one party system was seen as a
revival of African traditional political system.
§ It discourages sectionalism
Demerits of single party system

• Single party system leads to dictatorship

• Its limits political education
• Its neglects public opinion
• Fundamental human rights are violated at will
• Single party system is undemocratic because the party in power is an imposition on the
people since not everybody accepts its ideology
• The party in power may become complacent, corrupt and inefficient. This happens
because there is absence of a strong and organized opposition party
• It can also lead to unrest because legal opposition is not allowed. People can make their
grievances known through perpetual resistance or military coup.
• In a single party system, the judiciary is not free to dispense justice
• It can also produce a president for life

Two Party System

This is a system where in there are only two dominant political parties. This does not mean that
there are only two parties in the state. There could be three or more political parties within the
country but only two are major parties and others are minors of the two major parties. The ruling
party is called the majority party and the opposition is called the minority party. Examples of
countries with two parties are Britain, Canada, New Zealand, etc.

Merits of Two Party System

• It allows for an orderly transfer of power
• It guarantees the expression of public opinion
• It makes provision for the ruling party to be properly checked
• It prevents the emergence of dictatorship
• It stimulates mass political participation
• It ensures effective political education
• It is democratic
• It ensures stability

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 • It makes for good governance
• It provides a strong opposition
• It provides the people with alternative party to choose

Demerits of Two Party System

• It divides the country into two
• It leads to disunity
• It can lead to uneven development because the party that wins the elections would neglect
some areas that do not vote for it.
• It is too expensive to maintain
• It may lead to unhealthy rivalry
• It can also lead to election rigging and victimization of opposition leaders
• It may not promotes national unity

(3) Multi-Party System

This party system is practised in Sierra Leone, France, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland, to name but a
few. In this system, there are normally more than two political parties contesting for political
power in a state, in a multi-party system, it is usually difficult for any party to win a clear cut
majority of seats in parliament that would enable it to form government. This always leads to the
formation of a coalition government. That is, due to the failure of one political party to secure
majority seats in parliament. Two or more parties can come together to form a government
(coalition government).

Merits of Multi-Party System

• It is democratic because many Political Parties are involved
• It prevents the emergence of dictatorship
• All sections of the country may have the opportunity to be represented
• It protects fundamental human rights
• It allows for wider political education for voters
• There are wider chances for choice
• Opposition parties are recognized.

Demerits of Multi-Party System

• It is not common in Africa
• It is costly
• There is unhealthy rivalry
• It may lead to instability of government
• It also divides the people into various camps based on religious, ethnic or regional lines
• It may create violence during elections
• Rigging may be involved to win elections

A De jure One Party System is a system wherein only one political party is recognized and
power is exercised without the use of force. In this system, the political party in power acquires

77
power according to the laws of the land (through constitutional means). Therefore, this political
party can be accepted and obeyed by the people without the use of force.
On the other hand, a De facto One Party System is a system wherein only one political party is
recognized and it uses force. This political party in power is not democratically elected by the
people. Therefore, it has to use force to command obedience from the people.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. Describe any three functions of a Political Party

2. State any three problems of Political Parties
3. a)What is an Opposition Party?
b) Explain four functions of an Opposition Party.
4. a)What is a Manifesto?
b) Outline five factors that determine the electoral success of a Political Party

5. (a)Differentiate between a De jure and De facto One Party System

b) Outline four advantages of a Multi-Party System.

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 TOPIC- SEVEN

PRESSURE GROUPS

This topic mainly deals with the following:

• Definition of Pressure Group
• The methods used by Pressure Groups to achieve their objectives
• The types of pressure groups
• The importance of pressure groups
• The factors that limit or hinder the achievements of pressure groups
• The problems posed by pressure groups and
• The distinction between political parties and pressure groups
A Pressure group is defined as an organized group of people who share common views and try
to influence government decisions and policies in their favour so as to protect and promote the
interests. Pressure group does not contest elections in order to put their programmes into effect.
It uses persuasion in order to influence the decisions and policies of government in their favour.
Pressure group is a selfish organized group because it is particularly about the interests of its
members.

The methods used by the Pressure Groups to achieve their objectives

(a) A Pressure Group is an organized group of people who share common views and try to
influence the decisions and policies of government in their favour so as to protect and promote
their interests. A Pressure Group does not contest elections in their name but may give material
and moral support to Political parties and individual candidates
• The Sierra Leone Teachers Union (SLTU),
• The Sierra Leone Bar Association,
• The Sierra Leone Association of Journalists (SLAJ),
• Motor Drivers Union, the Sierra Leone Chamber of Commerce,
• Magburaka Old Boys Association, (MOBA)
• The Old Bo Boys’ Association (OBBA),

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 • National Union of Sierra Leone Students (NUSS), to name but a few.

(b)Pressure groups use a lot of ways or methods to achieve their objectives. Some of these
ways or methods or techniques are discussed below.

• Lobbying: this is the direct effort of pressure groups to influence official decision
makers. That is, a pressure group can write letters to members of the legislature or other
important government personnel to make their views felt on a particular matter. It does
this in order to convince the members of the legislature to make laws that are in favour of
its members.

• Electioneering- A pressure group does not contest elections in its name. Sometimes, it
prepares grounds for battle over its demands by supporting or sponsoring candidates or
political parties during elections. If the candidates or political parties it supports enter
parliament, they would serve as a watch dog over its interests in parliament. This is
practically possible for a pressure group with large membership.

• Demonstrations- In a country where mass political demonstrations are permitted, it is

another method or way through which pressure groups achieve their objectives. A
pressure group can voice its demands by taking to the streets with banners or placards
expressing their grievances. Demonstrations can be peaceful or violent, and can lead to a
lot of destruction of lives and properties when trying to maintain law and order.

• Strikes and Boy cots- This is a strategy or technique adopted by pressure groups in order
to compel government to listen to their demands. In strikes, members of pressure groups
with hold their services by using either slow down or sit down strike. For boycotts, the
people or workers refuse to take part in government activities. By so doing, the
government would listen to their demands.

• Pressure mounted on the Executive- In order to influence the decisions and policies of
government in their favour, pressure groups would write letters or use other methods to
mount pressure on the cabinet ministers to initiate bills to parliament or mount pressure
on the head of government to refuse to sign some bills passed by members of the
legislature that are not in their favour.

• National Publicity Campaigns- If a pressure group uses many methods to influence

government decisions and policies in its favour but does not succeed, it may resort to
effective propaganda activities by using the radio, Television, newspaper, public debates
and many more. This is done in order to win and influence public opinion and achieve its
aims.

• Consultation- Before some decisions and policies are made and implemented by the
government, some pressure groups are first consulted. The pressure groups also consult
the government in order to influence government decisions in their favour

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 • Ultimatum- In order to achieve its aims, a pressure group may issue final statements
threatening the government not to either meet its demands, or it would take necessary
actions like holding demonstrations, strikes, or boycotts.

The types of Pressure groups are:

• Social Pressure groups. For example, Magburaka Old Boys Association (MOBA),
Kambia District Students Association (KADSA), Old Bo Boys Association (OBBA), etc.

• Religious Pressure groups- It is formed on religious lines and its main aim is to promote
the interest of its members.

• Occupational Pressure groups- it is formed by people who belong to the same

occupation. Examples are: Sierra Leone Teachers Union (S.L.T.U), Sierra Leone
Association of Journalists (SLAJ), Drivers Union, Sierra Leone Bar Association, etc.

• Professional Pressure group- this is a group formed by professionals in order to

promote the interest of the members. For example, SLAJ, S.L.T.U, S.L.Bar Association,
etc.

• Education Pressure group- this is a group that seeks to promote and protect the interest
of people pursuing education. For example, S.L.T.U, National Union of Sierra Leone
Students (N.U.S.S)

• Cause or Promotional group: the primary objective of this group is to promote a

particular goal or cause which is not of direct benefit to its members but of general
benefit. Notable examples are the International Committee of the Red Cross (I.C.R.C),
World Council of Churches, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to animals, etc.

• Economic pressure groups- Example, Sierra Leone Chamber of Commerce

Pressure groups cannot be denied a place in a democratic political process. This is because
they render significant services to the nation as a whole. The under mentioned are
some of the functions or importance of pressure groups.

• In some countries, pressure groups help to promote the welfare of the general
populace by providing legal and medical services. For example, the Sierra Leone Bar
Association, the Sierra Leone Medical and Dental Association etc.

• Pressure groups help to increase the standard of living of their members by agitating
for increase in the salaries and wages of their members.

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 • They provide essential information to members of Parliament or other government
officials for the drafting of laws or the implementation of government policies.

• They serve as a platform through which people can express their public opinion.

• They influence and help to change some bad policies and decisions of the
government by staging protests and demonstrations.

• They serve as checks and balances on the activities of government. Therefore, they
prevent the government from becoming autocratic or authoritarian.

• Pressure Groups enable the views of the minority to be effectively expressed.

• They also increase the extent of political participation.

• They contribute to the economic growth and development of a state.

• They also contribute in educating their members and the members of the public on
their political rights.
• They bridge the gap between the government and the subjects

The factors that limit or hinder the achievements of Pressure Groups

The failure of any pressure group lies on a number of factors. The following are some of
the factors:

Lack of funds serves as one of the major impediments to the activities of pressure groups
because majority of their activities are carried out with money. That is, if the membership of
a pressure group is small, it is difficult for the group to raise enough funds to carry out
majority of their activities

Incompetent or weak leadership renders pressure groups ineffective and makes them
unable to achieve their demands.

A poorly organized pressure group. That is, a pressure group fails if it cannot effectively
organize its members.

The numerical strength of the group. It is difficult for a pressure group with a small
number to succeed. There are prospects for a group with a large number to succeed.

The type or system of government adopted in a country determines the success of a

pressure group. That is, in a state led by the military or in a one party system; the government
tends to be dictatorial. Such a government does not allow criticism. Leaders of pressure
groups that organize demonstrations or attempt to criticize such a government are arrested,
detained and their assets are frozen

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 Inadequate political education of a pressure group can limit the extent to which pressure
groups can achieve their demands. This is practically with groups that cannot embark on
effective education of their members.

Disunity also limits the extent to which pressure groups achieve their demands. In the absence of
unity among members of a pressure group, it would die a premature death

Lack of effective strategy. If a pressure group has poor strategies, it would limit its ability to
influence the decisions and policies of government

Lack of discipline among members of a pressure group can limit the extent to which the
group can achieve its demands.

Dishonest and corrupt leadership also limit the achievements of a pressure group

Please note: The above named limitations are the same as factors working against Pressure
groups.

The factors that can ensure the success or achievement of a Pressure group

• Adequate funds
• Adequate political education of the members
• The numerical strength of the group
• Unity among members of the group
• Strong leadership
• Tolerance of government in power
• Good or effective organization
• Honest and corrupt-free leadership
• Discipline among members of the pressure groups

Demerits or problems posed by Pressure groups

• The strikes and boycotts used by Pressure groups as a technique to achieve their demands
hinder the economy of the country.

• The demonstrations used by Pressure groups may lead to chaos and anarchy due to
rioting

• Also, lobbying used as a technique by pressure groups would encourage bribery and
corruption.

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 • Some pressure groups give support (Moral or financial) to political parties during
elections. This would encourage such pressure groups to engage in malpractices during
elections so that the political parties they allied with or support would win the election.

• Pressure groups can sometimes lead to unnecessary confrontation with government. This
is because; they sometimes demand certain things that the government cannot
realistically provide.

• Pressure groups may be used by external countries or people to create political instability
by demonstrating either continuously or violently against the government and also by
writing seditious materials against government.

• Some pressure groups are so powerful that they can even challenge the government

• Another demerit of a pressure group is they are self-centered

Distinction between Political Parties and Pressure groups

There are many similarities between Pressure groups and Political Parties. Sometimes, it tends to
be very difficult to distinguish between the two especially when the aims of pressure groups are
narrow in scope. However, the two of them have a lot of differences.

The following are some of them:

• Firstly, the main aim of Political Parties is to contest and win elections in order to form a
government. On the other hand, Pressure groups are primarily formed to influence
government decisions and policies in their favour and not contest elections

• Secondly, political parties are organized to reach everybody. Pressure groups only appeal
to certain members of the country.

• Thirdly, political parties operate openly and are well organized with leaders, executives,
committees and branches. Pressure groups usually operate behind the scenes. Some of
them emerge to deal with a situation and become dormant after that.

• Fourthly, political parties pursue wider interests for the benefits of the whole country.
Pressure groups are selfish in nature because they only pursue the interests of their
members.

• Candidates of political parties contest elections to rule the people. Candidates of pressure
groups contest elections for the leadership of their pressure groups.

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 • Many political parties are always active even after achieving some aims. Some pressure
groups cease to become active after achieving limited aims.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. a)What is a Pressure group?

b) Outline five ways through which pressure groups achieve their objectives
2.a) State four types of Pressure groups
b). Explain four importance of Pressure groups in a modern State

TOPIC-EIGHT

PUBLIC OPINION

By the end of this topic, the students shall understand the following areas:

• Definition of Public Opinion

• The methods used to measure or assess public opinion
• The ways used to form or express public opinion
• The reasons for the unpopularity of public opinion in West Africa
• Definition of opinion poll
• The factors that make Opinion Poll unreliable in West Africa.

The definitions of Public Opinion and its importance in a State

• Most political analysts define Public Opinion as a sum total of popular views on matters
of policy at a given time.
• It is also defined as the collective views held by majority of citizens of a country about
the actions of government. Public Opinion helps the government to know the needs
and desires of its people and the feelings of the public about its policies and
activities.

Public Opinion is important in a State because:

§ It helps the government to know the feelings of the public about its policies and activities.
§ Public opinion helps the government to know the needs and desires of its people
§ It also helps the government to ascertain its popularity
§ Public opinion in the form of opinion poll is used to predict the result of elections
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 § Public opinion helps the government to be responsive
§ It also checks the excesses of government

The ways used to form or express Public Opinion

A number of ways have been used to express public opinion. These ways include the
following:

• Public opinion can be formed through the mass media

• Pressure groups also help to form public opinion
• Political parties are also used to form public opinion
• Influential people in the society who are not directly part of the government can help to
formulate public opinion
• International Organizations can also determine the formation of public opinion
• Public lectures, seminars and symposia are used to form public opinion
• Educational Institutions are used to form public opinion
• Peer groups are also used to form public opinion

The methods used to measure or assess Public Opinion

A responsible government always wants to know the opinions of the public about its actions and
policies. Public opinion can, therefore, be assessed or measured or determined through the
following:

• Public opinion is measured through the mass media. That is, public opinion is assessed
or measured through the views frequently expressed by the people on the radio, television
or newspaper.

• Mass demonstrations or strikes and boycotts by the public are also used to measure
public opinion.

• If elections are free and fair, they can be used to measure public opinion.

• Referendum or plebiscite can be used to measure public opinion. Referendum is

conducted on a specific constitutional issue where the people will be asked to vote ‘YES’
or ‘NO’

• Public opinion is measured through Opinion Poll. In opinion poll, interviews and
questionnaires are given to a selected sample of the population or interviews are

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 conducted for that selected population on a particular issue. These views are used to
represent the whole population of the country.

• Civil disobedience can be used to measure public opinion

Definition of Opinion Poll and why its conduct is unreliable in West Africa
Opinion Poll is a scientific method of measuring the wishes or choices of the people on a given
social, political and economic issue. For example, Opinion Poll is used to predict election results
or to know the popularity of the government.

In West Africa, the conduct of public opinion is unreliable because of the following factors:

• In West Africa, the selection of the sampling may be misleading. Therefore, it makes
Public Opinion unreliable

• The problems of analyzing statistical data also make public opinion unreliable

• In West Africa, Public Opinion is not reliable because there is possibility of

manipulating the figures generated or gathered during the exercise.

• Another factor that makes Public Opinion unreliable in West Africa is that, the
respondents (the people interviewed) may be highly influenced by cultural, religious
or traditional sentiments.

• Public opinion in West Africa is unreliable because the people interviewed

(respondents) lack objectivity
• People got scared of beingS interviewed. This, therefore, prevents reliable public
opinion.

• In West Africa, there is lack of expertise or knowledge by officials conducting the

polls. Therefore, this makes public opinion unreliable at high level of illiteracy and
ignorance among the people makes public opinion unreliable in West Africa.

• In West Africa, the selection of the sampling may be misleading. Therefore, it makes
public opinion unreliable

• Reliable technology which may produce accurate results is absent. This is because
the technology is expensive. The absence of reliable technology makes public opinion
unreliable.

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Reasons or factors for the unpopularity of Public Opinion in West Africa

• Public Opinion is unpopular in West Africa because the people base their
judgment on the social amenities and essential goods the government is
providing for them.

• High rate of illiteracy of the people also makes public opinion unpopular in West
Africa

• Public Opinion is not popular in West Africa because some countries are ruled by
undemocratic governments. Public opinion cannot survive in an undemocratic
state.

• Public Opinion is usually manipulated. Therefore, it cannot effectively determine

the results of elections. This makes public opinion unpopular in West Africa.

• Some countries adopt One Party System. The absence of Opposition Parties
makes public opinion unnecessary

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. a)What is Public Opinion?

b) Highlight the importance of Public Opinion in a State

2. State three (3) ways by which Public Opinion is formed

3. Identify three methods of measuring Public Opinion
4. (a). Define Opinion Poll
(b). State five (5) factors that make the conduct of Public Opinion unreliable in West
Africa

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