Abstract

The study investigated military government and Development of Tertiary institutions in South-
South Nigeria, 1967 – 1999. The need for this study is to ensure a continuous and effective
educational policies that will relate to effective man power development that will drive the
economy of the state towards sustainable development. However, five research objectives and
five research questions were used as guide to the study. Again, the study adopted the
functionalist theory which was made prominent by scholars like; Emile Durkheim, Herbert
Spencer and Talcott Parsons. The study adopted a historical research design, and also in-depth
interview and the use of research assistant were instrumental in the data collection. The
qualitative method were used as a method of data analysis. The study finds out that the military
institutions in South-South Nigeria were poorly funded and had the problem of infrastructural
development. However, the study concludes and recommended that, the civilian government
should incorporate some effective educational policies of the military government and formulate
workable educational policies of tertiary institutions to ensure development of the system.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The amalgamation of the Southern and Northern protectorate in 1914 by Sir Lord Lugard

led to the creation of the geographical area called Nigeria. However, the country was controlled

by the colonial power for over 46 years until on the first of October 1960, the country gained

independence and became a sovereign state. Hence Kalagbor (2004) posited that Nigeria as a

nation is an underdeveloped region characterized with poor standard of education, agriculture as

the main occupation, high level of poverty, scientific and technological backwardness, and

political instability and corruption. This was the base for military takeover of government

Nigeria as a nation, since independence, in 1 st October, 1960 have been led by

democratically elected and military head of states. During each epoch, there have been various

educational policies which was targeted towards ensuring quality education. The first

democratically elected Government of Sir. Abubakar Tafawa Belewa continued with the

1
educational policies inherited from the colonial government within the university education

level, especially the Regional University were established at Nsukka in the Eastern Region, and

in the Northern Region was the Abu Zaria University and the University of Ife in the western

Region (Ogbeide 2004, Kosemani & Osokoya, 1995).

After six years of civil rule, the military took over government in 1966. A military

government according to Merriam Webster dictionary is a government established by a military

commander in conquered territory to administer the military laws declared under military

authority applicable to all persons in the conquered territory and superseding any incompatible

local law. However, the military took over power due to inadequacy of civilian government.

The civil war brought to the fore the dangers of regional and control of education, which affected

the unity and integration of the nation, as a result, ushering in the need of educational system,

especially the tertiary institutions as panacea to address this social issues or problems.

Within the Southern and Northern Region there was the clarion call to bridge the

educational inequalities among these two regions. In light of the foregoing, the situation got

more complex with the dwindling resources of the regional government and the desire by the

federal military government to ensure a uniform and more centrally coordinated educational

system. The various regions transferred the regional universities to federal control and the

situation prevailed until power was restored to the civilian or the democratically elected

government (Ogbeide 2004, Fafunwa, 2002, Kosemani & Osokoya, 1995, and Ejiogu & Ajeyani,

1987). The period witnessed more proliferation of universities, as such various state

governments within the western and former Eastern regions established state owned universities

and upgraded their state colleges of education. Equally, this period witnessed the establishment

of federal universities of science and technology by federal military governments in those states

2
that lacks federal universities. Succinctly, Ogbeide (2004:5) averred that those universities as

well as other tertiary institutions established by federal military governments was established

without a clear cut objectives. However, was established to satisfy their political desires.

The military government is said to have played a vital role towards the development of

tertiary institutions. Development in this context means improvement in the educational

institutions. Again, Kalagbor cited in Emeodu, (2019) assert that development is multi-

dimensional, multi-faceted and ramifying. He added that development involves man control of

his environment to increase production and productivity. He concluded that development

involves enhanced personality – creative, organized and discipline geared towards the social

economic transformation of the society. Extrapolating from the above concept, it reflects the

aspirations of the military government towards development of tertiary institutions in South-

South region ofNigeria. The aspiration of the military government towards education is to

ensure national integration, peace and unity which will lead to socio-economic growth and

development.

Therefore, the South-South region of Nigeria were not left out in this educational

development as this period of military government witnessed the establishment of tertiary

institutions such as Rivers State University of Science Technology (1979)University of Port

Harcourt (1975), University of Benin (1970), FederalCollege of Education Technical Omoku

(1986), University of Calabar (1975), Ambruse Ali University Ekpoma, Edo State (1981), Auchi

Poly, Edo (1963), and Rivpoly now Kenpoly (1988), etc. Hence, led to this research on military

government and the development of tertiary institutions in South-South Nigeria to x-ray and

analyze the educational policies of the military government from 1967 – 1999, in order to

3
establish their achievements and further indicate how educational policies formulated by the

military government influence educational development in Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Education has been a veritable instrument through which a society can attain

development. In Nigeria and specifically the South-South region of the country have not been

able to develop her Educational system. This occurs due to various challenges and military

government policies that could not be well implemented. The resultant effect in South-South are

disastrous as it affect general development of the people, leading to migration of some people to

another country for quality education. It is disheartening that Nigeria educational system is seen

as pseudo and naive, the reason behind such criticism is reflected through the products of Nigeria

tertiary institutions. There have been laudable educational policies targeted towards achieving

the National Policy on Education. The emergence of a democratically elected government in

1979 and the adoption of the 1979 constitution which returned education to the concurrent

legislative list gave power to private agencies and states to establish, owned and manage

universities and other tertiary institutions led to the failure of military government in achieving

their educational aspirations. Some study on impact of military government on the development

of tertiary Education reveals that the era of military regime heralded the period of indiscriminate

expansion of tertiary institutions with little resources or funding to standardize them. The

establishment of state and privately owned universities gain more prominent in Eastern and

western states as against the South-South region of Nigeria.

Again, the new national education policy such as the 6-3-3-4 system which greatly

emphasized on science and technology, led to more establishment of university of science and

technology. Regrettably, the aim of establishing this tertiary institutions were to ensure the

4
fulfilling of campaign promises and to reduce educational imbalance between the North and the

South.

Furthermore, the military takeover of government in 1983 was as a result of desire to put

a stop to the country’s slide into religious intolerance, political and economic instability, ethnic

disharmony and as such to facilitate the redirection of educational imbalance existing among the

states as well as to develop the manpower that can manage the Nation’s economy. All these

efforts ended in deadlock, as the aims were not achieved.

Within the South-South region (as well as other regions in Nigeria), were shrouded with

the problem of inadequate funding, which has given way to inability of universities and other

tertiary institutions to purchase new equipment and the maintenance of such equipment. The

South-South region of Nigeria did not benefit more from the establishment of tertiary

institutions. Nevertheless, there was a perception that the government action have not yielded

the expected changes of the Nigerian society. It was observed that the military government

policies on tertiary institutions were rather myopic, non-dynamic, therefore, did not achieve the

desired result, instead it ushered in instability, poverty, ignorance, illiteracy, greed, tribalism. In

the light of this, it reduced the claims of military government towards ensuring normalcy in the

system.

Extrapolating from the above problem, the study seeks to fill a gap in providing more

data on issue of military government and development of tertiary institutions in South-South

region of Nigeria. Also to use functionalist theory in the explanation of the role of military

toward tertiary institutions development and finally to ascertain funding challenges,

infrastructural development problem, issue of student enrollment and educational polices of

5
military government and its effects towards development of tertiary institutions in South-South

Nigeria.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to look at the impact of military government towards the

development of tertiary institutions in South-South region of Nigeria. Specifically, the

objectives include:

1. To find out various tertiary institutions established in the South-South region of Nigeria

from 1967 – 1999.

2. To ascertain if military government tertiary institutions development led to more students

enrollment in South-South region of Nigeria from 1967-1999.

3. To ascertain the educational policies of the military government towards the development

of tertiary institutions in South-South Nigeria.

4. To investigate if military government tertiary institutions development led to more

infrastructural development in South-South Nigeria from 1967-1999.

5. To find out if funding constituted a major challenge to military government tertiary

institutions development in South-South Nigeria, from 1967-1999.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions are posited as a guide to the study;

(i) What are the various tertiary institutions established by the military government in

South-South region of Nigeria from 1967 – 1999?

(ii) Does military government tertiary institution development led to more students

enrollment in South-South region of Nigeria from 1967-1999?

(iii) What are the various educational policies of the military government towards

developments of tertiary institutions in South-South Nigeria from 1967-1999?

6
 (iv) Does military government tertiary institutions development led to more infrastructural

development in South-South Nigeria from 1967-1999?

(v) Does funding constituted a challenge to military government tertiary institutions

development in South-South region of Nigeria from 1967-1999.

1.5 Significance of the Study

The study of military government and the development of tertiary institutions in South-

South Nigeria will in small measure be significant to scholars, researchers, government, and

policy makers. Again, it will contribute to the theoretical significance.

First, the study will equip political leaders and elites with vital information of the

achievement of the state control of tertiary education initiated by the military. It will help to

highlight the effort of the military government towards the development of tertiary education in

Nigeria. This will give the people an understanding of efforts made by various systems of

government in Nigeria.

Furthermore, the study will provide information to educational curriculum planners on

the reasons for the failure of some military educational initiative and hence, this will strengthen

future educational objectives. Here, the government is not left out, the findings will serve as eye

opener to the current government and information provided will aid in proper planning,

implementation and supervision of educational programmes.

Again, the study will be of theoretical significance hence, adopting the functionalist

theory which gives the impression of the role of the government as an institution or system, who

ensures the Continues functioning, development and maintenance of the educational system.

7
 Finally, the study will be of immense help to students and researchers whose research

focus is on military government and the development of tertiary institutions. Therefore, the bulk

of bulk of already or existing literature will be useful to them.

1.6 Scope of the Study

By scope, it means coverage of the study. Therefore, the scope of the study will be shrouded

under geographical scope and content scope. By geographical scope it looks at the issue within

South-South region of Nigeria as regards to different periods of military rule in Nigeria. As for

content scope it will direct attention to issue of military and development of tertiary institutions

in South-South Nigeria from 1967 – 1999. This will look at some military government

educational policies and its impact towards educational development in South-South Nigeria.

1.7 Area of the Study

The study covers the South-South region of Nigeria which comprises of six States and is

strategically located at the points where the Y-tail of River Niger joins the Atlantic Ocean,

through the Gulf of Guinea. Though a relatively small stretch of land, the South-South regionof

the country provides the economic mainstay of the economy which is crude oil. In addition to oil

and gas, the region also has potential huge investment opportunities in tourism and agriculture.

The six states of the study have been x-rayed as;

Akwa-Ibom State whose slogan is Promised Land. The state is located in the coastal part

of the country with land mass of 7,081km2 and a dense population of almost five million. The

state shares boundaries with Cross River State, Rivers State, Abia State and the Atlantic Ocean,

with Uyo as its capital city. The state has many tertiary institutions such as University of Uyo,

Akwa-Ibom State University, Akwa-Ibom State polytechnics, etc.

8
 Bayelsa State whose slogan is pride of the nation is located in the lower southern part of

the Niger Delta region, and its capital is Yenagoa, with a land area of 10,733km 2. The are 10

languages spoken in the state with one federal university located at Otuoke and one state owned

university located at Wilberforce Island and many other tertiary institutions.

Cross River State which has the slogan “The people’s paradise has Calabar as its capital.

The state is located in a coastal region. It shares boundaries with Benue State to the west, Abia

State to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. The major languages spoken in Cross River

State are Ejagham and Efik. Cross River State also houses many tertiary institutions such as

University of Calabar, Cross River State University of Science and Technology etc.

Delta State known with the slogan “The Big Heart” has Asaba as its capital and has 25

local government areas, with so many deposits of solid minerals such as clay, limestone, kaolin,

lignite, silica, crude oil and tar sand. Delta State has tertiary institutions of learning.

Also, Edo State which has the slogan “Heart-beat of the Nation” with its capital city in

Benin is blessed with abundant natural resources such as crude oil, clay, chalk, marble, natural

gas, and limestone. Edo is the home of several ethnicities with 18 local government areas. Edo

state also has many institutions owned by both state and federal governments.

Finally, Rivers State with the slogan “Treasure Base of the Nation”, has Port Harcourt as

its capital city which makes it the second largest commercial Centre in Nigeria. Rivers State

boasts of a diverse ethnic population of over six million people and occupies an area of 11,077

km2. The state accounts for over 40% of the nation’s crude oil and food production. It has many

higher institutions such as Rivers State University, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education,

University of Port Harcourt, Ken Poly, Elechi Amadi Polytechnics and Rivers State College of

Health Science and Technology.

9
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

The following are the operational definitions of terms for this work:

(a) Military: Is the government that come to power through force or that rule through the

dictate of the decree.

(b) Development: Development in this context is the sustained growth of the economy over

time.

(c) Tertiary: Is the third ranked educational system practiced in Nigeria.

(d) Government: Is the body of persons that make laws, implement laws and interpret laws.

(e) Institutions: Is an established organization, especially one dedicated to education, public

service, culture, etc.

(f) Education: Is the process or art of imparting knowledge, skill and judgment from one

person to another.

(g) Policy: This involve a programme and ideas formulated by a political system or an

individual that are expected or geared towards achieving an objective.

10
 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

It will be important to examine other related literature as it relates to this work as well as the

theory the work will hang on. On this note, the chapter will be discussed under the following

sub-headings;

(i) Conceptual Framework

(ii) Theoretical Framework

(iii) Empirical Review

(iv) Appraisal of Reviewed Literature

2.1 Conceptual Framework

2.1.1 Education

The term “education” although used by many is difficult to define, partly because it has a

wide variety of meanings, partly because it involves not only one but several complex process.

Due to the complex nature and broadness of education, it is difficult for any definition to be

comprehensive enough to satisfy the numerous concepts and interpretations, Ogbondah (2002). It
11
is indeed difficult to give a concise and simple definition of the term “education” because

education is a multi-faceted phenomenon (Elobuike, 1986). To this end Peters (1996) who did so

much to clarify the concept ‘education’ averred that education is not a word to which a single

precise meaning can be attached. It is necessary to give some definitions of education and

examine them as an illustration to the ongoing arguments. Here, the work of some great

philosophers as cited by Ezewu (1993:29) will be considered.

Plato one of the earliest moral philosophers, defined education as “that training which is

given by suitable baits to the first instinct of virtue in children when pleasure and pain are rightly

implanted in rational souls.” As a moralist, Plato conceive education in terms of moral training.

His definition of education, however, is in tune with the then Athenian concept of education,

which emphasized the development of right conduct. This goes again to illustrate the views

expressed earlier that the society, to a large extent, influences the definition of education.

In the same vein, Aristotle viewed education as “the development of a sound mind in a sound

body”. As a moralist, like his teacher, Plato, Aristotle laid emphasis on the body, arguing that

there is a common relationship between the body and the mind. According to Aristotle, he

averred that it is necessary for the mind and the body be trained to be sound. Aristotle definition

was consequent upon the Athenian view of education at his time, which combined physical

training popular in Spartan education, with character training of the Athenian educational

system.

To Rousseau, “education is the development of the individual from within (educere), by

interacting with the natural environment with the aim of fitting him properly into the society.”

Rousseau’s definition above strengthened the etymological foundation of the word, educere,

12
which means “to lead out from within”. In his radical approach to education, Rousseau sees the

child at birth, as innocent and incorrupt but born into a corrupt society. He holds that education

should help the child to develop his innocence and good qualities that are inborn in him so as to

sanitize the already corrupt society, but how the child learns from a corrupt environment without

being corrupt becomes a big question, which Rousseau alone can answer. However, he made us

to know that the child’s early education (period of formation) should be through interaction with

his environment (personal experience) not through a teacher as it is in other educational system.

Lodge gives a broader perspective of education arguing that education can be defined in two

ways: specific and general. In the first, he says that “education is the outcome of the interactions

between the teacher and the learner”. In the second term, he says that “education is equivalent to

experience”. This refers to the experience of a living organism interacting with his environment.

His definitions above, take outside the formal school environment. The arrival at a consensus of

what education precisely is by definition has been a difficult task, for philosophers and

educators. This has resulted either in education being too narrowly or too broadly defined.

Again, definitions of education are either sociological or humanistic. In other words, education is

either applied as an acculturation of the child to do the will of the society of leading the child to

develop his in-built potentials, taking into cognizance his age, interest and ability, among others.

Each of the two approaches has its interest and ability as well as the methods of transmitting

what is considered desirable and worthwhile to the individual. For the sociologists, the method

and content are regarded as satisfactory by the society. Invariably, such content may not take full

cognizance of the learner’s needs and inborn qualities. According to the humanists, the learner is

the focus of education. He is given enough freedom in the pursuit of knowledge as well as

13
determining what knowledge could benefit him within the content of his society; (Amaele,

2005).

An analysis of the above criteria shows that education is value-loaded. It as well,

transmits such things desired and cherished by both the learner and the society. Education

equally involves knowledge and understanding. The two are very necessary in education. When

one knows and understand something, then one can apply it. Knowledge content alone, otherwise

known as “knowing that” is not enough. It is a mere acquisition of disjointed facts that cannot be

applied in daily life experience. “know to” is a higher level of knowledge, which in itself is

understanding.

Furthermore, it shows that such method of educating must be acceptable to the learner. This

rules out such methods as indoctrination, instruction, rote learning, etc that pose threat to the

freedom of the child.

Akinpelu (1981:184) summarized the above, stating that for a process to qualify as educational,

it must involve the following:

i. A conscious effort to bring about a desirable change

ii. A change that is intentional, deliberate and purposeful

iii. Knowledge and understanding and

iv. A method that is morally acceptable

Frankena (1978), posited that education takes place when ‘x’ is fostering ‘y’ some disposition

‘D’ by method ‘m’. Akinpelu (1981:185) later modified the above, stating that education

involves;

14
X - the society, the teacher or whoever is educating including oneself.

Y - the learner who may be a child, a youth or an adult or oneself

D - Disposition, belief, habits, knowledge, skills, attitudes, etc, considered desirable

and really desirable for the learner to have both for himself and his society, and methods that are

satisfactory, which pay due regard to the interest, the willingness and the personal integrity of the

learner and also involve his active participation.

The above are some of the basic ingredients that makes a process or group of processes

quality for the name ‘education’ and the products of such process are called the educated

persons. The content, the manpower, the learning environment, the material resources and the

methods and techniques used in the process of educating should be such that could raise the

quality and standard of teaching and learning so as to produce men and women in the society

who will be called “Educated Men and Women”.

According to Ifeanacho (1998), there are nearly as many definitions of education as there

are social scientists. This in his words stems from the fact that educational systems vary from

one society to another. Consequently, Elobuike (1986) posited that, education means many

things to many people, and different things to different people.

Furthermore, based on the conceptual views and the etymology in some scholars, thus:

Nwala in Ifeanacho (1998) sees education whether formal or informal as the recognized method

whereby a person acquires most of his ideas, beliefs and attitudes, in short, his knowledge, skill

and manners necessary not only to combat the hazards and problems of life (physically,

theoretically and psychologically), and to secure the needs of life (Biologically, Socially and

Economically) but also to fit into the company of human beings.

15
 Also, Achuonye and Ajoku (2003) defined education as the leading out of the in-born

powers and potentialities of the individuals in the society and the acquisition of skills, aptitudes

and competencies necessary for self-realization and coping with life problems. Education is also

seen as the process by which society through schools, colleges, universities and other institutions

deliberately transmits its cultural heritage.

16
2.1.2 Aims of Education in Nigeria

There are mixed opinions when discussing the aims of education. Most educators used

the terms goals, aims and objectives to distinguish among levels of propose of education, with

goals being broader and objectives being more specific. Aims on the other hand, are more like

the targets. They indicate the precise direction that educators must follow in all or part of the

educational system (Farant, 2004). Both goals and aims describe a direction on i.e what

education should seek to achieve, hence, many scholars refers to goals and aims as ‘end’ or ‘end

point’ of education (Orenstein & Levine 2006)

Goals and aims of education are influenced by social forces or prevailing philosophies of

education. The three main types of influential forces that determine educational aims include:

society in general; development in knowledge; and beliefs about the nature of the learner

(Ornstein & Levine 2006). Also, the beliefs about the nature of the learner can also determine

educational aims. For example, new theories of the learning process may produce changes in

educational theories and purposes which can affect the aims of education. In the light of the

above, it can be understood that education seeks numerous goals, and aims for achieving

different objectives for the individual in particular, and the society at large, succinctly, to the

individual, the aim of education according to Amaele (2005:79) are as follows:

Education is man-oriented and its aim is man. The aim of education is not
certificate, wealth, marriage, Power, etc, as it is erroneously held. It is man’s
growth. The growth here refers to mental, spiritual, moral (cognitive,
development), physical (psychomotor development). Social emotional
development (affective development).

According to the National Policy on Education, Federal Republic of Nigeria specified the aims

of Nigerian education to include:

a) The inculcation of national consciousness and national unity

17
 b) The inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual

and the Nigerian society.

c) The training of the mind in the understanding of the world around.

d) The acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and competencies, both mental and

physical as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the development of

the society (Amaele, 2007 cited in Amaele, 2019).

2.1.3 Military Government

According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, military government is the government

established by a military commander in conquered territory to administer the military law

declared under military authority applicable to all persons in the conquered territory and

superseding any incompatible local law.

Also, Nwankwo (1990) defined military government as a type of government formed by

seizing state power by force in a military coup. The term military is a heavily-armed, highly

organized force primarily intended for warfare, also known collectively as armed forces. It is

typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their

distinct military uniform. It may consist of one or more military branches such as an Army,

Navy, Air Force, Space Force, and Marines. The main task of the military is usually defined as

defense of the state and its interests against external armed threats.

The military organization in Nigeria and world over is characterized by a strict command

hierarchy divided by military rank, with ranks normally grouped ( in descending order of

authority) as officers (e.g, colonel), non-commissioned officers (e.g sergeant) and personnel at

the lowest rank (e.g Private soldier). While senior officers make strategic decisions, subordinated

military personnel fulfil them. (Jordan, Kiras, Lonsdale, Speller, Tuck and Walton, 2016). The

18
military are not part of democratic system and therefore are dictatorial and authoritarian in their

leadership. It is also on record that the first military coup in Nigeria took place on 15 th January,

1966 which was spear-headed by late Major Kaduna Nzeogwu. The coup took the lives of some

civilian politicians some of which include: Sir Abubakar Tafawa Belewa, S.I Akintola and

Festus Okotie-Eboh who were Prime Ministers, of the different regions of the country.

Nwankwo (1990), stated that the reasons for the 1996 military intervention in Nigeria

was as a result of so many factors, amongst which are; ineffectiveness of the civilian government

to maintain law and order e.g 1965 Western Nigerian Election crisis, bribery and corruption of

government officials and politicians, census crisis e.g 1962/1963 census, undermining the

constitution, Nepotism and tribalism that perverted justice, suppression of legal opposition e.g

Action Group (AG) and insensitivity to public opinion on the part of government of that day.

Nwankwo (1990), also identified the achievement of the military government in Nigeria from

15th January 1966 to the present day as follows:

i. The army kept and defended the sovereignty and unity of Nigeria during the civil war

which South-South Nigeria was part and parcel.

ii. The military government embarked on the policy of reconstruction, rehabilitation and

reconciliation at the end of the civil war which have healed the wounds and aftermath

of the war.

iii. The military created more states e.g 12 states in 1967, 19 states in 1976, and 12 states

in 1987, 30 states in 1991 which the people of South-South region of Nigeria

benefited from.

19
 iv. The army provided modern infrastructures in the country especially in the rural areas

e.g they built more roads, hospitals, electricity, markets airports and seaports

v. The military revived the ailing or supported economy of the country through the

Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) by introducing Second tier Foreign

Exchange Market (SFEM) and the Foreign Exchange Market (FEM).

vi. The military placed ban on the importation of certain commodities and thus

encouraged the growth of local industries.

vii. The military government successfully handed over power to the civilians in 1979 and

introduced a new constitution for the country and a presidential system of government

in the country which persist till date.

viii. Above all, the military government made a big progress in the education industry in

South-South in particular and Nigeria at whole e.g they built more tertiary institutions

and post primary institutions and introduced the universal primary education (UPE)

programme in Nigeria.

2.1.4 Regimes of Various Military Leaders and their contributions to Educational

Development

The inclusion of the military into Nigeria politics in January 1966 was a historical event

in the annals of the Nigerian state. It is worthy to note that the process did not only halt the

development of the country, nascent democratic institutions which the tertiary institutions was

not an exception but also laid the foundation for the contemporary issues in the building of the

nation. The following are the various military regimes in Nigeria and their contributions to the

development of tertiary education:

20
(a) Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi (16 January, 1966 – 12 July, 1966):

Major – General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi was senior Nigerian officer in the military who

led the 1966 military coup against the first president of Nigeria, President Nnamdi Azikiwe.

During the coup, General Aguiyi-Ironsi and his army killed highest ranked politicians in the

North and West of the country which include the first Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa,

Aguiyi-Ironsi only lasted for 194 days (January of 1966 until June of 1966), before he was

murdered in a counter coup by his perceived opponents in the Nigerian armed forces. According

to Fagbamiye (1982), the military government led by General Aguiyi-Ironsi did not achieve

much in educational development more especially at the tertiary institution level.

(b) General Yakubu Gowon (1 August, 1966 – 29 July, 1975)

Yakubu Gowon who ruled from 1966 – 1975 spent 8 years, 362 days in office. He led

the coup against major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi. He implemented genocidal tactics

against the Igbo people in the North. After the tension has reached a boiling point, in 1967, the

Nigerian civil war started, which was caused by the Eastern Nigerians (the Igbos) who desires to

split from Nigeria and form their own country which they called Biafran Republic. During the

civil war, over 100,000 soldiers and 1,000,000 civilians were killed (Nwankwo, 1990). After the

end of the war in 1970, there was a boom in the prices of oil in the country, that made Gowon to

endorse modernization of Nigeria, which was achieved through creating infrastructure, such as

international airports, a stadium, and an arts theatre and others too numerous to mention which

still stand till today.

During this period, educational development was one of Gowon’s Agenda to reposition

the country, this was achieved through the initiation of Federalization of education policy in the

21
country in order to correct the imbalance that existed between the North and the South. The

period witnessed the control of schools more especially the tertiary institutions by the federal

government of Nigeria, schools at all levels during this time was taken over by the Federal

government to eradicate statism and to input the spirit of unity and proper integration.

From 12th July 1996 to 31st July 1996 was the successful prosecution of the civil war which save

Nigeria from breaking up and was characterized by creation of 12 states which replaced the four

regions of the country. Also this period witnessed effective programmes that help rehabilitate the

effects posed by the civil war. The programme was achieved through the introduction of 3Rs

which are: Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Reintegration policy.

With phenomenally increased government revenue from petroleum exports and foreign

aid, the Gowon administration also rebuilt schools, secured and distributed relief materials,

constructed new oil refineries and thousands of kilometers of tarred roads and promoted sports

and culture. On the 22nd of May, 1973 under decree No. 24, The National Youth Service Corps

was introduced mostly to foster unity, encourage ethno-religious marriage among Nigerians and

encourage university enrolment, as the universities and other institutions of higher learning are

normally expected to be a training ground for the youths who are the future leaders, which would

help to give the youths a proper guidance and orientation necessary to the needs of the country.

The administration also inaugurated housing programmes in all Nigeria’s states, and

expanded education at all levels. The expansion include the creation of six(6) new federal

universities in April, 1975 which include; University of Jos, University of Port Harcourt,

University of Calabar, Usman Dan Fodio University, Sokoto, University of Maiduguri, and

university of Ilorin. The administration at this time also made impact in the area of the takeover

22
of four existing state universities, and plans to introduce free and compulsory primary education

across the country.

(c) General Murtala Mohammed (29 July, 1975 – 13 February, 1976)

Murtala Mohammed who ruled from 1975 – 1976 spent 199 days in office as Nigeria

head of state after the third military led coup in Nigeria against Gen. Yakubu Gowon on 29 th July

1975, General Murtala Mohammed was put into power. Murtala Mohammed removed many

former high-ranking politicians and officials an effort to distinguish his government from that of

General Gowon many of these fired top politicians were jailed for their corrupt practices.

During his stay in office, General Murtala Mohammed borrowed a lift from his

predecessor, Gen. Yakubu Gowon by making sure that the Nigerian government took over all

broadcasting and media, creating a monopoly of communications for the government as well as

maintaining the Federalization policy which was instituted during the administration of Gen.

Yakubu Gowon as the head of state, which left the control of all schools in the hands of Federal

Government. In February, 1976, Murtala Mohammed’s vehicle was ambushed on his way to his

office and he was killed.

(d) Major General Olusegun Obasanjo (13 February, 1976, 1 October, 1979)

Major General Olusegun Obasanjo spent 3 years, 258 days in office. History also has it

that Obasanjo did not actively participate in the coup of 1975 that led to the death of Murtala

Mohammed, although, he supported it. Obasanjo who was Mohammed’s deputy during his

administration was also targeted for assassination but he escaped it. After the successful

elimination of General Murtala Mohammed, Obasanjo came to power, before this time, the

23
programme that will restore civil rule has been established and it was sustained by major General

Olusegun Obasanjo.

Despite the short period in office Obasanjo maintained the Federalization Policy of

education to bridge the imbalance between the North and the South and promote educational

equality among the regions and established the Joint admissions and Matriculation Board

(JAMB) in 1978 to solve the problem of multiple admission placement and institutionalized

quota system and federal character.

On the first 1st of October 1979, Obasanjo handed over power peacefully to a civilian

ruler, Alhaji Shehu Shagari, marking the first time in the history of Africa.

(e) Major-General Muhammadu Buhari (31 December, 1983 – 27 August, 1985);

After over throwing the democratically elected government of Shehu Shigari, major-

General Mohammadu Buhari, who ruled the country for 1 year, 239 days justified the military’s

actions in 1983 by removing the civilian government led by Alhaji Shehu Shagari for being

corrupt and hopeless. Buhari suspended the Nigeria’s 1979 constitution indefinitely. Buhari’s

government increased interest rates, the government also involved in major cut back to public

and government spending, and prohibiting the government from borrowing more money. Buhari

also cut tied with international monetary fund (IMF) during this period all in a bid to encourage

economic stability. The government under review was marred with harsh policies formulated by

the government to protect itself, with many Nigerians, who he perceives as a security threat were

detained, jailed, and even executed during his rule.

To this note the government of major- General Mohammadu Buhari achieved little or

nothing on the area of educational development as he merged some of the universities carelessly

24
established by the second Republic Civilian Government led by Alhaji Shehu Shagari (Ejiogu,

1988). That notwithstanding, the government of Buhari at this period also scrapped all the

private tertiary institutions during this period. Buhari’s government also stopped the

establishment of universities of science and technology and state owned universities. Although

this gesture helped to restore normalcy and uniformity into the system, which helped in solving

the problem of imbalance among the south and the North.

(f) General Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida (27 August, 1985 – 26 August, 1993)

When Nigerians, particularly the military leadership, were becoming uncomfortable with

Bubari’s harsh pattern of leadership, there came a bloodless coup that ushered in Babangida as

the head to state who ruled 7 years, 364 days with the help of loyal mid-level military offices

which he placed strategically into positions to benefit his aspirations of power. In 1990, there

was a counter coup against the government of General Ibrahim Babangida by the Army. In June

1993, there was a presidential election in Nigeria that ushered in President Ernest Shonekan,

although the election was nullified which led to civil unrest and labour strikes in the country.

The government of Babangida was described as the most corrupt in the history of Nigeria.

From 1980’s and beyond, the decay of all tiers of education was monumental, facilities

had almost collapsed, teachers and lecturer’s morale was at its lowest. Enabling environment for

conducive teaching and learning was absent. The administration of president, Ibrahim

Babangida mindful of the reality of the situation took measures to arrest the menace. In

December 1990 the Federal Government constituted the commission on the Review of Higher

Education in Nigeria (The Gray Longe Commission) to review the post independence Nigeria

Higher Education after Lord Ashby’s Commission of 1959.

25
 The Longe Commission recommended among others the funding of higher education

through earmarked tax to be borne by companies operating in Nigeria. An implementation

committee under the chairmanship of professor Olu O. Akinkugbe was constituted to implement

Gray Longe’s Commission report recommendations. Also an agreement was signed between the

Federal Government and the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) on the 3 rd

September, 1992 on funding of universities.

In January 1993, the Education Tax Act No. 7 of 1993 was promulgated alongside other

education related Decrees. The Decrees imposed a 2% tax on the assessable profits of all

companies in Nigeria. This was a home grown solution to addressing issues of funding to

rehabilitate decaying infrastructure, restore the lost glory of education and confidence in the

system as well as consolidate the thereto; build capacity of teachers and lecturers; teacher

development; development of prototype designs etc.

Despite the corrupt nature of the government educational sector was not left aside

especially the tertiary institutions. The government during this period established many Federal

universities such as the University of Abuja (1988), Federal University of Agriculture (1988),

Abeokuta, and the National Open University in Lagos (1983)

(g) General Sani Abacha (17 November, 1993 – 8 June, 1998)

This government lasted for 4yrs, 203 days in office. Shortly after overthrowing President

Ernest Shonekan, General Abacha issued a decree that gave his regime an absolute power and

immunity to prosecution. Abacha was the one of the organizers of the 1966 counter-coup, the

1983 military coup, and the 1985 coup. He led the 1993 military coup against, the interim

government. Abacha’s political legacy rests upon his remarkable economic achievements which

26
overshadowed the controversial aspects of his administration such as corruption and human

rights abuses.

Owing to the fact that Abacha was reckoned on the Economic development, Abacha’s

government made a lot of impacts on the establishment and development of tertiary institutions

in the country. Before this period, there was decentralization of power which empowered state

governments, and private individual to establish schools which helped in bringing education

closer to the people. The quota system which was also enforced to accord the citizens the

chances of gaining admission into higher institutions of learning. The government achieved

much in education, Abacha died mysteriously in 1998 and many Nigerian celebrated his death

due to his corruption nature and human rights abuses.

(h) General Abdulsalami Abubakar (9 June, 1998 – 29 May, 1999):

Abubakar who was reluctant to accept the leadership of Nigeria after the death of Abacha

was sworn in on the 9th of June 1998. He ruled for 355 days, during this period Nigeria needed a

leader of Abubakar’s caliber to avoid plunging the country into another civil war, as he was

known to be a peaceful man who had Nigeria’s best interests at heart. He created a new

constitution for the country which would be implemented once a democratically, elected leader

was sworn in shortly after his arrival, Abubakar promised to hold general elections and step

down as a leader of the country within a year. There was critics of other military leaders during

this period and they doubted him that he would not keep this promise, but he did and handed

power over to President Olusegun Obasanjo as the democratically elected president of Nigeria on

29 May, 1999.

27
Although, he did not achieve much because of his short period in office, but he contributed to the

development of tertiary institutions in Nigeria during the period of his administration as the

military head of state.

Conclusively, Ogbeide (2004) says that the intervention of the military in the political

process in Nigeria and their educational policies have been aptly described as a bold step in the

development agencies of the time. According to Kosemani (1996) and Ukeje (1986), during the

military takeover of government and the aftermath of the civil war, it was discovered that the

educational institutions, more especially the tertiary institutions was producing Nigerians who

were mere graduate and express same through their actions.

Moreover, the agencies which mostly focused in the Southern parts of the country opened

schools in the region which created educational imbalance among the North and South.

(Fagbamiye 1987), the first military government which lasted from 1966-1979 started

“Federalization of education policy” in a bid to correct the imbalance that existed between the

North and the South. During this period, schools, more especially tertiary institutions were

controlled by the federal government of Nigeria. The then military government took over the

control of schools at all levels with her intention to discourage ethnicism or statetism and to

embed the spirit of unity and proper integration. Ifemeje (1979) enlists the importance of

federalization policy and the dangers of regionalization or statism or leaving the control of

education agencies. He succinctly averted that:

… Nobodyshould doubt the good services done to this country by the voluntary
agencies in offering opportunities for Western type of education to millions of
Nigerians for more than a hundred years. Yet, we cannot fail to recognize some
devastating injuries which they inflicted on the social fabric or our national
existence, members of the communities hitherto began to manifest different
sympathy for one or the other of the competing agencies… children of the same
local environment became strangers to one another, some became Irish, while
others became English or Scottish in thought and actions (Ogbeide, 2004:55).

28
 This action if not taken, would have polarized Nigerian society into a monumental action

and religious division. The country at this time also needed to maintain unity as to avert another

war. During the later military government from 1983-1999, the objective of this policy changed

to the development of solid scientific and technological base education. Military government

initiated and adopted federalization and centralization of the tertiary institution as the best option

to ensure unity and better integration, to reduce educational imbalance and promote solid

scientific and technological base education. Ali Mazrui (1978:193) explains the importance of

this policy averted that:

Africa is confronted with the ethnic pluralism and cultural diversity. The
interaction between different tribes could generate considerable stress and
tension. The quest is for a system which would permit these groups not only to
tolerate each other which is the first pre-condition but also to work with each
other in pursuit of shared goals.

In a bid to addressing these menace, the military which came to government in 1966-1979

adopted the federalization education policy which accorded the federal government the control of

finance and management of all the tertiary institutions in the country. This policy was adopted

and straightened by the second military government, for example, the regime of General

Mohammadu Buhari which came to power in 1983, merged some of the universities carelessly

established by the Second Republic Civilian Government (Kosemani & Oribite, 1995 and

Ejiogu, 1988).

Also, the military government which came to power 1983 scrapped all the private tertiary

institutions during this period, the central government introduced more universities and

universities quota system policy into Nigeria universities to solve the problem of the imbalance

that existed over these periods and restored normalcy and uniformity into the system.

29
Furthermore, these policies halted the chaotic citing of Universities of science and technology

and state owned Universities by the second civilian government.

Finally, to ensure the equitable distribution of tertiary institutions in south-South region

led to the establishment of the following tertiary institutions by the then military government of

Nigeria, as shown in the table 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3below:

Table 2.1 Universities established by the military government in South-South

S/No Name of universities State/location Year

Founded
1 University of Benin Benin city, Edo state 1970
2 University of Calabar Calabar, Cross River 1975
3 University of Port Harcourt Choba, Rivers state 1975
4 University of Uyo Uyo-Akwa-Ibom 1991
Source: Compiled by National Universities Commission (NUC)
Table 2.2 Polytechnics Established by the Military Government in South-South

1 Petroleum Training Institute Effurun, Delta state 1973

2 Auchi Polytechnic Auchi, Edo state 1973
3 Federal Polytechinc, Ekowe Ekowe, Bayelsa state 1990
5 Kenule Beeson Saro-Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori, Rivers state 1988
Bori
6 AkwaIbom state Polytechnic Ikot-Osurua, Akwa-Ibom state 1991
7 Rivers state college of Arts and Science, Rumuola Port Harcourt 1991
Rumuola
SOURCE: Compiled by National Board for Technical Education (NBTE)

Table 2.3 Colleges of Education Established by the Military Government.

1 Federal College of Education (Technical) Asaba, Delta state 1987

Asaba
2 Federal College of education (T) Omoku Omoku, Rivers state 1986
3 Federal College of education Obudu Obudu, Cross Rivers state 1983
4 College of education, Ekiadolor Ekiadolor, Edo state 1979
5 Dekta state college of education, Agbor Agbor, Delta state 1979
6 Akwa-Ibom state college of education, Afahansit, Akwa-Ibom 1990
Afahansit state
7 Rivers state college of education, Rumuolumeni, Rivers state 1971
Rumuolumeni
Source: Compiled by National Commission of Colleges of Education (NCCE)

30
2.1.6 Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) and Access to Tertiary

Institutions

At the verge of centralization, planning, coordination, funding and controlling universities

through the national universities commission (NUC) by the Federal Military Government and the

establishment of seven new universities between 1975 and 1977 which went ahead to centralize

university education by introducing (JAMB) up till 1977/1978 academic session. Before this

time, the senate and governing councils of each university was in charge of conducting entrances

into their universities, which made the committee of the vice-chancellors to chart on the need for

coordinated scheme of admission into Nigeria universities. Based on this discussion, the federal

military government set up the Angulu National Commission to find out the problems of

university entrance. Following the recommendation of the commission, the federal military

government through Decree2 of February 13,1978 established JAMB to solve the problems of

multiple university placement and institutionalization of the quota system and federal character,

and to encourage uniform admission system into Nigerian universities.

The responsibilities of the board as enshrined on selection 5 of the decree NO.2 of

February 1978 are as follows:

i. Conduct and control matriculation examinations for admission into universities.

ii. To appoint examiners, moderators, invigilators and supervisors to oversee the conduct of

the matriculation examinations.

iii. Placement of qualified candidates into universities of their choice.

iv. Collection and dissemination of information in all matters relating to admission into

universities, etc.

31
By this decrees, power were invested in JAMB above university senate in matters relating to

admission, Ogbeide (2004). Section 15 sub section 2 of the decree states as follows:

“ it is hereby declare for avoidance of doubt that these decree is without prejudice to the

application of any enactment of law setting up any university so however, that where any of the

provisions of any such enactment or law is inconsistent with any of these decrees, this decree

shall prevail”.

At first, JAMB was rejected by different groups of people in the society. But before this

time quota system was already in existence in Nigerian universities admission process which led

to March 1979 anti-Jamb protest but did not see the light of the day because of the role Jamb

played in the university education system.

2.1.7 Factors that affected Military Educational Policies in South-South Nigeria.

There are various frustrating factors that affected military educational policies in Nigeria.

The various military government education policies were necessitated by development could be

traced as far back as years before the inception of the country as a nation in what later became

Southern and Northern regions dominated by two different religions, the Muslims and Christians.

Apart from the forgoing, other problems posed challenges to the military tertiary education

development in Nigeria. These factors includes:

(a) Historical Factors

The military educational policies that was adopted from 1967-1999 were enhanced by

historical influence. These were educational imbalance as the North was termed educationally

less developed and this is an area that is highly populated. The origin of this dates back to the

coming of the two influential religions, Islam and Christianity into the country Fufunwa (1974).

Fredric Lugard, the former governor general of Nigeria estimated that in 1914, there were at least

32
25,000 Quaramic schools scattered throughout Northern Nigeria with a total pupil population of

218,618.

Fafunwa 2002 explains that the Islam having stayed over 500 years in the North and half

a dozen decades in the South. It produced its own eminent scholars or Ulamas who were staunch

guardians of Islamic theology, philosophy and Jurisprudence.

Before the advent of Christianity in the South, North has already adopted Islamic region

as their way of life and used it in the propagation of their faith. Christianity which came through

the coastal region of the Southern part of Nigeria helped in the establishment of Churches and

schools in the Southern part of the country. They established both primary and secondary schools

because of the warmth reception they received from the Oba’s, Chiefs, and the Eyo’s, the

unrestricted movement, which was not replicated in the Northern parts of the country due to the

presence of established religion, restriction of movement of Christian missionaries and others.

Ellah (1999) concludes that they were seen by the Northerners as polluting agents.

The people were ready to make do with Qur’anic schools already established. This was

root of the educational disparity between the South and the North more especially at the tertiary

institution levels. Because the South was educationally conscious through the activities of the

missionary, most tertiary institutions established in Nigeria before 1971 were in the South

namely: Yaba Higher College (1934), University College, (now) University of Ibadan, (1948),

University of Nigeria, Nsukka (1960), University of Lagos, (1962), University of Ife (now)

Obafemi Awolowo University (1961), University of Benin (1970) while Ahmadu Bello

University (1962) was located in the North, Ejiogu, (1987), Fafunwa (1974) and Kosemani &

Okorosanye (1996). There are indications however that historical factors influenced to an extent

the policies of military government from 1967-1999.

33
(b) Geographical Factors

The location of the country played a vital role in educational development in Nigeria,

Ogbondah (2002); posits that the missionaries who were planters of Western education in

Nigeria came through the coast. Thus, the coastal people had early contacts with the whites who

are missionaries before the hinterland who are mostly the North. Ifemeje (1979) averts that: these

missionary bodies laid the foundation of Western education in Nigeria and carried on the work

for a time before the government began to play any part at all.

Following this, many parts of the Southern Nigeria such as Ibadan, Badagry, Onitsha,

Brass, Bonny, Calabar, Lagos, Buguma started to experienced Western education early, with the

favorable geographical conditions in the Southern Nigeria there was also rapid spread of western

education within these region of the country. This same geographical factors hindered

educational development in the North because, several years past; before the missionaries

entered the hinterland.

Geography to an extent influenced the policies of the various military government in the

country especially from 1967-1999. This disparity that existed amongst the South and North was

corrected in the second military era by the establishment of tertiary institutions to balance this

obvious inequality. Kosemani (1995) further posits that the quota system could be a

compensatory measure to effect historically acquired inequalities between the educationally less

developed states of the federation.

(c) Political Factor

The educational policies which were adopted by the military government during the

second military regime had a lot of political influence on the people of Nigeria. The government

which was illegal and unconstitutional, in a bid to appeal to the people, they initiated educational

34
programmes. Ogbeide (2004) says that “the educational policies of the military administration

were predicated by political influences to starts with, during the coming of the first military

government, the country had only five universities and Yaba high college”. Because of this, there

was a strong agitation and cohesive actions to bring to an end this domination through the

establishment of tertiary institution in the area. Because of this Nwachukwu (1972) made an

observation on the founding of university of Benin because of the civil disturbance in the

country.

According to Ejiogu (1987), the federal military government of Ibrahim Babangida in

1985 decided against opening of more universities but was revised in 1993 when the regime was

facing political crises, decree of 1993 was promulgated that stipulated on the establishment of

more public and private universities across the country. From 1970 to 1983 universities in the

country increased from 5 to 37 (24 federal and 13 state universities respectively), and

polytechnics from 4 in 1970 to 38 in 1995 which led to an unprecedented increase in the number

of higher institutions in the country, which was followed by other military government until the

handover of government in 1999.

(d) Economic Factors

Those educational programmes which was adopted by the military government since

independence was based on the need to produce the country’s human resources for development

and this policies was influenced by the desire to produce qualified manpower to man the

country’s economy. Initially, the educational system in the country was to produce Nigerians

who are qualified and fit into the new political system in order to help reconstruct the economy

which have been battered by the civil war. Nwabueze (1995:81) averred that:

35
 The rest of the world and the changes taking place in science and technology any
move than we can properly and meaningfully democratic system and practices of
government. The worst disease for any country is ignorance resulting from
illiteracy, which in turn breeds poverty and disease.

The intension of the government from the inception of the independence has been to use

education to solve most of its problems such as poverty and eradication of diseases in the

country. The military government of 1967-1999 embarked on more science driven education to

increase graduate employment. The adoption of the policy of science oriented education policies

adopted by the military government helped to reposition the country as well as to empower the

people to be self-reliant.

(e) Social Factor

Education is an essential service which must be provided for the security of the people.

During the military government from 1967-1999, the various regimes came up with the policy of

expanding the resources to make sure that this essential services is rendered to all of its citizens

in order to bridge the environmental gap between North and the South, although parents from the

South sees education as been essential to the future of their children/wards whereas the parents

of the North perceives it as a tool for conversion of their children to Christianity. As a result of

this, they denied their children the opportunity to acquire education when it is essential for their

development. Education as an essential service was used by the military to attract support for

their regimes.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

According to Tunner (1991) explains that theory means a story or narrative about how

and why event in the universe occur. Furthermore, Haralambos and Holborn in 2004, cited in

Emeodu (2015) averts that a theory is a set of ideas which tends to explain phenomenon. Hence,

36
the study on military and the development of tertiary institutions in the South-South Nigeria will

adopt functionalism theory as the theoretical framework for its analysis.

2.2.1: Functionalist Theory

The functionalism theory derives from the English word, function. Its proponents

includes Augustine Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons. However,

Durkheim is often cited as having had profound influence on the development of functionalism

(Okodudu, 2007) as well as Talcott Parsons.

According to the theory, it assumes that societies were made up of interrelated social

elements. The key points of the functionalist perspective may be summarized by a comparison

drawn from Biology. This means that if Biologists wanted to know how an organism such as the

human body worked, they might begin by examining the various parts such as the brain, lungs,

heart and liver. Hence, the functionalist theory extrapolate this idea and relate it to the function

of the society.

According to Haralambos and Holborn (2008), it avers that functionalism explains how

social structure of the society functions for the effective sustainability of the society. This

involves an examination of the relationship between the different parts of the structure and

relationship to society as a whole. Hence, reveals the functions of institutions. In practice, the

term function is usually used to indicate the contribution an institution makes to the maintenance

and survival of the social system.

Furthermore, the functionalist sees the society as a system. A system is an entity made

up of interconnected and interrelated parts. From this viewpoint, it follows that each part will in

some way affect every other part and the system as a whole. It also follows that, if the system is

to survive, its various parts must have some degree of compatibility. Hence the need to integrate

37
with other parts. They added that if any of the parts suffers or faces abnormality, it affect the

whole part.

Durkheim (1961) posited and gave more functionalist perspectives on educational

system. He tends to explain and focus on the positive contributions education makes to the

maintenance of the social system. There, he maintained that: “society can survive only if there

exists among its members as sufficient degree of homogeneity; education perpetuates and

reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in the child from the beginning the essential similarities

which collective life demands”

Hence, Durkheim (1961) added that education teaches individual’s specific skills

necessary for their future occupations. Thus, schools transmit both general values which provide

the necessary homogeneity for social survival and specific skills; which provides the necessary

diversity for social cooperation.

Equally, Parsons (1961) gave what has become the accepted functionalist view of

education. Writing in the late 1950s, Parsons argued that after primary socialization within this

family, the school takes over as the focal socializing agency. The school act as a bridge between

the family and society as a whole, preparing children for their adult role.

Extrapolating from the functionalist view, it explains that society is made up of various

institutions. This institutions are the military and the educational sector. As part of society these

contributions cannot be overemphasized. The military government played vital and immense

role towards the establishment of tertiary education in South-South region of Nigeria. They are

aware of the role of education in development of Nigeria. Hence, established various

universities, colleges of education and polytechnics. These development have led to the

38
generation of various manpower for industrialization in Nigeria to ensure the survival of the

nation.

2.3 Empirical Review

According to a study carried out by Jega(1995) observed various conditions faced by

African universities. The study reviewed that the problems and conditions facing these

institutions are from policy makers. Again, the problem of underfunding, understaffing,

overcrowding and lack of infrastructure and facilities. Furthermore, Nigerian tertiary institutions

experienced many violation of due process, suppression of academic failure and the restriction of

academic autonomy, equally the study observed that the prolonged military rule, combined with

economic crises and structural adjustment constitutes the main problem faced by Nigerian

universities. Conclusively, the study posited that the university confronted with marginalization

led to the withdrawal of some students from the universities.

Ogbeide (2004) investigated on the impact of military government on the development of

university education in Nigeria. The study adopted a historical appraisal from 1984-1999. The

study adopted casual and evaluative approach as its research methods, data for the study was

collected through primary and secondary sources.

Findings reviewed that the military had an upper hand in the university development than

civilian government. Again, the findings shows that despite the role played by the military

towards the establishment of 52 universities centers, there exists the common problems of

poverty, ignorance, illiteracy, insecurity which was solved by education in other nations. Finally,

she concluded that the federal government should take up as a matter of urgency the task of

funding universities adequately to avoid its collapse.

Furthermore, Abrahams (1989) studied the U.S. military and higher education. The study

adopted a historical approach, his findings reviews that there has been military universities

39
relationship since 1940. He also find out that the relationship between the military and education

has put higher education to service of public priorities which has a longer and stronger roots in

the American tradition which serve as the sanctuary of their independence. Finally, he ended that

the relationship that existed amongst military and education aid national defence and promote

public priorities and made universities to focus on the critical study of science and society.

Again, Okoli cited in Igwe and Ogbondah (2018) embarked on a study “The Military and

Education in Nigeria”. The study adopted a historical method, using both primary and secondary

sources. The study of military government introduced sweeping policies in education system that

rendered universities impotent. It added and observed that educational characteristics were wiped

out by the military in their 30 years of rule. The study have observed that the era of military was

characterized by instability, decrees, coups and counter-coups, misappropriation of funds,

removal of subsidies, initiation of debts burden and its romance with International Monetary

Fund (IMF), hence having much interest on tertiary education. Finally, the study recommends a

revolution of Nigerian university educational system by over hauling of the admission process.

A study by Oko-otu in 2019 titled historical contribution of military rule to the

development of tertiary education in Nigeria, with focus on the Gowon administration (1966-

1975). The study reveals that the era witnessed the military takeover of government. The study

was purely a qualitative study and adopted both primary and secondary sources that questioned

the assumption that military rule destroyed the fabrics of national development in Nigeria. The

study contends that contrary to the fore assertion, that the military era in Nigeria political

development was the first to recognize the place of tertiary education in the nation building

efforts and that, the Gowon administration introduced the strongest motivation into present

40
times. However, he concludes through recommendation for managerial transformation as well as

increased funding of tertiary education in Nigeria.

Finally, Ogbinaka (2012) discussing on education nosedived from time of military rule

posited that military rule did not do worthwhile good to the education system. He added that

education seemed neglected, thrown to the rear as pursuit of money, materialism, and fame.

Also, the military government scrapped divisions in the West African Schools Certificate

Examination and as such increase in schools proliferation and destruction of educational values

leading to Nigerian education nosedived. He blamed the military government for being

responsible for the failure of educational system in Nigeria ranging from the fact that Nigerian

students are moving Abroad and even Ghana for their studies. Based on the foregoing, he

recommended that education at the university level should not be free and there should be more

importance attached to teacher’s education which will turn out quality teachers that can ensure

quality education.

2.4 Appraisal of Reviewed Literature

The appraisal of various reviewed literature reveals that the military performs various

role in the establishment of tertiary education in Nigeria, and specifically in South-South zone.

Based on the back ground and statement of problems raised, it reveals that the military takeover

of government in 1966 from democratically elected government till 1999 contributed immensely

in educational development. However, this innovation and development was poor funded and

critics argued that the dynamism of change martial by the military did not resuscitate the society

to normalcy, but have encouraged widespread challenges.

41
 The formation or establishment of tertiary institutions by the military is to achieve

numerous goals that will be useful to the individual in particular and society at large. Again, the

inculcation of appropriate values and preparing the young people for the problems ahead of

them. However, the military through various coups and counter coups were not able to achieve

these aims of establishing various tertiary institutions. Furthermore, there exist factors which are

responsible for the military educational policies. These were historical, geographical, political,

economic and social factors. It was equally reviewed that education being an essential service

was used by the military to attract support for their regime.

Theoretically, the study reviewed one theoretical framework, such as functionalist theory

to support the dynamism or shift in democratic system to military government, as well as the role

played in establishing tertiary institutions in South-South zone of Nigeria. Empirically, various

related study on military government and development of tertiary education was x-rayed.

Generally, despite heavy criticism of military government and establishment of tertiary

institution, their effort in actualizing this cannot be disregarded.

42
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

All research work requires various methodologies. The adoption of these methods is

targeted at arriving on a desired result. Hence, this work is not an exception. However, this

chapter will be discussed under the following sub-headings

(i) Research Design

(ii) Nature and Sources of Data

(iii) Methods of Data Collection

(iv) Methods of Data Analysis.

3.1 Research Design

The study adopted a historical research design. However, Uwazie (2012) affirmed that

the use of historical research design helps to answer the question “what was”? Again, the use of

historical research design for this study will help to examine available records related to the

research topic so as to arrive at a conclusion on how past event influenced the behaviours of past

generation as to sustain the present and the future educational development. Osokoya in

Kosemani (1995) posited that this historical research design deals with the cause of reasons

responsible for the development of that system of education being studied because education is

not independent of its environment. Hence, the approach or design will help to describe and

analyze factors that have affected educational development and others.

3.2 Nature and Sources of Data

The nature and sources of data used in this study are primary and secondary sources.

According to Osokoya (1996), Sarumi (2002), Best and Khan (2008) explain primary sources as

first-hand accounts of information. Also, Tuchman in strategies of Qualitative Inquiry by

43
Denzinand (1998) asserts that finding and assessing primary historical data is an exercise in

detective work. Also, Wali (2002) sees primary source of data as the direct outcomes of events

of the records of eyewitnesses. The primary sources of data includes: oral testimonies,

personal/official/legal document and wares, focus group discussion, Archaeological materials,

reports, photographs, certificates, decrees and edicts, etc.

Again, Abdulrahman (2012) defined secondary sources of data as a records or accounts

prepared by someone other than the person, or persons who participated in or observed an event.

Also, Nkpa (1997) averts that secondary data simply refers to as a non-observer that mediates

between the original evidence and the investigator. The following highlights the various

secondary sources of data: Journals, review research and other references, textbooks,

encyclopedia, Newspapers & magazines, periodicals, T.V Documentary, Internet information

(web sources), monographs, projects, dissertation and thesis, in order to gain analytical clarity of

ideas and views.

3.3 Methods of Data Collection

The researcher adopted an eclectic approach or method of data collection. Hence, the

researcher made use of interview and the use of research assistant. As for the interview, it will

be an in-depth interview. An indepth interview is a qualitative research techniques which

focuses on face-to-face interaction with individual(s).

The use of in-depth interview method is because, it is one of the best way of gathering qualitative

data. Again, it will help to get the view of people’s experiences, feelings, and opinions.

However, the choice of this method will help to avoid open discussion with people.

44
 Furthermore, to achieve the in-depth interview, there is a need to adopt the help of a

research assistant. The usefulness of the research assistant cannot be overstated. As a method of

data collection, the research assistant help to meet key people that need to be interviewed.

3.4 Methods of Data Analysis

This study adopted a qualitative research approach. . This is because of the research

design that is geared towards historical research. Also, a qualitative research is a research

process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks in-depth understanding of social phenomena within their

natural settings. Qualitative research makes use of multiple or various systems of inquiry for the

study of human phenomena or events, such as historical analysis, discourse analysis, case study,

biography, grounded theory and phenomenology. Therefore the qualitative research approach

adopted the content analysis as a method of data analysis. Therefore, the use of qualitative

research approach helps in gathering and analyzing non-numerical data.

45
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter analyzed the five research questions posited for the study

Research Question 1: What are the Various Tertiary Institutions Established by the

Military Government in the South-South, Nigeria?

According to Ogbeide (2004) and Oko-Otu (2019) posited that the military government

established various tertiary institutions across Nigeria. These institutions ranges from

universities, polytechnics, Colleges of Education, and monotechnics. However, the study

reviewed various tertiary institutions established by the military government in South-South

Nigeria. These includes:

(a) Rivers State:

i. Rivers State College of Education, (Now Ignatius Ajuru University of Education,

Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt (1971).

ii. University of Port Harcourt, Choba (1975)

iii. Rivers State University of Science and Technology (now Rivers State University,

Nkpolu, Oroworukwu, (1979)

iv. Federal College of Education (Technical) Omoku Rivers State (1986).

v. Rivers State College of Arts and Science (Now Elechi Amadi Polytechnics (1991).

(b) Bayelsa State

(i) Federal Polytechnics, Ekowe Bayelsa State (1990) Bayelsa State did not have much

tertiary institutions under the military government because during the period under review,

Bayelsa State was still part of Old Rivers State, hence was left out on the area of establishment

of tertiary institutions in South-South region of Nigeria (According to an Interview conducted

46
with Col. Israel Wosu in Bayelsa State, a public servant who suggested that during the period of

military, Bayelsa State was still part of Old Rivers State. Hence did not benefit much from the

establishment of tertiary institutions by the military government.

(c) Akwa-Ibom State

(i) University of Uyo (1991)

(ii) Akwa-Ibom State Polytechnic (1991)

(iii) Akwa-Ibom State College of Education Afahansit (1990)

(d) Delta State:

(i) Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State (1992)

(ii) Petroleum Training Institute, Effurum (1973)

(iii) Federal College of Education, Asaba, Delta State (1987)

(iv) Delta State College of Education, Agbor (1979).

(e) Cross-Rivers State;

(i) University of Calabar (1975)

(ii) Federal College of Education, Obudu, Cross Rivers (1983)

(f) Edo State:

(i) University of Benin (1970)

(ii) Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi Edo State (1973)

(iii) College of Education, Ekiadolor Edo State (1979).

According to Engr. Buraiman Jafaru, an acting Rector from Auchi Polytechnic from 2016 – 2017

stated that Auchi Polytechnic was established first as a technical college in 1963 and was later

renamed by the military government of Gen. Yakubu Gowon in 1973 as Auchi Polytechnic.

47
 In all, the findings of the study is an indication that the military established and

developed 19 tertiary institutions in South-South region of Nigeria. However, the establishment

of the Universities among the states in the South-South region indicates that, there was unequal

development or establishment of tertiary institutions as Rivers State had six(6) tertiary

institutions, Bayelsa State one (1), Akwa-Ibom, three(3), Delta State three(3), Cross Rivers State

two(2), and Edo State three(3). This analysis therefore answered research question one.

Research Question 2: Does the Military Government Tertiary Institutions Development led

to more Students Enrollment in South-South Region of Nigeria from 1967-1999?

Students’ enrollment into tertiary institutions during military regime was alarming. Before this

time (1966-1970), there was few tertiary institutions in Nigeria and within the South-South

region there existed no tertiary institution. The call to bridge the educational inequalities between

the Northern and Southern regions led to the establishment of tertiary institutions in South-South

region. Since then, there have been an increase in student enrollment into tertiary institution.

The period witnessed the establishment of both government and Federal governments owned

tertiary institutions. These schools that were established were lacking clear cut objectives, and

was established to satisfy regional political desires. Having giving the above, student’s

enrollment was on increase as schools were very close to the people. This discussion has the

answer to research question two.

48
Research Question 3: What are the Various Educational Policy of Military Government

towards Development of Tertiary Institutions in South-South from 1967 – 1999?

Military effort towards educational policies of tertiary institutions in South-South region cannot

be overemphasized. However, it should be noted that there was no educational policy specific to

South-South region of Nigeria. Hence, all educational policies were geared towards

development of tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Also, it aimed at ensuring the development on the

nation to produce high level manpower to contribute to national development.

Therefore, the various educational policies of the military government geared towards

development of tertiary institutions in South-South particularly and Nigeria at large are;

(a) Centralization policy

(b) Federalization policy

(c) Quota system policy

(d) Federal character policy

(e) Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB)

(a) The Centralization Policy

The centralization policy is one of the tertiary educational policy introduced by the military

government which affected educational development of the South-South region. The reason for

this policy was due to the importance of education towards national development. Succinctly,

considering the importance of education, Kosemani and Orubite (1995) citing South (1971)

posited that “education can influence so profoundly (importantly) the thought and character of

individuals and of nations that “it matters greatly what its aims and principles are”.

The assumption of power by the military government initiated the centralization policy as

the conditional focus of their education policy, however, this policy adopted by the military

49
government is premised on the general view that education constitutes the bedrock towards

national development.

Again, Ogbeide, (2004),Otiti (1990) and Dike (1966) averred that the emergence of the

military government especially in 1983 used education as a template to ensure national

integration, unity and reduction of political thuggery, ethnic tension and conflict. Again, to

ensure advancement or breakthrough on technology. However, the centralization policy of the

military government were targeted towards training South-South and other Nigerian citizens to

be patriotic and loyal to the Nation. Furthermore, they observed that ethnic bias among various

ethnic groups in Nigeria breeds insecurity and underdevelopment, led to the policy of

centralization to instill or inculcate morality and good value system in South - South region and

other parts of the country.

(b) Federalization Policy

The Federalization policy constitutes one of the numerous tertiary education policy in Nigeria

which influenced tertiary education in South-South region. The adoption of this federalization

policy was encouraged or necessitated by the desire to ensure ethnic equality. However, it was

targeted at abolishing geographical or ethnic domination against one ethnic group over another.

The policy gives a minimum standards and the establishments of institutions such as the Nigerian

Universities Commission (NUC), of Decree 16 of 1985 which was later amended in 1993 the

power to Accredit Universities in Nigeria.

Furthermore, the NUC annual report of July 1975 to June 1977 described the

Federalisation policy and the power given to them by the military government as an attempt to

stop geographical parochialism in Nigerian universities and to halt the indiscriminate

proliferation. Therefore, concerned about giving our universities a true national outlook and also

50
to ensure a coordinated, efficient and sustainable development. Despite this there was more

tertiary institutions established in South-South region.

In a nutshell, the emphasis on the Federalization policy was motivated by the urge to

balance geographical or ethnic clamour against domination. This led to the establishment of

various tertiary institutions within the period of 1984 to 1999 to satisfy the geographical or

ethnic demands with equal opportunities. Succinctly, Ogbeide (2004) emphatically, commented

that the essence of Federalisation education policies of the military government was hinged on

geographical equality.

This policy reflects this view as found in the Nigerian constitution of 1980 section 14:3

which states that the composition of the government of the federation or any of its agencies and

the conduct of its affairs shall be carried out in such manner that will reflect the needs to promote

national unity and also to command national loyalty, hereby ensuring that there shall be no

predominance of persons from a few states or from a few ethnic or other sectional groups in any

of its agencies.

Finally, the result or effect of federalization education policy were that all the tertiary

institutions were controlled by the federal government. The military take over the control of

education at all levels had the intention to discourage statism and to encourage unity and proper

integration. So far, Ife (1979) highlights the importance of the Federalisation policy and the

dangers of regionalization, statism or leaving the control of education to voluntary agencies. He

rightly urged that: Nobody should doubt the good service done to this country by the voluntary

agencies in offering opportunities for western type of education to millions of Nigerians for more

than 100 years. Regrettably, we cannot fail to recognize some devastating injuries which they

inflicted in the social fabrics for national existence, members of communities hitherto began to

51
manifest different sympathy for one or the other of competing agencies. Youths of the same

communities were robbed opportunities for growing up together so in thought and in actions,

children in the same local environment became strangers to one another, some became Irish

while others became English or Scottish in thought and action. Therefore, adopting

federalization policy was seen as a better option towards reducing educational imbalance and

better integrations of South-South region of Nigerians.

(c) Quota System Policy

The quota system educational policy was a system policy adopted by the military government,

which was aimed at balancing the educational disparities that exist among various ethnic groups

and states in Nigeria. The quota system denied South-South region tertiary institutions the

freedom to select their own students. However, the educational policy using the quota system

was an idea to balance the ethnic equation as well as ensuring even or equal educational

development in the country.

Ogbeide (2004) lamented that the quota system policy itself was motivated by the desire

to satisfy the ambition of some political groups from the North, hence it effects on the South-

South cannot be overemphasized. In support of the above assertion, Ojo (1992) felt dissatisfied

and stated that any attempt to introduce the quota system into the educational systems is a

violation of section 39(3) of Nigeria constitution of 1999 and would be regarded as ultra-vires

and void.

Furthermore, Ike (1976) confirmed that the application of the quota system resulted in

denying a brilliant student admission on a federal tertiary institution in South-South region and in

his own country, in preference of or less brilliant student, purely on the ground of birth.

However, the implication of this quota system policy by the federal military government could

52
hardly expect a high level of loyalty from the brilliant students. Extrapolating from the quota

system policy of education in South-South region, the quota system failed to achieve the aims of

its establishment. The failure led to establishment of state universities and other tertiary

institutions, the other state owned, tertiary institutions established countered the effects of quota

system policy on its citizens. Further, Ogbeide (2004) lugubriously stated that instead of the

quota system policy producing quality manpower, because of its rivalry amongst the ethnic

groups, the institutions produced half-baked graduates which led to high level of ethnic rivalry,

religious intolerance as well as destroying the standard of higher education in the country.

(d) Federal Character Policy

Federal character educational policy of the military government made huge impact in

Educational development of the South-South region. It was geared towards the satisfaction or

promotion of national unity and promote national loyalty, thereby ensuring that the existence of

no predominance of persons from few states or groups in that government or its agencies. An

interview by Mr. Amadi reviewed that federal character has wide implication for higher

education. In relation to tertiary or higher education, federal character was being considered not

only in terms of student’s admission into academic programme but also in terms of staff of

academics, technical and administrative divisions in the tertiary institutions in South-South

region. However, the policy is not only concerned with the equitable distribution of federal

positions among various geographical and ethnic regions but aims at national integration through

participation and interaction.

According to the Federal government, the aim of federal character is to achieve even or

equal spread in the economic benefits accruing from tertiary education (Ogbeide, 2004). Thus,

53
the process of federal character introduced the attempt on the part of government to create a geo-

political equilibrium in tertiary education in Nigeria and South-South region were not left out.

Ranging from 1971, there have been political considerations above education and this have

played most significant role in the distribution of tertiary institutions in South-South region of

Nigeria. Drive by the mandate of federal character to adopt expansion of tertiary institutions in

Nigeria, led to damaging results for standard. The federal character policy on education had

some advantages and disadvantages in South-South region. Tertiary education was no longer the

prerogative of the upper class, the affluent or the wealthy people. The federal character policy

also bridges the gap between the North and the South. This led to more introduction of tertiary

institutions in the South-South region. Regrettably, the federal character policy was observed

with high level of tribalism, favoritism and discrimination in South-South region. People were

appointed into offices on tribal or ethnic bases instead of merit and excellence, paper

qualification became the order of the day and many could not defend their certificates. Again, it

ushered in unemployment and under-employment in South-South region.

In conclusion character is not effective, this is because it dwindles economic

development, promotes discrimination and frustrates people’s chances in gaining access to

higher education. It is the root of malpractice, impersonation and forgery in order to get paper

qualifications. Also, it has led to many unqualified people gain access to higher education and

graduates been confused, half-baked and unqualified. They could not hold positions sometimes

when employed and placed above others they cannot perform, thereby leading to low

productivity or failure in the establishment of tertiary institutions in South-Sough region of

Nigeria.

54
(e) Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB)

The recommendation of national commission of inquiry into problems of universities

(Tertiary) entrance led to the formation of JAMB in 1978. Its establishment was to solve the

problem of multiple university placement and institutionalization of the federal character and

quota system. It was targeted at bringing about uniform system of admission into Nigerian

universities in South-South region (and other parts of the country). The policy allowed the senate

of each institutions the responsibility for conducting entrances into their tertiary institutions, but

it should be noted that currently, Jamb are responsible for admission in all Nigerian tertiary

institutions. Equally, the responsibilities of the board in South-South region includes the

following;

(i) Control of the conduct of matriculation examination for admission into tertiary

institutions

(ii) Appointments of examiners, moderators, invigilators and supervisors with

respect to matriculation numbers.

(iii) Placement of qualified candidates in universities.

(iv) Collection and dissemination of information in all matters relating to admission

in universities.

(v) The board is responsible for determining matriculation requirements and

conducting examinations leading to under-graduate admission and for

admissions to non-degree courses.

This analysis therefore answered research question three.

55
Research Question 4: Does military government tertiary institutions development led to

more infrastructural development in South-South Nigeria from 1967-1999?

The military government aided in the establishment of more tertiary institutions in South-South

region than the civilian government. The problem here is that there existed problem of

infrastructures which includes low quality buildings and classrooms, offices, instructional

materials and few manpower. Within this period of 1966-1999, there was shortage of Ph.D

Lecturers who could pioneer the educational system. Furthermore, offices were not much, hence

most lecturers finds it difficult to prepare for academic exercise.

According to Ikunga (An in-depth interview), posited that more proliferation of tertiary

institution led to scarcity classroom size, as most students could not cope with the system.

Government efforts to address this need through centralization and quota system ended up with

dead-lock.

In the science field, information technologies, as well as laboratory gadgets were not sufficient in

tertiary institutions in South-South region and most people graduated without the knowledge of

computer. The effect of poor infrastructure led to most polytechnics not measuring up to their

aim of establishment. Ogbinaka (2012) is of the view that polytechnics graduate should be

productive in area of psycho-motive development by producing graduate that are bricklayers,

electricians, mechanics and administrators. Hence, the shortage of infrastructure or enabling

facilities led to some graduates not measuring up to expectation and those who are mechanics

and bricklayers are people who acquire skills through apprenticeship. This analysis therefore

answered research question four.

56
Research Question 5: Does funding constituted a challenge to military government tertiary

institutions development in South-South region of Nigeria 1967-1999?

The emergence of military government and educational development of tertiary institutions was

hit up with high level of politics and corrupt practices. Within the South-South region despite

being the oil rich region suffered set-back of tertiary education development due to funding crisis

or challenges. Funds actually according to Ogbinaka (2012) were in some cases raised, but some

elites and school heads embezzled the funds meant for development of tertiary institutions.

Again, funding challenge was also an issue due to proliferation of more tertiary institutions

within the region. It was from 1970 that the first tertiary institution was established in South-

South region, specifically at Edo State. After which more institutions were established

amounting to 19 tertiary institutions in South-South region. Funding of these institutions was not

easy considering the aspiration and objective of its formation. The availability of funds would

have helped to secure conducive learning environment good salaries to lecturers, more buildings

and laboratory equipment. Absence of these funds made the system to produce half-backed

graduates.

According to Uche & Okoli (2011), in their analysis on the conditions of infrastructure in

Nigeria tertiary institutions. Lamented that during the military government educational

development claim, equipment, facilities, infrastructures and utilities are dilapidated, outdated

and grossly inadequate. Classrooms are overcrowded and students lacks motivation to learn. In

fact, comparing the educational challenges in South-South region led Uche & Okoli (2011) to

opine that military government generates problems to educational development and this has

caused flight of talents to another country in this new dimension today. They added that it is not

57
known how much funds the NUC has been able to attract to the universities. Hence, inadequate

funding has been the malady with the various tertiary institutions in South-South region.

Still on funding, federalization gave to excessive centralization of educational planning that the

crises of educational funding led to incessant strike actions on the part of the academic staff and

demonstrations and riots by students. In the South-South region, precisely throughout 1993,

various tertiary institutions, especially universities were shut at will. The effect was that all

undergraduates lost a year. Further, more strike actions followed so much that up till date

Nigerian tertiary institutions, specifically within the South-South region have not recovered the

usual calendar that put the session in place ahead of time.

Adamu (1989) posited that from 1979-1985 there was series of inflation which affected tertiary

educations funding and development. In the South-South region, funds were in a very sharp

drop. Each University in South-South received the following funds:

Table 4.1: Funding of federal Universities in South-South Region

YEAR CAPITAL RECURRENT

1979 150,000,000 200,000,000

1980 183,879,000 261,381,000

1981 382,218,725 320,000,000

1982 199,575,00 334,000,480

1983 40,600,000 433,380,480

1984 45,548,881 433,380,480

1985 150,000,000 433,810,630

Source: Adamu (1989: 49)

58
Akanbi (2015), posited that plans were made for new formula but was suspended at a moment. In

the early seventies, the federal government under military gave grants and scholarships to

deserving students. Accommodation and meals were subsidized. This was also replicated by state

government. All the students admitted into teachers training college were given automatic

scholarship. Regrettably, in 1978, these scholarships were withdrawn, students demonstrated

vehemently against such withdrawal and took to the streets. The military government responded

with guns and tear gases, and both students and civilians were killed (Akanbi, 2015). The

military government decided to take loans from International Monetary Fund (IMF) and it was

heavily opposed by academic class. This affected education automatically in South-South region,

which led to withdrawal and drop out of many students from schools.

The federal universities were under a state of financial emergency since 1983. Physical

developments slowed considerably in the various established tertiary institutions. The various

newly established tertiary institutions needed to develop quickly to their minimum operational

level, since most institutions were having about 1,500 students and thus insufficient funds led to

many project being stalled and remained uncompleted (Alabeke, 2018).

59
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO

SCHOLARSHIP

5.1 Summary

The study investigated military government and Development of tertiary institutions in South-

south Nigeria from 1967 – 1999. The study looks at military educational policies especially the

tertiary institutions as panacea or solution to address the social problem prevalent in Nigeria

society. The military however established various universities, colleges of education, as well as

polytechnics. They equally allowed establishment of private universities. Therefore, to achieve

the study, five research objectives were utilized as well as five research questions. These were

guide to the work. Significantly, the study will be of huge benefit to government or political

leaders, educational curriculum planners, students and other researchers. The scope of the study

is shrouded under geographical scope which delimit the study within South-South – Nigeria and

the content scope which looked at issue of military and development of tertiary institutions in

South-South Nigeria.

However, the study adopted few operational definition of terms such as military,

development, tertiary, government, institutions, education and policy.

Furthermore, the chapter two of the study captioned literature review, looks at various

issues such as, conceptual framework, theoretical framework empirical review and appraisal of

reviewed literature. Theoretically, the functionalist theory was adopted as elucidated by various

proponents such as Augustine Comte, Emile Durkheim and others. The theory explained the role

of the military as an institution towards educational development. Conceptually, the study x-

rayed the concept of education and aims of education in Nigeria, regimes of various military

60
leaders and educational development, factors responsible for military education policies which

include, historical factors, geographical factor, political factor, economic factor and social factor.

Equally, it discusses on the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (Jamb) and Access to

tertiary institutions. Empirically, the study reviewed the work of Jega (1995) Ogbeide (2004),

Abrahams (1989), Okoli in Igwe & Ogbondah (2018) Ogbinaka (2012). The chapter finally

summarized various literature that were reviewed.

Methodologically, the study adopted a research design, method and sources of data,

methods of data collection and methods of data analysis. The research design adopted a

historical design which helped to describe and analyse factors that have affected educational

development and other key issues. On nature and sources of data, the study relegated its self on

the use of primary and secondary sources. The primary sources were the use of oral testimonies

or interview, focus group discussion and personal & official documents. The secondary sources

of data include journals, textbooks, internet information, project, dissertation and others. All

these were used in order to attain an analytical and descriptive clarity of ideas. Data collection

method adopted an eclectic approach which utilized an in-depth interview and the use of research

assistants. Furthermore, the method of data analysis was the use of qualitative approach which is

instrumental in gathering and analyzing non-numerical data. Finally, the study revealed and

discussed all the research questions raised in chapter one.

5.2 Conclusion

In conclusion, the study has shown the impact of military government towards the

establishment and development of tertiary institutions in the South-South region. Their major

aims were to ensure national integration, unity and tolerance amongst Nigerians and also to

61
ensure the development of manpower which will serve as a veritable source to national

development. This is in line with some scholarly statement that no society can develop above

her educational system. Considering the importance of education to national development, there

is need to review Nigerian tertiary educational system to its entirety. Thus, will aid in restoring

merit and adequate educational curriculum that will address the pressing needs of the people as

well as promoting good value system in the society. The military government have made a bold

effort in advancement of education which should serve as a template for civilian government to

build upon and ensure equalization, development and effective supervision of tertiary institutions

in South-South and also in Nigeria at large.

Addressing the need for development using education as instruments, the educational

review in Nigeria should give priority to those who are desirous for education and not for those

who are weak intellectually. Those who meet educational standard should be admitted into

Nigeria tertiary institutions so as to produce quality and standard graduates and reducing half-

baked products as currently seen in South-South region and Nigerian tertiary institutions today.

Equally, the federal government led by the civilian, should adopt most of the military educational

policies especially the federalization and centralization of education as this will help to reduce

ethnic crisis and tolerance among Nigerians.

5.3 Recommendations

Based on the foregoing, the study gives the following as the way forward;

(i) Considering the impact of tertiary institutions, the government should ensure proper

financing of Nigerian tertiary institutions as well as motivation to the lecturers and

students through the provision of educational fund.

62
 (ii) The civilian government should incorporate some effective educational policies of the

military and also formulate workable educational policies of tertiary institutions to

ensure development of the system. If this is done, it will generate efficient and

effective manpower that will drive national development and it will attract foreigners

to study in the South-South region and in Nigeria tertiary institutions.

(iii) Educational policy makers as well as non-governmental organizations (NGOs) should

help in finding out current educational problems and proffer effective solutions. If

this is done, it will lead to effective educational system in Nigeria as it will

eradicate/rebrand some ineffective and pseudo educational policies.

(iv) Sincerity is the hall mark for national development. Hence, the government should

ensure that, there is equal distribution and development of tertiary institutions across

the nation. If this is done, will address the problem of imbalance that existed in the

various regions of the country.

5.4 Contribution to Scholarship

The study on military and development of tertiary institutions in South-South region of

Nigeria, have contributed immensely to knowledge. First, it has reviewed various tertiary

institutions established in South-South Nigeria by the military government. In all it shows that

nineteen (19) tertiary institutions were established by the military government from 1967 – 1999.

Theoretically, the study adopted a functionalist approach to explain the role of military

towards educational development in Nigeria. Another way the study contributed to knowledge is

through the use of eclectic approach or triangulation method which allowed the use of in-depth

interview, the use of research assistant, internet materials and others.

63
 Finally, various unique recommendations constitutes bulk of knowledge which if

implemented will be of immense benefit towards the development of tertiary institutions in

South-South region and also to Nigerian society.

5.5 Limitations to the Study

There exist various limitations to the study. These limitations posed serious challenge to

the completion of the study. First, the problem of time, constituted a huge factor as the

researcher have to engage into other academic exercises together with the research work.

Again, the researcher noticed that most data related to funding of education by the

military was insufficient, also policies and its implementations and short comings of military

government educational development as having few data. This could have stunted the collection

of data or literature needed for the study.

Furthermore, the study faced the challenges of meeting the right respondents and booking

time of appointment to those who could give out necessary information regarding to the study on

military and development of tertiary institutions in South-South Nigeria. Hence, the researcher

was able to control all the challenges and the study was successful.

5.6 Suggestions for Further Studies

Research could be carried out in other aspect of this study and even from the outcome of

this present research. Based on the foregoing, it is suggested that other studies should investigate

military and educational development in other regions in Nigeria. Secondly, an investigation on

the failure of military educational policy towards achieving national integration and unity in

Nigeria.

64
 References

Abdulrahman, Y.M. (2012). Historical research in education. African Journal of Historical

sciences in Education, 8(1), 12-15.

Abrams, R. (1989). The U.S. military and higher education: A brief history. The Annals of the
American Academy of political and social science, 50(2), 15-28.

Achuonye, K.A & Ajoku, L.I. (2003).Foundation of Curriculum Development and

implementation; Port Harcourt: Pearl Publishers.

Adamu, M. (1989). University education: Its standard and relevance to the Nigerian community.
Being proceedings of joint seminar organized by the committee of Vice-Chancellors of
Nigerian Universities and the National Universities Commission, Held at the Usman
Danfodio University, Sokoto, from 17th to 19th March.

Akanbi, F. (2015). Enthusiasm for new revenue sharing formula wanes. This day live August 12,
www. Thisdaylive.com/article/education.

Alabeke, C.V.C (2018). Education in Nigeria’s second republic: 1979-1983. The Nigerian
education centenary experience 1914-2014. Port Harcourt: Pearl Publishers International

Amaele, S. (2005).Understanding philosophy of Education. Ibadan: Bounty Peers Ltd.

Aruna, M.C (1987). Higher Education Policies in Imo State (1976-1987): A Historical Analysis.
Unpublished dissertation of the department of educational foundations, University of Port
Harcourt.

Atahiru, J. (1995). Nigerian Universities and Academic Staff under military rule, Review of
African Political Economy, 22(64), 251-256.

Best, J.W.& Khan, J.V. (2008).Research in Education (10th Eds.). New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of
India Private Ltd.

Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S. (1998). Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry. London: Sage
Publications

Dike, K.O. (1966). Issues in African Studies and National Educational. Enugu: Snap Press Ltd.

DOD (2010). Military Dictionary. US Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and

Associated Words.

Durkheim, E. (1961). Moral Education. Glencoe: Free Press.

Ejiogu, A. (1988). Productive interpersonal relationships. In O. Aderonunmu, D. Jibo, Yewa, &

a. Ejiogu (Eds). Organizational behaviour in Nigeria Schools. Lagos: Kola Okanlawon
Publishers.

65
Ejiogu, D. & Ajeyani, A.M. (1987).Emergent Issues in Nigeria Education, Lagos: Joja
Educational Publishers.

Ekwueme, G.E & Ogbondah, L. (2006).Sociological Foundation of Education (Eds.); Port

Harcourt: Harey Coy publishers.

Ellah, I.I (1999). Topics in history of Nigerian Education for Colleges and Universities. Omoku,
Rivers State: Molsyfem United Services.

Elobuike, M.N. (1988).Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education, (A.C.E

series), UNN. Heinemann Educational Books(Nig) Ltd.

Emeodu, E.N. (2015).Information Technology and Devaluation of Value in Nigeria. An

Unpublished Projects, Social Studies. IAUE, Rivers State.

Emeodu, E.N. (2019). Insecurity and Development Challenges in Nigeria. An unpublished

Dissertation, Department of Sociology. IAUE, Rivers State.

Fabamiye, E.O. (1987). The Nigerian teachers in the 1980’s, University of Lagos Series in
Education. The Art and science of education. Lagos: Nelson publishers Ltd.

Fafunwa, A. (1974). History of Education in Nigeria, London: George Allen and Unwin
Publishers.

Fafunwa, A.B. (2012). History of education in Nigeria. Ibadan: NPS educational publishers Ltd.

Farrant, J.S. (2004). Principles and practice of Education. UK: Longman Group UK Ltd.

Federal republic of Nigeria (1981). National Policy on educational revised Lagos (Gore) federal
government printer. Guidelines for admission into Nigeria universities 1981 Lagos.

Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004). National policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC press.

Frankena, W.K. (1978). “The Concept of morality”. In A. Harris Teaching Morality and
Religion, London: Allen & Unwin.

Haralambos, M, & Holborn, M. (2008). Sociology Themes and Perspectives. London: Harper
Collins Publisher Limited.

Ifeanacho, S. (1998).The Nigerians culture: An institutional Approach, Owerri Spring Field

Publishers.

Ifemeje, C.C. (1979). Evolution of Nigerian Education, In Ukeje, B.O. (ed) Foundation of
Education. Benin City: Ethiope Publishing Corporation.

Ifemeje, C.C. (1979). Evolution of Nigerian education, in Ukeje, B.O. (ed) Foundation of
education. Benin City: Ethiope Publishing Corporation.

66
Igwe, L.E.B & Ogbondah, L. (2018). The Nigerian Education Centenary Experience (1914-
2014). Port Harcourt: Pearl publishers interventional Ltd.

Ike, O.O. (1976). Quota System and Educational Reforms in Nigeria. Journal of Research in
Development, 6(1). 23-25

Irikana, G.J. &Ibeh, H.C. (2014). Social Studies Education: An Introductory Text. Port Harcourt:
Alheri Books.

Jordan, D.; Kiras, J. D.; Lonsdale, D. J.; Speller, I.; Tuck, C. & Walton, C. D. (2016).
Understanding modern warfare. UK: Cambridge University Press

Kalagbor, S.B. (2004). The Development Theories and Administration.Port Harcourt: Horizon
Concepts.

Kosemani, J.M. & Osokoya, I.O. (1995). History of Nigerian education contemporary analysis.
Port Harcourt: Abe Publishers.

Kosemani, J.M. (1995). Comparative education emergent natural system. Port Harcourt: Abe
publishers.

Mark, K. (1849). Wages of Labour and Capital. Germany; New Rheimsche: Zeitung Publishers.

Nkpa, N. (1997).Educational Research for Modern Scholars. Enugu: Fourth Dimension

Publishers.

Nwabueze, B.O. (1995). Crises and Problems in Education in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books.

Nwachukwu, S.O. (1972). The Tectonic Evolution of the Southern Portion of the Benue Trough.
Nigeria: Geological Magazine.

Nwala, T.U. (1985). Igbo Philosophy. Lagos: Liternmmed. Publishers Ltd.

Nwankwo, B.C. (1990). Authority in Government Onitsha. Abbot books Ltd.

Nwideeduh, S.B. (1995). Ethnicity and Nigerian University system. Nigerian Journal of
professional studies in education(NJPSE),3(1), 18-21

Ogbeide, I.C. (2004). The impact of military Government on the development of Universities
education in Nigeria 1984-1999. Historical Appraisal. An unpublished thesis department
of educational foundations, university of Port Harcourt, Rivers State.

Ogbinaka, K. (2012). Education nosedived from time of military rule. Retrieved 19 thJuly, 2019
from: www.vanguardngr.com/2012/09/Education nosedived from-time-of-military rule.

Ogbondah, I. (2002). Historical Foundation of Western and Nigerian Education. Port Harcourt:
Harey Publication Coy.

67
Ojo, E. (1992). Federalism and the Search for National Integration in Nigeria. African Journal of
Political science and international relations, 3(9), 384-395.

Okodudu, S.A. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology. Port Harcourt: Amethyst and Colleagues
Publishers.

Oko-otu, C. N. (2019). Historical contributions of military rule to the development of tertiary

education in Nigeria: A case study of the Gowon administration 1966-1975. A paper
presentation at the 63rd Annual Conference and Congress of the Historical Society of
Nigeria, Federal University Lokoja.

Ornstein, C. & Levrine, U. (2006). Foundation of Education. U.S.A. Houghton Mitthin

Company.

Osokoya, I.O. (1996).Writing and Teaching History: A Guide to Advanced Study. Ibadan: Laurel
Educational Publishers Ltd.

Parsons, T. (1961). The school class as a social system. New York Press.

Peters, R.S. (1966). The concept of Education, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Sarumi, A. (2012). Steps involved in Utilizing Historical Methods as a Tool for Explaining
Education Research Problems. Ibadan Journal of Educational Studies, 2(1), 9-13

Tunner, J.C. (1991).Mapping Social Psychology Series. Social Belmont, CA, US: Thomson
Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.

Uche, C.M. & Okoli, N.J. (2011). Infrastructural development and quality assurance in Nigerian
higher Education, 2(1), 19-30.

Ukeje, B.O. (1979). Foundations of Education. Benin city: Ethiop, Publishing Corporation.

Ukeje, B.O. (1986). An inaugural lecture delivered at the University of Port Harcourt on
Wednesday 3rd December 1986.

University of Ife (1979). University Development in Nigeria: Report of the national universities
commission. Minerva 3(2), 250-255.

Uwazie, I.U. (2008). Research projects in social sciences and education. Owerri: Chyzon
concept.

Wali, G.I. (2002).Educational Research: A Functional Approach. Port Harcourt: Harey

Publications Company.

68