UNIT-II

Knowledge Representation:
Knowledge representation algorithms, AI agents tend to think and they contribute in taking
decisions. With the aid of such complex thinking, they are capable to solve the complex
problems indulged in real world scenarios that are hard and time consuming for a human being
to interpret.

Representation of Knowledge
Events: Events are the occurrence of things in the real world. Anything which happens in real
time is considered as the events. It is an important element as it is the initial thing to be
considered in knowledge representation.
Object: Objects are nothing but the facts that are actually true. Such facts can be habitual or a
universal truth such as ‘The Sun rises in the East’, ‘Dogs are faithful’ or any facts which holds
true in any events.
 Meta-Knowledge: It is those knowledge’s which are already been acquired either by
human brain or machine.
 Knowledge base: It is the core component of the agents acquiring knowledge.
 Performance: It describes about how good the knowledge is acquired and it can be
applied to machines.

Categories of knowledge
Tacit knowledge: It is the knowledge which exists within a human being. It does correspond to
informal or implicit type of knowledge. It is quite difficult to articulate formally and is also
difficult to communicate and share.
Explicit knowledge: It is the knowledge which exists outside a human being. It corresponds to
formal type of knowledge. It is easier to articulate compared to tacit knowledge and is easier to
share, store or even process.
Types of Knowledge Representation
Declarative Knowledge: It is the segment of knowledge which stores factual information in a
memory and it seem to be static in nature.
Procedural Knowledge: This knowledge is less general compared to declarative knowledge
and is also known called imperative knowledge. It can have the potential to declare the
accomplishment of a particular thing. It is generally used by modern mobile robots where they
can be planned to attack into a building or perform navigation in a room.
Meta Knowledge: In the field of AI, the knowledge of pre-defined knowledge is known as
Meta knowledge. A study of planning, tagging and learning are some of the examples of meta
knowledge.
Heuristic Knowledge: This knowledge is also known as Shallow knowledge and it follows the
principle of thumb rule. It is very efficient in reasoning process as it solves the problems based
on the records of past problems or the problems which are compiled by experts.
Structural Knowledge: This is the most basic knowledge used and applied in problem
solving. It tries to find out a relationship between concepts and objects.
Knowledge Acquisition:
In artificial intelligence, knowledge acquisition is the process of gathering, selecting, and
interpreting information and experiences to create and maintain knowledge within a specific
domain. It is a key component of machine learning and knowledge-based systems.
There are many different methods of knowledge acquisition, including rule-based systems,
decision trees, artificial neural networks, and fuzzy logic systems.
 Rule-based systems are the simplest form of knowledge-based system. They use a set of
rules, or heuristics, to make decisions. Decision trees are another common method, which
use a series of if-then-else statements to arrive at a decision.
 Artificial neural networks are a more complex form of knowledge-based system, which
mimic the way the human brain learns. They are able to learn from data and make
predictions based on that data. Fuzzy logic systems are another type of complex
knowledge-based system, which use fuzzy set theory to make decisions.
 The most important part of knowledge acquisition is the interpretation of information.
This is where human expertise is required. Machines are not able to interpret information
in the same way humans can. They can only make sense of data if it is presented in a
certain way.
 Humans need to select the right data and experiences to create knowledge. They also
need to interpret that data correctly. This is where artificial intelligence can help. AI
systems can automate the process of knowledge acquisition, making it faster and more
accurate.

Knowledge-Engineering:
The process of constructing a knowledge-base in first-order logic is called as knowledge-
engineering. In knowledge-engineering, someone who investigates a particular domain, learns
important concept of that domain, and generates a formal representation of the objects, is
known as knowledge engineer.
The Knowledge engineering process in an electronic circuit domain, which is already familiar.
This approach is mainly suitable for creating special-purpose knowledge base.
The Knowledge-engineering process:
1. Task Identification: This is the first step in the knowledge engineering process where the
task to be performed is defined. In a domain, a specific problem or a combination of several
problems would be taken. This task must be realistic and the subject matter expert needs to have
a clear idea of what it is so that further process can be carried out.
2. Acquisition of Knowledge: Once the problem is well defined then the next step is to gather
relevant knowledge and information about the problem. For some problems standard data is
used that must be collected, for example, a problem on heat exchanger requires the standard
steam table data at x temperature and y pressure what will be the value of enthalpy.
3. Prepare a road map: Once the goal and knowledge base are available the next step is to get
the roadmap ready by breaking the goal down into small steps by questionnaires and relevant
knowledge base. Here the subject matter expert puts his thoughts on how he would make
decisions and what parameters would be considered at all stages. There could be several ways
to solve some problems, and all should be considered.
4. Encode: Now it’s time to convert this knowledge into computer language. Here the
knowledge is encoded by using different functions as well as in some cases, for a specific task,
the algorithm is used to create a model. These models are able to make decisions based on
available parameters as an expert does, surely the model must be trained and tested on a
sufficient amount of data.
5. Evaluation and Debugging: In the process of creating an expert system, at each step, the
model should be evaluated and debugged and then added to workflow. Once all small tasks are
evaluated, they are assembled to create one whole expert system. This system is again evaluated
on similar problems and Debugged if any issue is there.

Cognitive behavior:
The term cognitive computing is typically used to describe AI systems that simulate human
thought for augmenting human cognition. Human cognition involves real-time analysis of the
real-world environment, context, intent and many other variables that inform a person's ability
to solve problems.
Technologies of cognitive computing combine a variety of information sources, balancing
contextual as well as naturalistic explanations, to recommend appropriate solutions. Cognitive
systems use identity techniques that use data mining, pattern recognition, and natural language
processing (NLP) to comprehend how and why the individual brain processes in order to
accomplish that.

It takes a lot of structured and unstructured data to address problems that should be handled by
human utilizing technological tools. Cognitive systems gain the ability to anticipate new issues
as well as simulate alternative solutions as machines continue to improve their patterns
recognition and data processing skills through practice.

Important Characteristics
o Able to adapt: Cognitive processes need to be adaptable enough to comprehend how
knowledge evolves over time. The algorithms should also be able to process dynamic
data in real-time and adapt as the information as well as surroundings do.
o Interactive: A crucial element of cognitive systems involves human-computer
interaction (HCI). Users must be able to communicate with cognitive robots and
articulate their changing demands. Additionally, the innovations must've been able to
communicate with several processing, gadgets, as well as cloud-based systems.
o Iterative and stateful: Additionally, these systems must be able to recognise issues by
posing queries or requesting more information if indeed the issue isn't fully resolved.
These computers accomplish this is by keeping records of instances of earlier,
comparable circumstances.
o Contextual: Cognitive systems need to be able to recognise, comprehend, and exploit
relevant information including terminology, time, place, topic, specifications, a particular
person's identity, responsibilities, or objectives. It could employ a variety of data
collection methods, such as visual, audio, or sensor readings as well as both structured
and unstructured information.

Cognitive Computing vs. AI

1. Cognitive Computing:
o In order to address complicated situations, cognitive computing relies on imitating human
behaviour as well as thinking.
o To solve challenging issues, it mimics the human mental processes.
o These merely add towards the knowledge that individuals must have to make judgments.
o It is primarily employed in areas like customer support, education, and others.

2. Artificial Intelligence:
o AI helps people here think more creatively and solve tough challenges. It concentrates on
delivering high accuracy.
o AI looks for connections to understand, disclose secret information, and find answers.
 o The decision-making authority of AI reduces the necessity for humans.
o Most of it is employed in industries like manufacturing, commerce, medical, and
banking.

Knowledge Representation Scheme:

1. Logical Representation
Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with propositions
and has no ambiguity in representation. Logical representation means drawing a conclusion
based on various conditions. This representation lays down some important communication
rules. It consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics which supports the sound inference.
Each sentence can be translated into logics using syntax and semantics.

Syntax:
o Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in the logic.
o It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.
o How to write those symbols.

Semantics:
o Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.
o Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.

Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:

a. Propositional Logics
b. Predicate logics

Advantages of logical representation:

1. Logical representation enables us to do logical reasoning.
2. Logical representation is the basis for the programming languages.

Disadvantages of logical Representation:

1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work with.
 2. Logical representation technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be so
efficient.

2. Semantic Network Representation

Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In Semantic
networks, we can represent our knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This network
consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which describe the relationship between those
objects. Semantic networks can categorize the object in different forms and can also link those
objects. Semantic networks are easy to understand and can be easily extended.

This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:

a. IS-A relation (Inheritance)

b. Kind-of-relation

Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent in the form of nodes and
arcs.

Statements:
a. Jerry is a cat.
b. Jerry is a mammal
c. Jerry is owned by Priya.
d. Jerry is brown colored.
e. All Mammals are animal.

In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the form of nodes
and arcs. Each object is connected with another object by some relation.

Drawbacks in Semantic representation:

1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse the
complete network tree to answer some questions. It might be possible in the worst case
scenario that after traversing the entire tree, we find that the solution does not exist in this
network.
 2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and links)
to store the information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic
network.
3. These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent
quantifier, e.g., for all, for some, none, etc.
4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.

Advantages of Semantic network:

1. Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.
2. Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
3. These networks are simple and easily understandable.

3. Frame Representation
A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its values to
describe an entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into
substructures by representing stereotypes situations. It consists of a collection of slots and slot
values. These slots may be of any type and sizes. Slots have names and values which are called
facets.

Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets are features of frames which
enable us to put constraints on the frames. Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called when data of
any particular slot is needed. A frame may consist of any number of slots, and a slot may
include any number of facets and facets may have any number of values. A frame is also known
as slot-filter knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.

Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-day classes and
objects. A single frame is not much useful. Frames system consist of a collection of frames
which are connected. In the frame, knowledge about an object or event can be stored together in
the knowledge base. The frame is a type of technology which is widely used in various
applications including Natural language processing and machine visions.

Example: 1
Let's take an example of a frame for a book

Slots Filters

Title Artificial Intelligence

Genre Computer Science

 Author Peter Norvig

Edition Third Edition

Year 1996

Page 1152

Advantages of frame representation:

1. The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping the
related data.
2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in AI.
3. It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.
4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.
5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.

Disadvantages of frame representation:

1. In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.
2. Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame representation.
3. Frame representation has a much generalized approach.

4. Production Rules
Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If condition then
action". It has mainly three parts:

o The set of production rules

o Working Memory
o The recognize-act-cycle

In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then production
rule fires and corresponding action is carried out. The condition part of the rule determines
which rule may be applied to a problem. And the action part carries out the associated problem-
solving steps. This complete process is called a recognize-act cycle.

The working memory contains the description of the current state of problems-solving and rule
can write knowledge to the working memory. This knowledge match and may fire other rules.

If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production rules will be fired together,
this is called conflict set. In this situation, the agent needs to select a rule from these sets, and it
is called a conflict resolution.
Example:
o IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)
o IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit down).
o IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).
o IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the bus).

Advantages of Production rule:

1. The production rules are expressed in natural language.
2. The production rules are highly modular, so we can easily remove, add or modify an
individual rule.

Disadvantages of Production rule:

1. Production rule system does not exhibit any learning capabilities, as it does not store the
result of the problem for the future uses.
2. During the execution of the program, many rules may be active hence rule-based
production systems are inefficient.

Perception:
Perception in AI implies the ability of machines to use input data from sensors (e.g.,
cameras, LiDAR, RADAR, microphones, wireless signals, tactile sensors, etc.) to learn about
many facets of the world. For example, machine perception is when it can tell the object’s
position or movement trajectory in the scene.