CHAPTER TEN

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

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 (1) MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE

Q) What is the importance of nuclear physics?

The nucleus is a storehouse of energy. This nuclear energy is used for peaceful purposes
(as in transforming nuclear energy to electric energy), or for non- peaceful purposes (as in
nuclear weapons production).

Q) What was the first radioactivity discovered in history? And who is the scientist that
discovered it?
French Scientist Henry Becquerel discovered natural radioactivity in Uranium compounds.

Q) What is the nucleus model that has been developed by scientists (just note)?
1) The nucleus consists of two types of particles: the positive protons (+P) and the neutral
neutrons (N) and the charge of the neutron is equal to zero.
2) Each of the protons (P) or a neutron (N) is called a nucleus or a nucleon.
3) The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number (Z) and it is equal to
the number of electrons.
4) The number of neutrons is denoted by the symbol (N) and it is called the neutron number.
5) The number of nucleons (the sum of the protons and the neutrons) called the mass
number (A). It will be (A=N+Z)
6) Chemical symbol for nucleus structure ( "!𝑋).
7) The proton is denoted by the symbol (𝑃 or ##𝐻 or ##𝑃) denotes that the proton is its atomic
number (1) and the mass number (1). The neutron is denoted by the symbol (𝑛 or #$𝑛)
indicating that the neutron has an atomic number of zero and a mass number (1).

Q) What is the symbol for the aluminum nucleus ( 𝟐𝟕

𝟏𝟑𝑨𝒍). What is the atomic number, the
neutron number, and the mass number of the aluminum nucleus?

𝑍 = 13
𝐴 = 27
𝐴 = 𝑁 + 𝑍
27 = 𝑁 + 13
𝑁 = 27 − 13
𝑁 = 14

Q) What are isotopes?

They are nuclei that are equal in atomic number and differ in mass number such as:
( *)𝐿𝑖 , +)𝐿𝑖 , ,)𝐿𝑖 ) That is, they are equal in the number of protons (P) and different in the number
of neutrons (N).

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Q) How much is the mass of the nucleus in comparison to the atom, and in what unit is it
measured?
The mass of the nucleus represents (99.9%) of atom mass, and it is measured by accurate
devices like mass spectrometer. Masses of atom nucleus are measured by atomic mass
unit (amu) or symboliced by (u) instead of kilogram, which is not appropriate to measure
atomic and tiny nuclear masses that equal: 𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒖 = 𝟏 𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎-𝟐𝟕 𝑲𝒈

Q) How is nucleus mass measured theoretically (mathematically)?

Since the nucleus contains the (A) nucleons, and Nucleon mass is close to mass of (1u),
then approximate mass of nucleus is (m') which equals (A×u).
𝒎’ = 𝑨 𝒙 𝒂𝒎𝒖
Where 1 amu = 1.66 × 10-.+ Kg
Q) On what basis is the nucleus described as being heavy, medium, or light?
It is described according to mass number (or mass) whether big, medium or small

Q) Calculate the energy in units (electron - volts) equivalent to the unit of atomic masses
(u).
The value of (u) in Kg measure equal 1.66 x 10-27 Kg

𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐

𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎-𝟐𝟕 × (𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 )𝟐

𝑬 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎-𝟏𝟏 𝑱

𝟏 𝒆𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎-𝟏𝟗 𝑱

𝟏𝟒. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎-𝟏𝟏
𝑬= = 𝟗𝟑𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒆𝒗
𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎-𝟏𝟗

𝑬 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝒆𝒗

On this basis, it was found that: 𝟏(𝐮) = 𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝒆𝒗

𝑴 𝒆𝒗
and speed of light: 𝒄𝟐 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝒖

Q) How can we find the nucleus charge?

Since neutron charge is zero, the nucleus charge equals total of proton charges. So, the
nucleus of any atom is positive and its amount of charge (q) equals (+Ze)
𝒒 = 𝒁. 𝒆

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 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒁: 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝒒: 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (1.6 × 10-#7 )

Q) What is the first experiment conducted to measure the size and radius of the nucleus?
With writing the mathematical equation.
first attempt to estimate volume of nucleus and radius was done by Rutherford by alpha
particle scattering of gold atom nuclei and similar experiments, that most nuclei atoms
are spherical (in this chapter, we will assume that the shape is spherical). He discovered
that nucleus radius (R) is directly proportional to cubic root of mass number (A). given by
the following relationship:
𝟏
𝑹∝ 𝑨𝟑
𝟏
𝑹 = 𝒓𝟎 𝑨𝟑

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒓𝟎 : 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 (1.2 × 10-#9 𝑚) 𝑜𝑟 (1.2 𝐹𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖)

the Volume of nucleus (V) can be found by applying the following relation:
𝟒
𝑽= 𝝅𝑹𝟑
𝟑

𝟒 𝟑
𝑽= 𝝅𝒓 𝑨
𝟑 𝟎

Q) what is the amount of nucleus density? and what is amount of nucleus density compared
to water density?

𝑲𝒈
The density of the nucleus is equal to (𝟐. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝒎𝟑 )

𝑲𝒈
And compared to water density (𝟏𝟎𝟑 ), the nucleus density is around ( 𝟐. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 )
𝒎𝟑
times the density of water.

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 (2) NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY

Q) What is meant by nuclear force? And what it is the properties?

Nuclear force: it is nuclear attraction force that binds the nucleons of the nucleus, the
strongest in nature, it is short-range and does not depend on charge

properties:
1) It is a force of attraction.
2) It does not depend on the type of nucleon; it may arise between (P.P) or (P.n) or (n.n).
3) Its magnitude is large, and it is the strongest in nature.
4) it is maintaining stability and bondage the nucleus.
5) It has a short range.

Q) What is the reason: the nucleus contains positively charged protons. Why do these
protons not repulse despite similar charges?
this is because a nuclear attraction force that binds the nucleons of the nucleus. the
nuclear force is the strongest in nature. From the properties of nuclear force is does not
depend on charge.
Q) What is meant by the Nuclear Binding Energy (Eb)?
It is the energy required to disassemble the nucleus into protons and neutrons.

Q) What is meant by mass defect?

Mass of nucleus does not equal its component protons and neutrons when separated its
always less than the sum of the individual masses of protons and neutrons, this difference in
mass (Δm) is called mass defect, and it is equivalent to nuclear binding energy (Eb)
according to Einstein’s (mass-energy) equivalence relation:
𝑬𝒃 = ∆𝒎𝒄𝟐

Q) Why is the mass of the nucleus not equal to the sum of the masses of its components of
protons and neutrons when they are separated?

Q) Why the mass of the nucleus is always less than the mass of its components (protons +
neutrons) when they are separated?

This difference in mass is called mass defect (Δm), which has been found to be equivalent
to nuclear binding energy (Eb) according to Einstein’s (mass-energy) equivalence relation:
𝑬𝒃 = ∆𝒎𝒄𝟐

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 /
Q) What is meant by the average nuclear binding energy (𝑬𝒃 )?
it is the Quotient of nuclear binding energy (Eb) by mass number (A), and expressed as
follows:
𝑬𝒃 /
𝑬𝒃 =
𝑨
/
Q) How the average nuclear binding energy (𝑬𝒃 ) value change when the mass number of
nuclei changes (A)?
/
The adjacent figure shows the change of (𝑬𝒃 )
with (A). It is noted from this figure that:

1) the curve is generally constant except for light

nuclei like Deuteron ( 𝟐𝟏𝑯) and heavy nuclei
like lead nuclei ( 𝟐𝟎𝟖
𝟖𝟐𝑷𝒃).

2) It also shows that medium nuclei have

/
the larger values of (𝑬𝒃 ) like Iron nucleus ( 𝟓𝟔
𝟐𝟔𝑭𝒆) thus,
medium nuclei are usually the most stable.

3) Light and heavy nuclei can be more stable if a nuclear reaction can change them into
medium nuclei.

4) heavy nuclei become more stable if fission to medium nuclei and vice versa, if light nuclei
fused to form heavier nuclei, they become more stable too. In both cases, energy will
be released.

Q) medium nuclei like iron are usually the most stable, why?
Because the medium nuclei have the larger values of average nuclear binding energy
/
(𝐸@ ), therefore, they need more energy to dismantle them.

Q) How can light and heavy nuclei become more stable?

heavy nuclei become more stable if fission to medium nuclei and vice versa, if light nuclei
fused to form heavier nuclei, they become more stable too. In both cases, energy will be
released.

Q) What are the ways to obtain nuclear energy?

1) Through nuclear fusion.
2) Through nuclear fission.

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 (3) RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Q) What are the main types of radioactive decay?

1) Alpha decay (𝛼).
2) Beta decay (𝛽).
3) Gamma decay (𝛾).

Q) What is radioactive decay?

Some nuclei are unstable (radioactive), then they seek to be stable through decay

When does unstable nuclei undergo spontaneous alpha decay?

when the mass and volume of a nucleus are relatively big. Thus, emission of alpha particle
from these nuclei helps to achieve larger stability by reducing volume and mass.

Q) What is the alpha (𝜶) particle? With the mention of a nuclear equation for a nucleus
experiencing alpha decay?
Alpha particle (𝛼): alpha particle is helium nucleus, which contains two protons and
neutrons represented by the symbol ( A.𝐻𝑒) or (𝛼) it has a positive charge (+2e).

𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟑𝟔
𝟗𝟒𝑷𝒖 → 𝟗𝟐𝒖 + 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆

Q) What does alpha decay do to the values of the atomic number and mass number of the
parent nucleus?

Q) What does alpha decay do in the parent nucleus?

1) Decrease the mass number by four.

2) The atomic number decreases by two.
3) nucleus of the element also changes to a nucleus of another element.

Q) What is the necessary condition for a nucleus to spontaneously decay by alpha decay?
With writing the energy equation for alpha decay.

The value of the decay energy (𝑄B ) must be positive.

𝑸𝜶 = [ 𝑴 𝑷 − 𝑴 𝒅 − 𝑴 𝜶 ] 𝑪𝟐

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑴𝑷 : 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑴𝒅 : 𝑛𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑴𝜶 : 𝑎𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

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Q) Why does the alpha particle have speed and kinetic energy greater than the speed and
kinetic energy of the nascent nucleus?
Because the mass of the alpha particle is less than the mass of the daughter nucleus and
according to the law of conservation of (energy - mass) and the law of conservation of
linear momentum, it has a greater velocity and kinetic energy.

Q) What is beta (𝜷) decay?

It is the second spontaneous radioactive decay through which some nuclei can reach
stability.
Q) What are the methods for spontaneous decay of beta particles? With examples.

1) Emission of negative beta particle (𝜷- ) or ( -𝟏𝟎𝒆):

It is the emission of a negatively charged beta particle (or electron), and it with negative
charge (-e).

𝟔𝟒 𝟔𝟒
𝟐𝟗𝑪𝒖 → 𝟑𝟎𝒁𝒏 + 𝜷0 + 𝒗0

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒗- : 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜.

2) Emission of positive beta particle (𝜷F ) or ( F𝟏𝟎𝒆):

It is the emission of a positive beta particle or positron (it is called anti-electron)..

𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟑
𝟕𝑵 → 𝟔𝑪 + 𝜷2 + 𝒗

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒗: 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜.

3) Electron capture:
A nucleus captures one of internal orbital electrons of the atom
𝟒𝟏
𝟐𝟎𝑪𝒂 + 0𝟏𝟎𝑪𝒆 → 𝟒𝟏
𝟏𝟗𝑲 +𝒗

Q) What is meant by the following particles?

1) Positron.
2) Neutrino.

1) Positron: is a particle which has all properties of electron, but it has positive charge, (it is
called anti-electron) and it is considered one of the positive beta particles, and symbolized
as (𝛽" ) or ( "#$𝑒).

2) Neutrino: it is a particle of zero charge and zero mass, the atomic number and mass number
are zero, and it accompanies the decay of the positive beta and is symbolized by ($$𝑣) or (v).

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Q) the nucleus has no electrons or positrons in the first place, how can it emit electron or
positron?

when the nucleus emits the electron, it results from decay of a neutrons in the nucleus into
proton, electron and anti-neutrino, this decay is expressed by the following nuclear
equation:
𝟏
𝟎𝒏 → 𝟏𝟏𝑷 + 𝜷0 + 𝟎𝟎𝒗

𝟎
P𝜷0 = 0𝟏𝒆Q

This decay happens because the ratio of neutrons to protons in the nuclear is larger than
required to achieve stability.

when the nucleus emits the positron, it results from decay of a proton in the nucleus into
neutron, positron and neutrino, this decay is expressed by the following nuclear equation:

𝟏
𝟏𝑷 → 𝟏𝟎𝒏 + 𝜷2 + 𝟎𝟎𝒗

𝟎
P𝜷2 = 2𝟏𝒆Q

This decay happens because the ratio of neutrons to protons in the nucleus is smaller than
required to achieve stability.

Q) What is the effect of beta decay in the parent nucleus?

Q) What is the effect of beta decay on mass number and atomic number?

1) The mass number remains constant.

2) The atomic number in the decay of the negative beta increases by one, while in the
decay of the positive beta and the electron capturing, it decreases by one.
3) The nucleus of an element transforms into the nucleus of another element.

Q) What is a gamma ray (𝜸)?

It is electromagnetic ray (photons) with high energy and frequency, its rest mass and
charge is zero because the atomic number and mass number is zero. ( $$𝛾).

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Q) How does gamma decay occur?

Q) Often some nuclei are left in an excitation state, meaning they have excess energy,
after suffering from alpha decay or beta decay. How can such nuclei spontaneously reach
a more stable state?

Some nuclei are often in an excited state, i.e. they have extra energy after undergoing
alpha or beta decay, such nuclei can reach stability by Gamma decay (the third
spontaneous radioactive decay) and reach more stability by emitting gamma ray, If the
nucleus moved from a high-energy level to a low-energy level, gamma ray (Photon) will
emit. The photon energy equals the difference between levels.

Q) What is the effect of gamma decay on the parent nucleus?

Q) What is the effect of gamma decay on the atomic number and mass number of the
mother's nucleus?

The atomic number and mass number remain constant, and the element's nucleus does
not change during decay.

Q) Rank the particles generated by radioactive spontaneous decay according to material

ionization and according to their penetration into materials.

According to substances ionization:

The alpha particles have the greatest ability to ionize substances, then the negative beta
particles and the gamma ray.

𝜶 > 𝜷0 > 𝜸

According to their penetration of materials:

Gamma particles, then negative beta particles, then alpha particles.

𝜸 > 𝜷0 > 𝜶

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 (4) NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Q) Define the nuclear reaction. Give an example?

The reaction changes the properties and structure of the target nucleus.

Example: when Nitrogen nucleus ( #A+𝑁) is thrown by a neutron particle ( #$𝑛), we can obtain
Carbon nucleus ( #A*𝐶 ) and proton particle ( ##𝐻).

Q) What are the conservation laws that are realized in nuclear reactions?
1) The (Energy - Mass) conservation law.
2) The linear momentum conservation law.
3) The angular momentum conservation law.
4) The Electric charge conservation law (or atomic number conservation law).
5) Nucleons number conservation law (or mass number conservation law).

Q) When is the nuclear reaction called (the energy-releasing reaction) and when is it called
the (energy-absorbent reaction)?

If the value of the energy of the nuclear reaction (Q) is positive (Q > 0) the nuclear reaction
is called exoergic reaction., and if it is negative (Q < 0) the nuclear reaction is called
endoergic reaction.
Q) the neutrons are important projectiles in nuclear reactions, why?
because neutron charge is zero, therefore it can penetrate into the nucleus easily (easier
than alpha particles or protons) because there is no repulsive electrical coulomb between
the neutron and the nucleus.

(5) NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION

Q) What is nuclear fission?

Nuclear fission: It is a nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus (like Uranium nucleus
( 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝑼) is divided into two nuclei of light masses by throwing (projecting) this heavy nucleus
with slow neutron (thermal neutron) of small energy The result of nuclear fission is new
radioactive. nuclei and a number of neutrons (typically two or three) as well as massive
energy.

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Q) What is the source of the massive energy of nuclear fission?
this massive energy comes from the fact that sum of resulting masses is less than sum of
reacting masses. Thus, the missing (lost) mass turns to massive energy according to Einstein
relation of equivalence of (mass- energy).

Q) Mention a reaction (equation) that demonstrates the fission of the uranium nucleus
( 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝑼) by a slow neutron?

𝟏 𝟏𝟒𝟏
𝟎𝒏 + 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝑼 →
𝟐𝟑𝟔 ∗
𝟗𝟐𝑼 → 𝟓𝟔𝑩𝒂 + 𝟗𝟐 𝟏
𝟑𝟔𝑲𝒓 + 𝟑 𝟎𝒏

Q) What is a nuclear chain reaction?

It is the nuclear reaction that makes the fissionable nuclei process continue, and if this type
of interaction is not controlled, it will cause massive explosion and huge amount of energy

Q) What is meant by a nuclear reactor?

The nuclear reactor is a series of systems which control chain fission nuclear reaction
of the nuclear fuel (like Uranium .)9 .)7
7.𝑈 and plutonium 7A𝑃𝑢 )

Q) What is the nuclear fusion?

It is nuclear reaction whereby, two small nuclei (light mass), are fused to form a heavier
nucleus. The mass of the heavier nucleus is less than sum of masses of both original light
nuclei. Difference in mass converts to released energy according Einstein relation of (mass-
energy) equivalence

Q) What are the main nuclear reactions to produce the tremendous energy in the sun?
The main processes that take place in the interior of the sun are the normal fusion reaction
of the nuclei of hydrogen atoms to generate the nucleus of a helium atom ( A.𝐻𝑒) within a
cycle called the (proton - proton) cycle.

Q) What is called the controlled fusion nuclear reaction?

It is called the inexhaustible source of energy.

Q) Why is the controlled fusion reaction calling the inexhaustible source of energy?
because the source for this reaction is Hydrogen (it is abundant and available in water on
earth).

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Q) Why there is no real benefit from fusion reaction for peaceful purposes?
Q) What are the difficulties that hinder the process of nuclear fusion?
There are many difficulties to achieve nuclear fusion, the major difficulty is repulsive
electrical coulomb force between protons and reacting nuclei when the distance
between them is short.

Q) What are the new ways that scientists and researchers are seeking to contain reactive
plasma?
Scientists now seek to discover new ways to contain reacting plasma needed in nuclear
fusion like using the magnetic field to enclose plasma in a container but away from the
walls (like tokamak device)

(6) RISKS AND BENEFITS OF NUCLEAR RADIATION

Q) Mention the sources of nuclear radiation.

1) Sources of natural background nuclear radiation:

• Cosmic rays.
• Nuclear radiation from the Earth's crust.
• Radioactivity in the human body.

2) Sources of artificial nuclear radiation:

• nuclear radioactive sources used in medicine for the purpose of diagnosis and
treatment,
• radioactive nuclear waste.
• nuclear dust from nuclear weapons test.
• nuclear radiations produced from reactor.
• the use of radioactive nuclear sources used in research and study.

Q) What are effects and hazards of nuclear radiation on human body?

1) Radiation type.
2) Radiation energy.
3) organ exposed to this radiation.

Q) What is the cause of radiation damage in the human body? What are the effects of this
damage?
As the radiation damage in humans body is caused by ionizing body cells .The damage
causes early effects like dermatitis or late effects like cancer (physical effects), as for
damages in reproductive cells, it might lead to deformed births and this damage might last
for generations (hereditary effects).

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Q) What precautionary measure is necessary to be taken in order to protect ourselves from
the dangers of external nuclear radiation that we may be exposed to urgently?
Q) How can nuclear radiation be prevented?

1) Reduce exposure time of nuclear radiation to minimum.

2) Keep away from nuclear radiation source.
3) Wear protective shields between humans and nuclear radiation source (like lead for
example).

Q) Mention some peaceful and beneficial applications of nuclear radiation and nuclear
energy.

1) the medical field: nuclear radiation and nuclear energy can be used to fight
pathological organisms like viruse, which cause diseases. They are also used to sterile
medical equipments.

2) the agricultural field: like studying physiology of plant, plant nutrition, and maintaining of
foods.
3) the industrial field: As a fuel to spaceships, and operating ships and submarines. There
are many applications of this energy that cannot be summarized here.

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 Chapter Ten Questions

Q.1) Choose the right statement for the following:

1- The radius of nucleus (R) is change:

a) Directly proportional with A1/3
b) Inversely proportional with A1/3
c) Directly proportional with A1/3
d) Inversely proportional with A1/3

2- The amount of average nuclear binding energy per nucleon is:

a) Greater for the nucleus of the light elements.
b) Greater for the nucleus of the heavy elements
c) Equal to all nucleus of elements.
d) Greater for the nucleus of intermediate elements

3- The followings are properties of nuclear forces except one:

a) Binds and holds nucleon of the nucleus.
b Does not depend on the charge.
c) Has very long range.
d) The strongest in nature
4- If we assume that binding energy per nucleon for the nucleus of Neon ( 𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝑵𝒆) equals
(161MeV), then the average binding energy per nucleon for the nucleus of Neon with
units MeV equals:

a) 8.05
b) 16.1
c) 3220
d)1610

5- The nucleus of the Polonium isotope ( 𝟐𝟏𝟖

𝟖𝟒𝑷𝒐) spontaneously decays to the nucleus of
𝟐𝟏𝟖
isotope Lead ( 𝟖𝟐𝑷𝒃) via decay.
a) Gamma
b) Negative beta
c) Positive beta
d) Alpha

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6- When a nucleus suffers spontaneous positive beta decay, the atomic number is:
a) Increased by one
b) Decreased by one
c) Decreased by four
d) Does not change
7- In the following nuclear reaction, the value of number (A) is:

𝟒
𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟗𝟒𝑩𝒆 → 𝑨𝟔𝑪 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏
a)13
b) 12
c) 5
d) 6

8- In nuclear physics the two small nuclei (light by its mass) are fuse to form a heavier
nucleus is called:
a) Nuclear fission.
b) Electronic capture.
c) Positive beta decay.
d) Nuclear fusion.

9- The natural background nuclear radiation sources are:

a) Dust falling from nuclear weapons tests.
b) cosmic rays
c) Nuclear radiation produced from nuclear reactors
d) None of above

10 - Nuclear fission carries out for the nucleus of uranium ( 𝟐𝟑𝟓

𝟗𝟐𝑼) by using:
a) Proton with small energy.
b) Alpha particle with small energy.
c) Slow neutron.
d) None of the above.

Q.2) What is the meaning of (positron, nuclear fission, nuclear binding energy, nuclear
chain reaction, nuclear fusion, and nuclear reactor)?

Positron: is a particle which has all properties of electron, but it has positive charge, (it is
called anti-electron) and it is considered one of the positive beta particles, and symbolized
as (𝛽 F ) or ( F#$𝑒).

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Nuclear fission: It is a nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus (like Uranium nucleus
( 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝑼) is divided into two nuclei of light masses by throwing (projecting) this heavy nucleus
with slow neutron (thermal neutron) of small energy The result of nuclear fission is new
radioactive. nuclei and a number of neutrons (typically two or three) as well as massive
energy.

Nuclear binding energy: It is the energy required to disassemble the nucleus into protons
and neutrons.

Nuclear chain reaction: It is the nuclear reaction that makes the fissionable nuclei process
continue, and if this type of interaction is not controlled, it will cause massive explosion and
huge amount of energy

Nuclear fusion: It is nuclear reaction whereby, two small nuclei (light mass), are fused to
form a heavier nucleus. The mass of the heavier nucleus is less than sum of masses of both
original light nuclei. Difference in mass converts to released energy according Einstein
relation of (mass-energy) equivalence

Nuclear reactor: The nuclear reactor is a series of systems which control chain fission
nuclear reaction of the nuclear fuel (like Uranium .)9 .)7
7.𝑈 and plutonium 7A𝑃𝑢 )

Q.3) What is the particle which:

1) Has a mass number equal one and an atomic number equals zero.
2) It is called anti-electron.
3) Accompanies an electron in spontaneous negative beta decay.
4) Accompanies a positron in spontaneous positive beta decay.

1) Neutron.
2) Positron.
3) Anti-neutrino.
4) Neutrino.

Q.4) What is the condition for spontaneously decay of a nucleus by alpha decay?
The necessary condition for a nucleus that decays spontaneously by alpha decay is that
the value of the decay energy (𝑄B ) is positive (i.e. 𝑄B > 0).
Q.5) Causes the followings:
a) Gamma rays emitted spontaneously from some radiated element’s nuclei.
Some nuclei are often in an excited state, i.e. they have extra energy after undergoing
alpha or beta decay, such nuclei can reach stability by Gamma decay (the third
spontaneous radioactive decay) and reach more stability by emitting gamma ray, If the
nucleus moved from a high-energy level to a low-energy level, gamma ray (Photon) will
emit. The photon energy equals the difference between levels.

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b) Neutrons are regarded as important projected of nuclear reaction.
because neutron charge is zero, therefore it can penetrate into the nucleus easily (easier
than alpha particles or protons) because there is no repulsive electrical coulomb between
the neutron and the nucleus.

Q.6) What are the types in which some nuclei would be decay spontaneously by beta
decay?
a) Emission of negative beta particle (electron).
b) Emission of positive beta particle (positron).
c) Electron capture.

Q.7) Since the nucleus basically does not contain electrons, how can the nucleus emit an
electron, explain that.

when the nucleus emits the electron, it results from decay of a neutrons in the nucleus into
proton, electron and anti-neutrino, this decay is expressed by the following nuclear
equation:
𝟏
𝟎𝒏 → 𝟏𝟏𝑷 + 𝜷0 + 𝟎𝟎𝒗

𝟎
P𝜷0 = 0𝟏𝒆Q

This decay happens because the ratio of neutrons to protons in the nuclear is larger than
required to achieve stability.

Q.8) What are the conservation laws which must be satisfied in the nuclear reactions?
1) The (Energy - Mass) conservation law.
2) The linear momentum conservation law.
3) The angular momentum conservation law.
4) The Electric charge conservation law (or atomic number conservation law).
5) Nucleons number conservation law (or mass number conservation law).

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Q.9) Complete the following nuclear equations:

a) 𝟐𝟏𝑯 + 𝟗𝟒𝑩𝒆 → 𝟕𝟑𝑳𝒊+?

? = A.𝐻𝑒

𝟏𝟐 ° 𝟏𝟐
b) 𝟔𝑪 → 𝟔𝑪+?

? = 𝛾 𝑜𝑟 $$𝛾

𝟓𝟔 𝟓𝟔
c) 𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐 → 𝟐𝟔𝑭𝒆+? +𝒗

$
?= F#𝑒

d) 𝟏𝟎𝒏 →? +? +?

#
$𝑛 → ##𝑃 + -#$𝑒 + $$𝑣

Q.10) Where does the tremendous energy of nuclear fission come from?
This energy comes from the fact that the sum of the resulting masses is less than the sum of
the interacting masses, as the lost mass turns into a massive mass according to the Einstein
relationship in the parity (mass - energy).

Q.11) What happens if the nuclear chain reaction is not controlled?

It will cause a devastating explosion with massive energy release. The nuclear bomb
(commonly called atomic bomb), which is also often called a fission bomb, was
manufactured based on this condition.

Q.12) The uranium nucleus ( 𝟐𝟑𝟓

𝟗𝟒𝑼) was decay by spontaneous alpha decay to a thorium
92 nucleus (Th). Then thorium nucleus is decay by spontaneous negative beta decay and
formed (X) nucleus. Then the (X) nucleus will decay by spontaneous negative beta decay
finally formed (X') nucleus .

a. Write the three nuclear equations for this nuclear chain reaction in sequence.
b. Give the name of the nucleus (X' ).

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a) Write the three nuclear equations of these nuclear decays in sequence.

𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝟐𝟑𝟒
𝟗𝟐𝑼 → 𝟗𝟎𝑻𝒉 + 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 … … 𝟏

𝟐𝟑𝟒 𝟐𝟑𝟒
𝟗𝟎𝑻𝒉 → 𝟗𝟏𝑿 + 0𝟏𝟎𝒆 + 𝟎𝟎𝒗0 … … 𝟐

𝟐𝟑𝟒 𝟐𝟑𝟒 7
𝟗𝟏𝑿 → 𝟗𝟐𝑿 + 0𝟏𝟎𝒆 + 𝟎𝟎𝒗0 … … 𝟑

b) b. Give the name of the nucleus (X').

An element ( 9:; 9:;

89𝑋 ') such as an isotope of uranium ( 89𝑈 )

Q.13) What are the main nuclear reactions to produce the tremendous energy in the sun?
The main processes that take place in the interior of the sun are the normal fusion reaction
of the nuclei of hydrogen atoms to generate the nucleus of a helium atom ( A.𝐻𝑒) within a
cycle called the (proton - proton) cycle.

Q.14) What do we mean when we say the controlled nuclear fusion reaction is of called the
source of energy which is inexhaustible. Explain that.
because the source for this reaction is Hydrogen (it is abundant and available in water on
earth).

Q.15) What is the main obstacle to obtaining useful energy from nuclear fusion?
There are many difficulties to achieve nuclear fusion, the major difficulty is repulsive
electrical coulomb force between protons and reacting nuclei when the distance
between them is short.

Q.16) What is the effect and hazards of nuclear radiation on the human body? Explain this.
The degree and type of damage caused by nuclear radiation depends on many factors,
like type of radiation (a gamma or alpha particles...etc.), the energy of this radiation, and
the organ exposed to this radiation (liver, bone, or eye. etc.). As the radiation damage in
humans' body is caused by ionizing body cells. The damage causes early effects like
dermatitis or late effects like cancer (physical effects), as for damages in reproductive cells,
it might lead to deformed births and this damage might last for generations (hereditary
effects).

20 | P a g e
Q.17) What precautionary measure is required to be taken in order to protect ourselves
from the dangers of external nuclear radiation that we may be exposed to urgently? Explain
this.
1) Reduce exposure time of nuclear radiation to minimum.
2) Keep away from nuclear radiation source.
3) Wear protective shields between humans and nuclear radiation source (like lead for
example).

Ministerial Exams:

Q.1) Why is gamma ray emitted spontaneously from the nuclei of some radioactive
elements?

Q.2) Choose the correct answer: All of the properties of the nuclear energy except that it
(binds and holds to the nucleons of the nucleus, does not depend on charge, has a
very long range, the strongest in nature).

Q.3) Choose the correct answer: When a nucleus automatically suffers beta decay, its
atomic number: (increases by one, decreases by one, decreases by four, does not
change).

Q.4) What is meant by (nuclear bonding energy)?

Q.5) What is the effect and risks of nuclear radiation on the human body?

Q.6) What happens if the nuclear chain reaction is not controlled?

Q.7) What are the ways in which some nuclei degrade spontaneously by beta decay?

Q.8) What is meant by nuclear chain reaction?

Q.9) Why are neutrons important in nuclear reactions?

Q.10) What is the particle that:

a) Its mass number is one and its atomic number is zero.
b) It is called an antielectron.

Q.11) What is meant by the nuclear fission?

Q.12) What is the main obstacle to obtaining useful energy from nuclear fusion?

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 𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝑨
𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 → 𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏 + 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆

Q.26) What conservation laws must be fulfilled in nuclear reactions?

Q.27) In the following nuclear reaction, the value of the number (A) is (09, 16, 17, 18).
𝟒
𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝑵 → 𝑨𝟖𝑶 + 𝟏𝟏𝑯

Q.28) What is the value of number A in the following nuclear reaction:

𝟒
𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝑵 → 𝑨𝟖𝑶 + 𝟏𝟏𝑯

Q.29) What is the particle that:

a) An electron accompanies in the spontaneous negative beta decay
b) A positron accompanies in the spontaneous positive beta decay

Q.30) What do we mean when we say (Controlled fusion nuclear reaction is often called
an inexhaustible source of energy)?

Q.31) What precautionary measure is required to be taken in order to protect ourselves

from the dangers of external nuclear radiation that we may be exposed to
unnecessarily?

Q.32) Complete the following nuclear equations:

𝟏
𝟎𝒏 → ? +? +?

𝟒
𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝑵 → 𝟏𝟕
𝟖𝑶+ ?

Q.33) What is meant by (nuclear fusion & nuclear fission)?

Q.34) What is meant by (positron, nuclear bonding energy & nuclear reactor)?

Q.35) Complete the following nuclear equation:

𝟓𝟔 𝟓𝟔
𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐 → 𝟐𝟔𝑭𝒆+ ?+ 𝑽

Q.36) Choose the correct answer: If we assume that, the nuclear binding energy of the
nitrogen nucleus ( 𝟏𝟒
𝟕𝑵) is equal (104.6 MeV), then the average nuclear binding energy
per nucleon of the nitrogen nucleus in units (MeV) equals (7.47, 10.46, 2092, 1046).

Q.37) Choose the correct answer: The radius of the nucleus (R) changes (directly with 1/3A,
directly with A3, inversely with 1/3A, inversely with A3).
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Q.38) Choose the correct answer: In nuclear physics, the process of fusion of two small
nuclei (with light mass) to form a heavier nucleus is called (nuclear fission, electron
capturing process, beta decay, nuclear fusion).

Q.39) Choose the correct answer: The radium nucleus isotope ( 𝟐𝟐𝟔
𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂) is spontaneously
degraded into the radon nucleus ( 𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏) by decaying: (gamma, beta negative, beta
positive, alpha)

Q.40) Choose the correct answer between: The nuclear fission process of the uranium
nucleus ( 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝑼) is done by using (a proton with small energy, a slow neutron, an alpha
particle with a small energy)

Q.41) Choose the correct answer: If we assume that the nuclear binding energy of the neon
nucleus ( 𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝑵𝒆) is equal (161 MeV), then the average nuclear binding energy per
nucleon of the nucleus in units (MeV) is equal to (16.6, 8.05, 1610, 3320).

Q.42) Choose the correct answer: If we assume that the nuclear binding energy of a
deuteron nucleus ( 𝟐
𝟏𝑯) is equal (2.223 MeV), then the average nuclear binding energy
per nucleon of a deuteron nucleus in units (MeV) is equal to (2.223, 1.115, 4.446, 6.609).

𝟒
Q.43) Choose the correct answer: In the nuclear reaction of ( 𝟒 𝟓 𝟑
𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟒𝑩𝒆 → 𝟓𝑪 + 𝟔𝑯), the
value of the mass number (A) is (6, 12, 5, 13).

Q.44) Put the mark (true) or (false) and then correct the error: When a nucleus
spontaneously experiences a positive beta decay, then its atomic number increases
by one.

Q.45) Choose the correct answer: The nuclear fission process of a uranium nucleus ( 𝟐𝟑𝟓𝟗𝟐𝑼)
is done using (a proton with small energy, an alpha particle with small energy, a slow
neutron, not one of them).

Q.46) Choose the correct answer: The values of the average nuclear bond energy per
nucleon are: (greater for the nuclei of light elements, greater for the nuclei of heavy
elements, greater for the nuclei of medium elements, equal for all nuclei of the
elements).

Q.47) Put the mark (true) or (false) and then correct the error: When the nucleus
spontaneously experiences a negative beta decay, its atomic number decreases by
one.

24 | P a g e
Q.48) Choose the correct answer: The polonium nucleus isotope ( 𝟐𝟏𝟖
𝟖𝟒𝑷𝒐) is spontaneously
degraded into the lead nucleus isotope ( 𝟐𝟏𝟒
𝟖𝟐𝑷𝒃) by decaying: (gamma, beta positive,
beta negative, alpha).

Q.49) Choose the correct answer: From the sources of natural nuclear radiation: (dust falling
from nuclear weapons tests, nuclear radiation produced from nuclear reactors,
cosmic rays, not one of them).

Q.50) What is meant by anti-neutrino?

Q.51) How can light nuclei and heavy nuclei become more stable?

Q.52) When does an unstable nucleus suffer spontaneous alpha decay?

Q.53) Mention the properties of the nuclear energy.

Q.54) Explain the most beneficial and peaceful uses of nuclear radiation and nuclear
energy.

Q.55) What is meant by radioactive decay? What are its main types?

Q.56) How can heavy nuclei become more stable?

Q.57) What does alpha decay do to the values of the mass number and atomic number of
the parent nucleus?

Q.58) What are the ways in which some nuclei degrade spontaneously by beta decay?

Q.59) What does negative beta decay do to the mass number and atomic number values
of the parent nucleus?

Q.60) What does the degree and type of damage that nuclear radiation causes to the
human body depend on?

Q.61) What is the explanation of (The protons of the nucleus are not repulsive, despite their
similarity in the charge)?

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█ Example (1)
Find the magnitude of the charge of the gold nucleus ( ), given that the charge of the proton
is equal to (1.6x10-19C).

█ Example (2)
Find the radius of the copper nucleus ( ) in units of:

❶ Meter (m). ❷ Fermi (F).

26 | P a g e
Q.13) What is meant by (nuclear fusion and radioactive decay)?

Q.14) How can light nuclei and heavy nuclei become more stable?

Q.15) What is the particle that:

a) Its mass number is one and its atomic number is zero.
b) A positron accompanies in the spontaneous positive beta decay.

Q.16) Find the value of the number (A) in the following nuclear reaction:
𝟒
𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟗𝟒𝑩𝒆 → 𝑨𝟔𝑪 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏

Q.17) Complete the following nuclear equation:

𝟐
𝟏𝑯 + 𝟗𝟒𝑩𝒆 → 𝟕𝟑𝑳𝒊+?

Q.18) Complete the following nuclear equations:

𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
𝟔𝑪 → 𝟔𝑪+ ?

𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 → 𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏+ ?

Q.19) Complete the following nuclear equations:

𝟐
𝟏𝑯 + 𝟗𝟒𝑩𝒆 → 𝟕𝟑𝑳𝒊+ ?

𝟒𝟏
𝟐𝟎𝑪 + 0𝟏𝟎𝒆 → 𝟒𝟏
𝟏𝟗𝑲+ ?

Q.20) Complete the following nuclear equations:

𝟏𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟐
𝟔𝑪 → 𝟔𝑪 + ?

𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟑𝟔
𝟗𝟒𝑷𝒖 → 𝟗𝟐𝑼 + ?

Q.21) What is meant by (positron and nuclear fusion)?

Q.22) Since the nucleus basically does not contain electrons, how can the nucleus emit an
electron? Explain this

Q.23) What happens if the nuclear chain reaction is not controlled?

Q.24) What is meant by positron?

Q.25) What is the value of the number (A) in the following nuclear equation:

22 | P a g e
█ Example (3)
Find the nuclear binding energy of the nitrogen nucleus ( ) in units (MeV). If you know that the
mass of the nitrogen atom is equal to (14.003074u), the mass of a hydrogen atom is (1.007825u)
and

█ Example (4)
Prove that the radium nucleus ( ) fulfills the condition of spontaneous decay to the radon
nucleus ( ) by alpha decay. Write also the nuclear equation for the decay. Knowing that the
atomic masses of:

MP= 226.025406u. Md= 222.017574u. MHe= 4.002603u.

27 | P a g e
█ Example (5)
In the following nuclear reaction:

Find the value of the nuclear reaction energy in units (MeV), then indicate the type of reaction,
given that the atomic masses of each of:

=4.002603u. = 14.003074u = 1.007825u = 16.999132u

█ Q.1) Putting nuclear fuel inside a nuclear reactor, and after the nuclear reaction took place, the
decrease in its mass that was converted into nuclear energy was equal to (0.25g). Find the amount
of nuclear energy produced in units (MeV).

28 | P a g e
█ Q.2) For the nucleus of an iron atom ( ) find:

❶ The magnitude of charge of the nucleus.

❷ The radius of the nucleus is estimated in units (m) first, and in units (F) second. ❸ The size of
the nucleus is estimated in units (me), note that ( ).

29 | P a g e
█ Q.3) If you know that the radius of the polonium nucleus ( ) is twice the radius of an
unknown nucleus (X), find the mass number of the unknown nucleus.

█ Q.4) Find the amount of nuclear energy of a nucleus ( ) measured in units (MeV) first, and
by unit (J) second. If you know that the mass of ( ) atom is equal to (125.903322u).

30 | P a g e
█ Q.5) For the nucleus of ( ) atom, find:

❶ the total deficiency is expressed in units (u).

❷ Nuclear binding energy is measured in units (MeV).
❸ the average nuclear binding energy per nucleon is expressed in units (MeV), given that the mass

of atom ( ) atom is equal to (12u).

31 | P a g e
█ Q.6) Which of the following two nuclei has a greater nuclear binding energy than the other, (
) or a ( ) nucleus? Find the answer in units (MeV), knowing that the atomic mass of each of:

= 3.016050u = 3.016030u.

32 | P a g e
█ Q.7) Prove that the plutonium nucleus ( ) fulfills the condition of spontaneous decay into
the uranium nucleus ( ) by alpha decay. Write also the nuclear equation for the decay.
Knowing that the atomic masses of:

= 232.037168u = 236.046071u

(mother nucleus) → (nascent nucleus) + (alpha particle)

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█ Q.8) What is the change magnitude of the mass of an initially stationary nucleus when that
nucleus emits gamma radiation (2MeV). Find the answer in unit (u) first, and in unit (Kg) second.
What is the wavelength of these rays in (m), ignoring the recoil of the nucleus.

34 | P a g e
█ Q.9) A nuclear reaction occurred between a falling particle and a stationary Beryllium nucleus (
) and this reaction resulted in a neutron particle and a carbon nucleus ( ).

❶ Express this reaction by the equation for a nuclear reaction, from which name the falling
particle.

❷ Find the nuclear reaction energy in units (MeV).

❸ What kind of this nuclear reaction? Knowing that the atomic masses of:

= 12u = 9.012186u

35 | P a g e
█ Q.10) A nuclear reaction occurred between a fallen proton and a stationary Samarium nucleus
(. ) And this reaction resulted in an alpha particle and a Promethium nucleus (. ). If
you know that the energy of the nuclear reaction is (6.88 MeV) and the mass of a Samarium atom
is (149.917276u), express this reaction by the equation of a nuclear reaction, then find the mass of
the promethium atom in units (u).

█ Q.11) If we assume that energy (200MeV) is liberated when one uranium nucleus is fission (
), find the number of uranium nuclei needed to release energy (3.2x1012J).

36 | P a g e
37 | P a g e
█ 2014 Round (3)
Q.1) For the nucleus of atom ( ) atom find:

❶ The total deficiency is expressed in units (u).

❷ Nuclear binding energy is measured in units (MeV), given that the mass of ( ) atom is equal
to (12u), C2=931MeV/u, Knowing that the atomic masses of:

= 1.007825u. Neutron= 1.008665u.

38 | P a g e
█ 2015 Round (1) | 2016 Round (3) Outside Country
Q.2) If you know that the radius of the polonium nucleus ( ) is twice the radius of the
unknown nucleus (X), find the mass number of the unknown nucleus.

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█ 2015 Round (2) Outside Country | 2019 Round (1) Practical, Outside Country
Q.3) If we assume that energy (MeV) is released when one uranium nucleus is fission ( ), find
the number of uranium nuclei needed to detect energy (3.2x1012J).

40 | P a g e
█ 2015 Round (1) Displaced
Q.4) Find the magnitude of the charge of a gold nucleus ( ), knowing that the charge of a
proton is equal to (C=1.6x10-19c).

41 | P a g e
█ 2016 Round (1)
Q.5) For the nucleus of ( ) atom, find:

❶ the amount of charge of the nucleus.

❷ the radius of the nucleus, given that the charge of the proton is equal to (C=1.6x10-19c).

42 | P a g e
█ 2016 Round (2)
Q. 6) Find the radius of the polonium nucleus (. ) in units: ❶Meter (m). ❷ Fermi (F).

43 | P a g e
█ 2017 Round (3) Biology
Q.7) For the nucleus of ( ) atom, find the radius of the nucleus.

44 | P a g e
█ 2017 Round (2) Biology, Outside Country
Q.8) Find the nuclear binding energy of a nucleus ( ) in unit (MeV) if you know that the mass
of the ( ) atom is equal to (12u), the mass of a hydrogen atom (1.007825u) and the mass of a
neutron (1.008665u), then find the average nuclear binding energy for each nucleon.

45 | P a g e
2017 Round (1) Practical, Outside Country In the following nuclear reaction:

Find the value of the nuclear reaction energy in units (MeV), then indicate the type of reaction,
given that the atomic masses of each of:

=4.002603u. = 14.003074u

= 1.007825u = 16.999132u

46 | P a g e
█ 2017 Preliminary, Practical
Q.10) For the nucleus of ( ) atom, find the magnitude of the charge of the nucleus.

47 | P a g e
█ 2018 Preliminary, Biology
Q. 11) Find the radius of the copper nucleus ( ) in units:

❶ Meter (m). ❷ Fermi (F).

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█ 2018 Round (3) Practical
Q. 12) If you know that the radius of the nucleus of an isotope of lithium ( ) is equal to (1/2) the
radius of an unknown nucleus (X), find the mass number of the unknown nucleus.

49 | P a g e
█ 2019 Preliminary, Biology
Q.13) Prove that the radium nucleus ( ) fulfills the condition of spontaneous decay into the
radon nucleus ( ) by means of alpha decay. Write also the nuclear equation for the decay.
Knowing that the atomic masses of:

= 226.025406u. = 222.017574u.

= 4.002603u.

50 | P a g e
█ 2019 Preliminary, Practical
Q.2) For the nucleus of an iron atom ( ) find:

❶ The magnitude of charge of the nucleus. ❷ The radius of the nucleus, note that ( )

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CH 8
7. Pumping power is high when laser system works under:
a. Three-level system.
b. Two-level system.
c. Four-level system.
d. Any number of the levels

9. Laser action happen when there is an emission of:

a. Spontaneous and stimulated
b. Stimulated and spontaneous.
c. Spontaneous only.
d. Stimulated only.

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