Traffic

Engineering CE
431

Cenk OZAN, PhD

Assist. Prof.
Adnan Menderes
University Engineering
Faculty
Civil Engineering Department

Section 5:
Traffic Control
Devices and
Intersection Control
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 Traffic Control Devices 3

Traffic control devices are defined as all signs, signals, markings,

and other devices used to regulate, warn, or guide traffic, placed
on, over, or adjacent to a street, highway, pedestrian facility, or
bikeway by authority of a public agency having jurisdiction.

To be effective, a traffic control device should:

 fulfill a need.
command attention.
convey a clear, simple meaning.
command respect from road users.
give adequate time for proper response.

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Purposes of Traffic Control Devices
Traffic control devices normally provide visual information for the
road users in order to:

1. Regulate traffic. So that users are:

a. Informed of speed limits, parking restrictions, one-way
operation, no passing zones, load limits, turn prohibitions, road
closures, restricted pedestrians crossings, etc.
b. Instructed to take required action — e.g., stop, yield, use
a specific lane, keep to the right.
c. Informed of permitted maneuvers — e.g., turn left from
two lanes, execute the maneuver indicated by green arrows.

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Purposes of Traffic Control Devices

2. Warn road users. So that users are:

a. Told about the presence of geometric features with
potential hazards - e.g., curves, intersections, grades. b. Informed
of major changes in roadway character - e.g., road narrows,
one-lane bridge, divided highway ends, pavement ends.
 c. Told about obstructions or other physical hazards in or
near the roadway - e.g., bump, bridge abutments or piers, low
clearances - or areas where hazards may exist under certain
conditions - e.g., schools, slide areas, slippery pavement, railroad
crossings.
d. Inform the motorist of regulatory Controls ahead - e.g.,
signal, stop, or speed zone.
e. Advise the driver of appropriate action - e.g., safe speed,
lateral placement, merging traffic.
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Purposes of Traffic Control Devices

3. Advise road users. Provide:

a. Route identification - e.g., markers (freeways, highways),
city street signs, truck routes.
b. Directions - e.g., destination and distance signs, junction
signs, interchange signing.
 c. Delineation of lane or roadway - e.g., painted lines, raised
pavement markers, delineators, pavement edge markings. d.
Traveler information - e.g., street names, rest areas, services,
parking areas, scenic areas, first-aid locations, kmposts, stream
names, elevations, landmarks.

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Definition and categories of traffic control devices Traffic
control devices are defined as the media by which traffic engineers
communicate with road users.
A good communication between traffic engineers and road users
can ensure the safe and efficient traffic operations.

⚫ Traffic markings
⚫ Traffic signs
⚫ Traffic signals

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Traffic markings
Traffic markings are defined as lines or line drawings, which are painted
on the roadway surface using paint and thermoplastic.
⚫ Longitudinal markings: parallel to the direction of travel to provide
guidance for the placement of vehicles on the road. The function of
longitudinal markings is to organize flow and optimize use of the
pavement width.
Centerlines: double-solid yellow line and double-dashed yellow
line (for passing); double-dashed yellow lines (reversible lane); Lane
markings
Edge markings
⚫ Transverse markings:
Stop lines
Crosswalk markings
Parking space markings
Word and symbol markings
⚫ Object markers and delineators
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Traffic signs
Traffic sings are used to regulate, warn and guide roadway users in
the traffic operations to guarantee the safe and efficient
movements of people and goods. In general, there are three types
of traffic signs: regulatory, warning, and guide signs.

⚫ Regulatory signs: to convey information related to specific

traffic regulations such as right-of-way, speed limit, lane usage,
parking, and others
(a) right-of-way: STOP, YIELD, ONE WAY, WRONG
 WAY, (b) speed limit,
(c) turn prohibition signs,
(d) land-use signs,
(e) parking control signs.

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Traffic signs
⚫ Warning signs: to inform drivers about upcoming hazards that
they might not see or otherwise discern in time to safely react (a)
change in horizontal alignment
(b) intersection in front of
(c) grades (downhill)
(d) construction site
(e) railroad crossings
⚫ Guide signs: to provide information on routes, destinations, and
services
(a) route marker
(b) destination signs
(c) service guide signs
(d) kmposts
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Traffic signals
The function of traffic signals is to assign the right-of-way for the
conflicting traffic streams. Their objective is to ensure the safe and
efficient movement of traffic flow.
⚫ Traffic control signals
(a) signal indications: green ball, yellow ball, red ball, flashing
ball, arrow indications
(b) signal faces and visibility requirements
 (c) operational restrictions
⚫ Pedestrian signals
⚫ Signal at freeway entrance
⚫ Signal for draw bridges
⚫ Lane-use control signal
⚫ Flashing beacon

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 signal faces and visibility
Pedestrian signals Flashing beacon

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 Intersection Control

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Intersection is regarded as the bottleneck in urban street network.

An intersection is the general area where two or more highways
join or cross, including the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic
movements within it.
The critical task of the traffic engineer is to manage the conflicts
occurred at intersections in a manner that ensures safety and
provides for efficient movement through the intersection for both
motorists and pedestrians.

Hierarchy of intersection control:

⚫ Level I: basic rules of the road
⚫ Level II: YIELD or STOP control
⚫ Level III: Signalization

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Level I: basic rules of the road

⚫ Drivers on the left must yield to the driver on the

right, ⚫ Through vehicles have the right-of-way over
turning vehicles,
⚫ Stopping sight distance
 ⚫ Concept of sight triangle (sight triangle is dynamic).

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Level II: YIELD or STOP control

⚫ Two-way STOP sign control (TWSC): Sight distance
criterion for two-way STOP sign.

⚫ YIELD sign is only used for the major-minor roadway by

assigning right-of-way to the major uncontrolled street.
Sight distance, when using a YIELD sign, should be at least
as good as those required for application of basic rules of
the road.

⚫ Multi-way (full-way, or all-way) STOP sign control: crash

history, and volumes.

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Level II: YIELD or STOP control

⚫ Capacity analysis of TWSC intersections:
1. Priority
of

movements of TWSC intersection

 Traffic streams at a TWSC intersection
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Level II: YIELD or STOP control

⚫ Capacity analysis of TWSC intersections:
2. Gap acceptance theory
 a) Critical gap: The critical gap is defined as the minimum average
acceptable gap that allows intersection entry for one minor-street
(or major-street left turn) vehicle. The gap is measured as the
clear time in the traffic stream defined by all of the conflicting
movements.
b) Follow-up time: The follow-up time is defined as the minimum
average acceptable time for a second queued minor-street
vehicle to use a gap large enough to admit two or more vehicles
to transverse.
It should be noted here that critical gaps and follow-up time are
obtained from field observations.

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Level III: Traffic Signalization

Traffic signals may be defined as power-operated signal displays
used to regulate or warn traffic. In a broad sense, traffic signals
include displays for intersection control, flashing beacons, lane
directional signals, ramp metering signals, pedestrian signals,
railroad crossing signals, and similar devices.

If properly designed signals will:

⚫ Provide for orderly flow of traffic
⚫ Reduce frequency and severity of some crashes
⚫ Increase capacity
⚫ Provide gaps for minor movements
⚫ coordinate continuous movement along arterial
⚫ protect pedestrians and bikers

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Level III: Traffic Signalization
If improperly designed may:
⚫ Result in excessive delay
⚫ Increase frequency of some crashes
⚫ Cause disregard for the signal
⚫ Encourage drivers to use less appropriate routes

It is required that a comprehensive engineering study be

conducted to determine whether or not installation of a signal is
justified. In addition, an engineering judgment also plays an
important role in the determination of signal installation.
It should be noted that signals should be installed only where no
other solution or form of control would be effective in assuring
safety and efficiency at the intersection.

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Some basic principles:

⚫ volume principle
⚫ pedestrian and cyclist principle
⚫ school crossing principle
⚫ coordination principle
⚫ crash principle

In conclusion, no signal should be placed without an engineering

study, showing that the criteria of at least one of the warrants are
met. However, meeting one or more of these warrants does not
necessitate signalization.

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Levels of intersection control

The control of an intersection can be exercised at different levels.
They can be either passive control, semi-control, or active
control.
In passive control, there is no explicit control on the driver. In semi
control, some amount of control on the driver is there from the
traffic agency.
Active control means the movement of the traffic is fully controlled
by the traffic agency and the drivers cannot simply maneuver the
intersection according to his/her choice.

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Levels of intersection control
Passive control
When the volume of traffic is less, no explicit control is required.
Here the road users are required to obey the basic rules of the
road. Passive control like traffic signs, road markings etc. are used
to complement the intersection control. Some of the intersection
control that are classified under passive control are as follows:
1. No control: If the traffic coming to an intersection is low, then by
applying the basic rules of the road like driver on the left side of the
road must yield and that through movements will have priority than
turning movements. The driver is expected to obey these basic
rules of the road.

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Levels of intersection control

Passive control
2. Traffic signs: With the help of warning signs, guide signs etc. it
is able to provide some level of control at an intersection. Give way
control, two-way stop control, and all-way stop control are some
examples.
The GIVE WAY control requires the driver in the minor road to slow
down to a minimum speed and allow the vehicle on the major road
to proceed. Two way stop control requires the vehicle drivers on
the minor streets should see that the conflicts are avoided.

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Levels of intersection control

Passive control
2. Traffic signs: Finally an all-way stop control is usually used
when it is difficult to differentiate between the major and minor
roads in an intersection. In such a case, STOP sign is placed on all
the approaches to the intersection and the driver on all the
approaches are required to stop the vehicle. The vehicle at the
right side will get priority over the left approach.
The traffic control at ’at-grade’ intersection may be uncontrolled in
cases of low traffic. Here the road users are required to obey the
basic rules of the road. Passive control like traffic signs, road
markings etc. are used to complement the intersection control.

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Levels of intersection control

Passive control
3. Traffic signs plus marking: In addition to the traffic signs, road
markings also complement the traffic control at intersections. Some
of the examples include stop line marking, yield lines, arrow
marking etc.

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Levels of intersection control

Semi-control
In semi control or partial control, the drivers are gently guided to
avoid conflicts. Channelization and roundabouts-traffic circles
(rotaries) are two examples of this.
Channelization: The traffic is separated to flow through definite
paths by raising a portion of the road in the middle usually called as
islands distinguished by road markings. The conflicts in traffic
movements are reduced to a great extent in such a case. In
channelized intersections, as the name suggests, the traffic is
directed to flow through different channels and this physical
separation is made possible with the help of some barriers in the
road like traffic islands, road markings etc.

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Levels of intersection control
Semi-control
Roundabouts and Traffic circles (rotaries): It is a form of
intersection control in which the traffic is made to flow along one
direction around a traffic island. The essential principle of this
control is to convert all the severe conflicts like through and left turn
conflicts into milder conflicts like merging, weaving and diverging. It
is a form of ‘at-grade’ intersection laid out for the movement of
traffic such that no through conflicts are there. Free-right turn is
permitted where as through traffic and left-turn traffic is forced to
move around the central island in a counter clockwise direction in
an orderly manner. Merging, weaving and diverging operations
reduces the conflicting movements at the rotary.

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Levels of intersection control

Active control
Active control implies that the road user will be forced to follow the
path suggested by the traffic control agencies. He/She cannot
maneuver according to his/her wish. Traffic signals and
interchanges (grade separated intersections) come under this
classification.

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Levels of intersection control
Active control
Traffic signals:
Control using traffic signal is based on time sharing approach. At a
given time, with the help of appropriate signals, certain traffic
movements are restricted whereas certain other movements are
permitted to pass through the intersection. Two or more phases
may be provided depending upon the traffic conditions of the
intersection. When the vehicles traversing the intersection is very
large, then the control is done with the help of signals. The phases
provided for the signal may be two or more. If more than two
phases are provided, then it is called multi-phase signal.

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Levels of intersection control

Active control
Traffic signals:
The signals can operate in several modes. Most common are fixed
time signals and vehicle actuated signals.
In fixed time signals, the cycle time, phases and interval of each
signal is fixed. Each cycle of the signal will be exactly like another.
But they cannot cater to the needs of the fluctuating traffic.
On the other hand, vehicle actuated signals can respond to
dynamic traffic situations. Vehicle detectors will be placed on the
streets approaching the intersection and the detector will sense the
presence of the vehicle and pass the information to a controller. The
controller then sets the cycle time and adjusts the phase lengths
according to the prevailing traffic conditions.

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Levels of intersection control
Active control
Interchanges (Grade separated intersections):
The intersections are of two types. They are intersections (at-grade
intersections) and interchanges (grade-separated intersections).
In intersections (at-grade intersections), all roadways join or cross
at the same vertical level.
Interchanges (grade-separated intersections) allows the traffic to
cross at different vertical levels. Sometimes the topography itself
may be helpful in constructing such intersections. Otherwise, the
initial construction cost required will be very high. Therefore, they
are usually constructed on high-speed facilities like expressways,
freeways etc. These type of intersection increases the road capacity
because vehicles can flow with high speed and accident potential is
also reduced due to vertical separation of traffic.
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