Course Title: Wind Energy Technology

Course No: ESE 6109

Course teacher : Nibir Mondol
Assistant Professor
Department of ESE , KUET.
 Syllabus of This Course:

Introduction to wind energy;

Wind resource estimation: Methodologies for resource
assessment and sources of uncertainty;

Different types of wind turbine: Darrious, horizontal and vertical

axis wind turbine;

Effect of different angles on moments of wind turbine;

fundamental of wind turbine design and operation;

Generation of power: mechanism for integrating wind
energy developments for electricity generation and
distribution;

Efficiency and performance of wind turbine. Tower,

alignment of turbine shaft. Recent development of wind
turbine;

Hybrid systems: solar and wind turbine.

 Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth. It helps
make life possible by providing us with air to breathe, shielding us from
harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the Sun, trapping heat
to warm the planet, and preventing extreme temperature differences
between day and night. Each of the planets in our solar system have an
atmosphere, but none of them have the same ratio of gases or layered
structure as Earth's atmosphere.

These gases are found in atmospheric layers (troposphere, stratosphere,

mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere) defined by unique features
such as temperature and pressure.
Layers of Earth’s atmosphere are divided into five different layers as:

• Exosphere
• Thermosphere
• Mesosphere
• Stratosphere
• Troposphere
 Air

Air is all around us, but we can’t see it. So what is air, exactly?
It’s a mixture of different gases. The air in Earth’s atmosphere is made
up of approximately 78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen. Air
also has small amounts of lots of other gases, too, such as carbon
dioxide, neon, and hydrogen.
Atmospheric pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted
against a surface by the weight of the air above that surface. In the
diagram below, the pressure at point "X" increases as the weight of the
air above it increases. The same can be said about decreasing pressure,
where the pressure at point "X" decreases if the weight of the air above
it also decreases.
 Causes Changes in Atmospheric Pressure
Changes in air pressure are caused by differences in air temperature
above the earth, and the temperature of an air mass is determined by its
location. For example, air masses above oceans are typically cooler than
air masses above continents. Air temperature differences create wind
and cause pressure systems to develop. The wind moves pressure
systems and these systems tend to change as they pass over mountains,
oceans, and other areas.

Changes in pressure are caused by changes in density of the air, which

relates to the temperature of the air. As cold air is more dense than
warm air, the pressure in the cooler area will be higher than the
pressure over the warmer air.
 What is the density of air?
Density is a measure of mass. The formula for density is d = m/v, where d is the density, m is the
mass, and v is the volume. The value of the air density given is at STP.

The density of air is usually denoted by the Greek letter ρ, and The unit for measurement is kilogram
per cubic meter (i.e., kg/m3). The illustration shows the values of air density in a standard
atmosphere at various altitudes.
Dry air mostly consists of nitrogen (~78 %) and oxygen (~21 %). The remaining 1 % contains many
different gases, among others, argon, carbon dioxide, neon or helium. However, the air will cease to
be dry air when water vapour appears.

As a mixture of gases, air doesn't have a constant density; this value depends largely on air
composition. Most components have similar densities and don't influence the overall density in a
substantial way. One exceptions is water vapour; the more water vapour in the air, the lower its
density.
Factors Affecting the Density of Air

1. Air becomes denser as the air pressure increases. The pressure forces the air molecules
together resulting in more mass in a given volume. Increasing altitude results in decreasing
air pressure. The decrease in air density means that a mountain climber at high altitudes
gets less oxygen when he breathes.
2. Temperature is another factor that affects the density of air. When the temperature is
increased, the air molecules move faster and spread further apart on collision. When air is
denser, it creates a drag on objects moving through it. For example, a golf ball hit on a hot
summer day will go further apart than one hit on a cold day. The higher temperature and
lower air pressure found at high altitudes combine to lower the air density.
3. Humidity or the amount of moisture in the atmosphere also changes the density of air.
More moisture in the air, lower the density of air.
 What is humidity mean?

Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air. On the weather reports, humidity is
usually explained as relative humidity..

Relative humidity is the amount of water vapour actually in the air, expressed as a
percentage of the maximum amount of water vapour the air can hold at the same
temperature.
Too much or too little humidity can be dangerous. For example, high humidity combined
with hot temperatures is a combination that can be a health risk, especially for the very
young and the very old
A Gravimetric hygrometer measures the mass of an air sample compared to an equal
volume of dry air. This is considered the most accurate primary method to determine the
moisture content of the air.
Three different terms humidity :
1. absolute humidity
2. Relative humidity.
3. Specific humidity
1. Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapour divided by the amount of dry air in a certain volume of air
at a particular temperature. The hotter the air is, the more water vapour it can hold. Absolute humidity describes
the water content of air and is expressed in either grams per cubic metre or grams per kilogram.

2. Relative humidity is the ratio of the current absolute humidity to the highest possible absolute humidity,
which will depend upon the current air temperature. Relative humidity is the term weather forecasters use most
often. Relative humidity, expressed as a percentage, indicates a present state of absolute humidity relative to a
maximum humidity given the same temperature.

A relative humidity of 100% means that the air can't hold any more water vapour. It's totally saturated.
When this occurs, it can rain. In fact, the relative humidity must be 100% where clouds are forming for it to
rain. However, at ground level where the rain lands, the relative humidity can be less than 100%.

3. Specific humidity is the ratio of the water vapor in the atmosphere to the air content on a mass basis.
What is the Dew Point?

The definition of dew point is the temperature point at which the air can
hold no more water (water vapor) and is one of the factors in the heat
index. It is always lower or the same as the air temperature. When the
dew point is low, like around 50 - 60°F/10 - 15°C, the air will feel
comfortable. Warm days with dew points over 65°F /18°C are
uncomfortable because sweating is not as effective. A dew point over
70°F/21°C is oppressive and can lead to the issuance of a heat advisory
for those who are sensitive to heat.
How Humidity Occurs
Humidity is the presence of water molecules in the air. High humidity
levels are more likely in warm air, because it can hold more water at higher
temperatures. If the air in your home is warm, it will also have the capacity
to hold a lot of moisture. It’s up to you to determine how much moisture is
available to the air. You will increase humidity levels in the home by:

Showering
Cooking in uncovered pots on the stove
Leaving standing water in a tub or other container
Running a humidifier
If you avoid performing any of these activities, the humidity levels in your home will
likely stay low, even if it’s warm.

Cold air can’t retain as much moisture, so high humidity is less common in chilly
weather. It’s unlikely that you’ll struggle with high humidity and cold temperatures
inside your home. To get this combination, you typically need a steady drizzle falling
outside.

The air won’t retain much of the moisture itself, so it must come from another supply.
Inside your house, lowering the temperature is an effective way to minimize humidity
to a certain extent, because the air simply can’t hold on to the same level of moisture
when it’s cooler.
Humidity in Hot Weather:
When you’re in a warm environment, your body produces sweat to stay
cool. The moisture evaporating off your skin will make you feel cooler. This
is effective if the humidity is low enough, but high humidity can have a
damaging effect on this mechanism.

If the air is already saturated with water, the sweat on your skin can’t
evaporate. This will leave you feeling sticky and warm, even as the body
tries to cool down. High humidity in hot weather will only worsen your
discomfort, as the moisture simply sits on your skin unable to evaporate.
Humidity in Cool Weather:
In cold weather, high humidity levels will make you feel colder. Clothing keeps your
body warm by trapping a small layer of warm air around you. Your own body
temperature warms the air, but your cozy sweatshirt is what keeps it close.

If the air is humid, it has a high water content. It’s more difficult to transfer your body
heat to water than it is to air. As mentioned previously, the process of moisture
evaporating off your skin naturally cools you down. Your body won’t sweat when it’s
cold, but humidity from the air can place moisture on your skin and give you the same
chilly effect.

If the humidity levels are extremely high, the moisture can saturate your clothing. This
leaves chilled water molecules against your skin and makes a cold environment feel even
chillier. High humidity and cold weather will leave you feeling colder than if humidity
levels were low.
 Dew Point vs Humidity
The dew point however, is a better indicator of how much moisture is
in the air. Relative humidity changes as the temperature changes, if
pressure and moisture content remain the same. The dew point,
however, remains constant.

The dew point and relative humidity are the same at 100%. But below
100%, it is the dew point that will indicate how hot and humid the day
feels. For example, it might be 90°F/32°C with humidity at 52%. But the
dew point is 70°F/21°C which means it will feel almost unbearably
uncomfortable.
 Wind

Wind energy is a form of solar energy. The earth receives around 1.7 x
1014 kW of power from the sun in the form of solar radiation. This
radiation heats up the atmospheric air. The intensity of this heating will be
more at the equator (0 degree latitude) as the sun is directly overhead. Air
around the poles gets less warm, as the angle at which the radiation
reaches the surface is more acute.

The density of air decreases with increase in temperature. Thus, lighter air
from the equator rises up into the atmosphere to a certain altitude and then
spreads around. This causes a pressure drop around this region, which
attracts the cooler air from the poles to the equator. This movement of air
causes the wind.
Thus, the wind is generated due to the pressure gradient resulting from the
uneven heating of earth’s surface by the sun. As the very driving force
causing this movement is derived from the sun, wind energy is basically an
indirect form of solar energy. One to two per cent of the total solar radiation
reaching the earth’s surface is converted to wind energy in this way.

The wind described above, which is driven by the temperature difference, is

called the geostrophic wind, or more commonly the global wind. Global
winds, which are not affected by the earth surface, are found at higher
altitudes. The rotation of earth leads to another phenomenon near its surface
called the Coriolis effect, named after the famous mathematician Gustave
Gaspard Coriolis. Due to the
Coriolis effect, the straight movement of air mass from the high pressure
region to the low pressure region is diverted as shown in Fig.. Under the
influence of Coriolis forces, the air move almost parallel to the isobars. Thus,
in the northern hemisphere, wind tends to rotate clockwise where as in the
southern hemisphere the motion is in the anti-clockwise direction.
Wind direction affected by the Coriolis force
What does wind speed depend on?

At the Earth's surface, wind blows horizontally from high pressure to low pressure areas. The
speed is determined by the rate of air pressure change, or gradient, between the two pressure
areas. The greater the pressure difference, the faster the winds.
Is there a correlation between temperature and humidity?
If the water vapour content stays the same and the temperature drops, the relative humidity
increases. If the water vapour content stays the same and the temperature rises, the relative
humidity decreases. This is because colder air doesn't require as much moisture to become
saturated as warmer air.
The speed at which air flows over the surface of water affects the
rate at which the water evaporates. As the wind blows, it sweeps
away airborne water particles that are in the air. The humidity of the
air in the region of this evaporation is reduced, which allows more
water molecules to dissipate into the air.
Surface Area and Temperature

Temperature and the surface area of the water also influence the effects of
wind speed and relative humidity. Water molecules are more exposed to air
and more influenced by wind speed and relative humidity, the more a body
of water is spread out. Water temperature affects how quickly the water
particles move. A water molecule that is moving very quickly is more likely
to burst from the water surface into the air. Air, being a gas, expands at
higher temperatures. Warm air is therefore capable of holding more water
than cold air.
 influence the effects of wind speed
Local effects
Wind shear
Turbulence
Acceleration effect
 Local effects

Changes in velocity and direction of wind near the surface, say up to 100 m
above the ground, is more important as far as energy conversion is concerned.
In this region, the wind pattern is further influenced by several local factors.
Land and sea breezes are examples for the local wind effects. During the day
time, land gets heated faster than the sea surface. As a result, the air near the
land rises, forming a low pressure region. This attracts cool air to the land
from the sea. This is called the sea breeze. During night time, the process gets
reversed as cooling is faster on land. Thus wind blows from the land to the
sea, which is called the land breeze.
In mountain valleys, the air above the surface gets heated and rises up along
the slopes during the day time. This is replaced by the cool air, resulting in the
valley winds. During the night, the flow is from the mountain to the valley
which is known as the mountain wind. Quite often, this phenomenon may
create very strong air currents, developing powerful wind. Wind shear,
turbulence and acceleration over the ridges are some other examples for local
wind effects.
Fig: Variation of wind velocity with height
 Wind shear
The flow of air above the ground is retarded by frictional resistance offered by the earth surface
(boundary layer effect). This resistance may be caused by the roughness of the ground itself or due to
vegetation's, buildings and other structures present over the ground. For example, a typical vertical
wind profile at a site is shown in Fig. Theoretically, the velocity of wind right over the ground surface
should be zero. Velocity increases with height upto a certain elevation. In the above example, the
velocity increases noticeably upto 20 m, above which the surface influence is rather feeble.
The rate at which the velocity increases with height depends on the roughness of the terrain. Presence
of dense vegetation's like plantations, forests, and bushes slows down the wind considerably. Level
and smooth terrains do not have much effect on the wind speed. The surface roughness of a terrain is
usually represented by the roughness class or roughness height. The roughness height of a surface
may be close to zero (surface of the sea) or even as high as 2 (town centers). Some typical values are
0.005 for flat and smooth terrains, 0.025-0.1 for open grass lands, 0.2 to 0.3 for row crops, 0.5 to 1
for orchards and shrubs and 1to 2 for forests, town centers etc.
 Turbulence

Fig: Turbulence created by an obstruction

The speed and direction of wind change rapidly while it passes through rough
surfaces and obstructions like buildings, trees and rocks. This is due to the
turbulence generated in the flow. Extent of this turbulence at the upstream and
downstream of the flow is shown in Fig. The presence of turbulence in the flow not
only reduces the power available in the stream, but also imposes fatigue loads on the
turbine.
Intensity of the turbulence depends on the size and shape of the obstruction. Based
on its nature, the turbulent zone can extend upto 2 times the height of the obstacle in
the upwind side and 10 to 20 times in the downwind side. Its influence in the
vertical direction may be prominent to 2 to 3 times the obstacle height.
Hence before citing the turbine, the obstacles present in the nearby area should be
taken in to account. The tower should be tall enough to overcome the influence of
the turbulence zone.
 Acceleration effect

The acceleration effect over ridges

A smooth ridge, as shown in Fig. , accelerates the wind stream passing over it. The acceleration is caused by the
squeezing of wind layers over the mount as shown in the figure. The degree of acceleration depends on the shape of the
ridge. This effect can be fully exploited for energy generation, if the slope of the ridge is between 6 degree and 16
degree. Angles greater than 27 degree and less than 3degree are not favorable.
Another important factor is the orientation of the ridge. The acceleration
effect is high when the prevailing wind is perpendicular and low when it is
parallel to the ridge line. Similarly, if the ridge has a concave side facing the
wind, the effect is more desirable. Triangular shaped ridges offer better
acceleration followed by the smooth and round geometry. Flat topped ridges
may pose the problem of turbulence, especially in the lower region.

Mountain passes are another geographical feature causing acceleration of

wind. While the flow passes through the notches in the mountain barriers,
due the ventury effect, the wind velocity is enhanced. Geometrical
configuration (Width, length, slope etc.) of the pass itself is the major factor
determining the degree of this acceleration. A pass between two high hills,
oriented parallel to the wind direction, would be a cleverly chosen site for
wind turbines. The smoother the surface, the higher will be the acceleration.
 Time variation
Velocity and direction of wind change rapidly with time. In tune with these changes, the power and
energy available from the wind also vary. The variations may be short time fluctuation, day-night
variation or the seasonal variation.
An example for the short time variation of wind speed is shown in Fig. 3.6 (A), where the velocity is
recorded for 30 s. Here the velocity fluctuates between 5.1 m/s to 7.2 m/s within this time. This short-
spanned change in wind speed is primarily due to the local geographic and weather effects. We may
experience stronger wind during the day time rather than in night hours. This is termed as the diurnal
variation. An example is illustrated in Fig. 3.6 (B). The major reason for the velocity variation here is
the difference in temperature between the sea and land surface. It should be noted that the diurnal
variation can be advantageous for wind energy generation as we may need more power during the
day hours than at night.
Wind speed at a location may also change from season to season as shown in Fig. 3.6 (C). In this
case, the period between July to October is more or less lean for wind energy conversion. The root
cause for seasonal variation is changes in daylight during the year due to the earth’s tilt and elliptical
orbit. This effect is more prominent near the poles. Knowledge of these time variations of velocity at
a potential wind site is essential to ensure that the availability of power matches with the demand.
 Wind shear
The flow of air above the ground is retarded by frictional resistance offered by the
earth surface (boundary layer effect).
This resistance may be caused by the roughness of the ground itself or due to
vegetation's, buildings and other structures present over the ground. For example, a
typical vertical wind profile at a site is shown in Fig.. Theoretically, the velocity of
wind right over the ground surface should be zero. Velocity increases with height
upto a certain elevation. In the above example, the velocity increases noticeably
upto 20 m, above which the surface influence is rather feeble.
 Roughness Length / Height

Roughness length (𝑧0) is a parameter of some vertical wind profile equations

that model the horizontal mean wind speed near the ground. In the log wind
profile, it is equivalent to the height at which the wind speed theoretically
becomes zero in the absence of wind-slowing obstacles and under neutral
conditions. In reality, the wind at this height no longer follows a
mathematical logarithm. It is so named because it is typically related to the
height of terrain roughness elements (i.e. protrusions from and/or
depressions into the surface).

The rate at which the velocity increases with height depends on the
roughness of the terrain. Presence of dense vegetations like plantations,
forests, and bushes slows down the wind considerably. Level and smooth
terrains do not have much effect on the wind speed. The surface roughness of
a terrain is usually represented by the roughness class or roughness height.
The roughness height of a surface may be close to zero (surface of the sea) or
even as high as 2 (town centers). Some typical values are 0.005 for flat and
smooth terrains, 0.025-0.1 for open grass lands, 0.2 to 0.3 for row crops, 0.5
to 1 for orchards and shrubs and 1to 2 for forests, town centers etc.
 Effect of Roughness height
In general, the more pronounced the roughness of the earth's surface, the
more the wind will be slowed down.
Forests and large cities obviously slow the wind down considerably, while
concrete runways in airports will only slow the wind down a little. Water
surfaces are even smoother than concrete runways, and will have even less
influence on the wind, while long grass and shrubs and bushes will slow the
wind down considerably.
Roughness height is an important factor to be considered in the design of
wind energy plants. Suppose we have a wind turbine of 30 m diameter and 40
m tower height, installed over the terrain described in Fig.. The tip of the
blade, in its lower position, would be 25 m above the ground. Similarly, at the
extreme upper position, the blade tip is 55 m above the ground. As we see, the
wind velocities at these heights are different. Thus, the forces acting on the
blades as well as the power available would significantly vary during the
rotation of the blades. This effect can be minimized by increasing the tower
height.
The wind data available at meteorological stations might have been collected from
different sensor heights. In most of the cases, the data are logged at 10 m as per
recommendations of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). In wind
energy calculations, we are concerned with the velocity available at the rotor height.
The data collected at any heights can be extrapolated to other heights on the basis of
the roughness height of the terrain.
Due to the boundary layer effect, wind speed increases with the height in a
logarithmic pattern. If the wind data is available at a height Z and the roughness
height is Z , then the velocity at a height Z is given by
0 R

where V (ZR) and V(Z) are the velocities at heights ZR and Z respectively. Thus, if the velocity of wind
measured at a height of 10 m is 7 m/s and the roughness height is 0.1, the velocity at 40 m above the ground is
9.1 m/s. It should be noted that the power available at 40 m is 2.2 times higher than at 10 m. The wind
velocities at different heights relative to that at 10 m, as affected by the roughness heights,
it is logical to assume that the wind velocity is not significantly affected
by the surface characteristics beyond a certain height. This height may
be taken as 60 m from the ground level .Thus, expressing the velocity at
60 m in terms of the reference location.
Dividing Eq.
 Wind speed Impact of Tower Height

The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the drag of the surface (sea or land)
and the viscosity of the air. Wind power is proportional to the cube of the wind speed; the
economic impact of even modest increases in wind speed can be significant. One way to
get the turbine into higher winds is to mount it on a taller tower. In the first few hundred
meters above the ground, wind speed is greatly affected by the friction that the air
experiences as it moves across the earth’s surface. Smooth surfaces, such as a calm sea,
offer very little resistance, and the variation of speed with elevation is only modest. At the
other extreme, surface winds are slowed considerably by high irregularities such as forests
and buildings. One expression that is often used to characterize the impact of the
roughness of the earth’s surface on wind speed is the following

Where v is the wind speed at height H, is the wind speed at height H_0 (often a reference
height of 10 m), and α is the friction coefficient. The friction coefficient α is a function of
the terrain over which the wind blows.
Fig. shows the impact of friction coefficient on wind speed assuming a reference height
of 10 m, which is a commonly used standard elevation for an anemometer. As can be
seen from the figure, for a smooth surface (α = 0.1), the wind at 100 m is only about
25% higher than at 10 m, while for a site in a “small town” (α = 0.3), the wind at 100 m
is estimated to be twice that at 10 m. The impact of height on power is even more
impressive as shown in For α=0.2(hedges and crops) at 50m, wind speed increases by a
factor of almost 1.4 and wind power increases by about 2.6.

Figure .Increasing (a) wind speed and (b) Power ratios with height for various friction coefficients & using
a reference height 10 m.