1.

Coordination = When the various parts, organs and systems of an organism work
together so that the whole organism can carry out its life processes, function
effectively, and survive in its environment.

2. A change in the environment is the stimulus

3. The reaction of the organism to it is the response.

4. This response to stimulus is important for the organism to survive in the

environment.

5. Two systems are responsible for the coordination of all cells and systems in the
body:
a) The Nervous System
b) The Hormonal System (Endocrine System)

6. Simple division of the Nervous System:

Sense Organs and Receptors

1. We have different types of sense organs in our body. They have specific receptors
(cells) that can detect specific stimuli.

2. Eye – receptor cells sensitive to light, black and white as well as colours.

3. Ear – sensitive to vibration of air (sound) in the inner ears.

4. Tongue – different taste buds to sense different taste – including sweet, sour, bitter
and salty.

5. Nose – special cells with cilia (tiny hairs) at the roof of the nasal cavity – sensitive to
smell/odour.

6. Skin – hot receptors, cold receptors, touch and pain receptors, pressure receptors

Nervous System
1. The Nervous System can be divided into CNS and PNS

2. CNS (Central Nervous System) = Brain + Spinal Cord

3. PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) = All the Nerves from the Brain (12 pairs of Cranial
nerves) and the Spinal Cord (31 pairs of Spinal nerves)

4. Our brain is well protected in order to function properly at all times.

 The outmost is the Skin
 The thick bony Skull
 3 layers of membranes called Meninges.
 The fluid called Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) ing as a cushion to protect the brain
against bumps and knocks.– it gives nutrients to the brain as well as act

Human Brain
1. The human brain weighs about 1.5 Kg, just only 2% of the body weight.
2. But, the brain uses 20% of energy to function properly.
3. There are 3 main parts of the brain.
4. Different parts of the Cerebrum are responsible for specific functions.

Part Main functions Damage

 controls your voluntary actions

like running and walking  deterioration in
 for body sensations like pain and memory
Cerebrum hearing  paralysis
 for learning  impairment in speech
 for emotions  blindness
 for memory

to coordinate your movements,

your movements become
Cerebellum posture and keeping your balance;
jerky and uncoordinated
necessary for walking.

controls our breathing, heartbeat,

Medulla death
blood pressure, and circulation.

Nerve Cells or Neurons

1. Neurons (also known as neurones and nerve cells) are electrically excitable cells in
the nervous system that process and transmit information, known as impulses.

2. Neurons are the core components of the brain, the spinal cord and the peripheral
nerves.

3. The human brain has about 100 billion neurons.

4. The structure of a neuron: a Cell body with numerous short dendrites and a long
extension called axon, ending up with axon terminals or knobs.

5. Myelin sheath is made of cells that wrap around the axon to allow nerve impulses to
transmit quickly.
6. There are 3 main types of neurons in our nervous system: Sensory, Motor and Relay
neurons.

7. Sensory neurons - send information from sensory receptors (e.g., in skin, eyes, nose,
tongue, ears) TOWARD the central nervous system.

8. Motor neurons - send information AWAY from the central nervous system to muscles
or glands.

9. Interneurons (Relay neurons) - send information between sensory neurons and

motor neurons. Most interneurons are located in the central nervous system.

10. The Synapse = the junction between two neurons (axon-to-dendrite) or between a
neuron and a muscle. Nerve impulses cross a synapse through the action of
neurotransmitters.

Reflex Action (A type of Involuntary Action)

1. Reflex Action - is involuntary, automatic and almost instant movement in response
to stimulus.

2. A reflex action is mediated via the reflex arc.

a. The stimulus is received by a pain receptor in the paw/foot
b. The information is transmitted to the Spinal Cord by the sensory neuron of the
peripheral nerve.
c. Within the spinal cord, the sensory neuron synapses with the interneuron.
 d. In turn, the interneuron synapses with the motor neuron's cell body. The axon of
the effector neuron carries the information to the effector (leg muscle).
e. The effector (leg muscle) receives the command to act – withdrawal the leg.

3. Other examples of Reflex action:

 when you prick your finger by suppose touching thorns you take your finger
immediately.
 when our hand accidentally touches a hot object, it is withdrawn
 Knee Jerk - When the underside of our knee is hit with a rubber hammer, it
gives a jerk
 sudden curling of tongue while drinking hot tea or coffee.
 touch a small baby’s foot and he/she tend to fold his foot
 The cough reflex is set off by an irritant in the trachea and the sneeze reflex
by one in the nose.
 When the light is turned on after seeing a movie in the cinema, your pupils
constrict (become smaller) to reduce the amount of light.
 Secretion of saliva at the sight and smell of food.
 Yawning and Hiccup are also reflex actions.

4. Compare and contrast between a reflex action and a voluntary action

Reflex Action Voluntary Action

Involuntary action – not under our will; eg. Under our will, eg. Walking, picking up an
Sneezing and knee jerk object

Very quick action – not involving the brain Slower – requiring thought by the brain

The same stimulus produces the same The same stimulus may produce different
response responses

Inborn Learned in life

Always involving receptors to pick up

Not almost involving stimulus
stimuli

Endocrine (Hormonal) System

1. Endocrine glands = Ductless Secreting glands that produce Hormones.

2. The hormones will go to the blood stream and reaches their target organs.

3. This is different from the Exocrine glands where they have ducts for the secretions
(not hormones) to go another organ for action.
eg. Salivary glands produce saliva in the mouth; Pancreatic juice produced by
Pancreas will go to the small intestine for digestion of food.

4. Functions of Different Hormones:

Hormones Glands Action

Insulin Pancreas To control the blood glucose level

Adrenalin Adrenal glands Readiness for flight or fight

Thyroxin Thyroid glands To maintain metabolism

Growth
Pituitary glands For normal growth of the body
Hormones

Antidiuretic
Pituitary glands For water balance
Hormones

Male sexual development

Testosterone Testis
Male Secondary Sexual Characteristics

Female sexual development

Oestrogen Ovary
Female Secondary Sexual Characteristics

5. Differences between nervous and hormonal coordination.

Nervous System Hormonal System

Coordinating the body by sending Coordinating the body by different

impulses via nerve cells hormones acting on different target cells.

Quicker action Much slower action

Involving electro-chemical impulses Involving hormones

Short-lived Longer action

Homeostasis
1. Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively stable conditions within the body's
internal environment despite external changes.

2. Eg. constant temperature, blood glucose level (BGL), blood pressure, blood pH,
hormone level.

3. The body's homeostatic mechanisms are controlled mainly by the Nervous System,
and the Endocrine System by feedback mechanisms.

Control of Blood Glucose Level

1. Glucose is the main chemical for respiration to release energy.
2. High glucose level after a meal, the pancreas will be signaled to release more the
hormone insulin.
3. Insulin causes glucose to be absorbed by body cells and liver.
4. The BGL will be back to normal
3.9 and 5.5 mmol/L (unit).
5. In the morning, glucose level is low, pancreas secretes another hormone Glucagon,
causing liver to release glucose into the blood stream; restoring normal BGL.
6. Diabetes is a very common disease nowadays. It is caused as a result of lack of the
hormone “Insulin” secreted by the Pancreas.
Control of Thyroxine in the blood
1. The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary produces a hormone called Thyroid Stimulating
Hormone (TSH) to stimulate the Thyroid glands to produce Thyroxine.
2. The Thyroxine controls the metabolic rate and growth of cells.
3. A high level of Thyroxine will signal both the hypothalamus and Pituitary to produce
less TSH, this is known as negative feedback mechanism.
4. Less Thyroxine is produced. Of course when the hormone is too low, then more TSH
will be produced again.
Control of Body Temperature
1. The ideal internal temperature 36.1°C to 37.2°C in order for the body to function
properly.
2. A temperature below 35.1°C is known as Hypothermia - a medical emergency that
occurs when your body loses heat faster than it can produce heat, causing a
dangerously low body temperature.
3. A fever occurs when the body temperature rises above normal ie. 37°C. It becomes
dangerous when the temperature increases more than 38 °C .
4. A part of the brain called the hypothalamus controls body temperature, which
usually varies throughout the day from the normal temperature of 37°C.
5. Temperature receptors in the skin detect changes in the external temperature.
They pass this information to the processing centre in the brain, called
the hypothalamus.
6. The processing centre also has temperature receptors to detect changes in the
temperature of the blood. The processing centre automatically triggers changes to
the effectors to ensure our body temperature remains constant, at 37°C.
7. The effectors are sweat glands, muscles and blood vessels
8. When the body temperature is lower than normal: Tiny muscles in the skin can
quickly pull the hairs upright to reduce heat loss (thicker layer of air trapped) – very
important in furry animals (not as important in humans); the muscles around the
internal organs and the muscles of the arms and legs contract rapidly (shivering).
This action generates heat. Vaso-constriction - the blood vessels under the skin
become narrower, this reduces heat loss.
9. When the body temperature is higher: Hairs lay them down flat to increase heat loss.
Sweat glands in the skin secrete sweat onto the surface to increase heat loss by
evaporation. This cools the body. Sweat secretion slows when the body temperature
returns to normal. Vaso-dilation - the blood vessels under the skin widen, this
increases heat loss.
Response to a Fight or Flight Response
1. The fight-or-flight response (or the acute stress response) is a physiological
reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to
survival.
2. The hypothalamus (small part of the brain near the pituitary gland, is responsible for
the stress reponse. It acts directly via the nervous system to the adrenal glands to
produce adrenaline (a stress hormone).
3. Hypothalamus also makes hormones and acts on pituitary gland; the pituitary
secretes another hormone that acts on the adrenal gland to produce numerous
stress hormones.
4. Effects of Adrenaline and other stress hormones:
i. heart rate and blood pressure increase
ii. pupils dilate to take in as much light as possible
iii. veins in skin constrict to send more blood to major muscle groups (responsible
for the "chill" sometimes associated with fear -- less blood in the skin to keep it
warm)
iv. blood-glucose level increases
v. muscles tense up, energized by adrenaline and glucose (responsible for goose
bumps -- when tiny muscles attached to each hair on surface of skin tense up,
the hairs are forced upright, pulling skin with them)
 vi. smooth muscle relaxes in order to allow more oxygen into the lungs
vii. nonessential systems (like digestion and immune system) shut down to allow
more energy for emergency functions
viii. trouble focusing on small tasks (brain is directed to focus only on big picture in
order to determine where threat is coming from)
5. All of these physical responses are intended to help you survive a dangerous
situation by preparing you to either run for your life or fight for your life (thus the
term "fight or flight"). Fear -- and the fight-or-flight response in particular -- is an
instinct that every animal possesses.