Journal of Environmental Management 67 (2003) 55–65

www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Silvicultural management in maintaining biodiversity and resistance

of forests in Europe—temperate zone
Heinrich Spiecker*
Institut für Waldwachstum, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Tennenbacherstr. 4, D-79085 Freiburg, Germany
Received 2 August 2002; accepted 8 August 2002

Abstract
In Europe temperate forests play a prominent role in timber production, nature protection, water conservation, erosion control and
recreation. For centuries temperate forests in Europe have been affected by forest devastation and soil degradation. Applying great efforts to
eliminate the severe wood shortage of those days, countermeasures were taken during the last 150 years by regenerating and tending highly
productive forests. High growth rates and an increasing growing stock of these forests indicate that formerly stated goals have been
successfully achieved. Coniferous species were often favoured because they were easy to establish and manage, and gave reason for high
volume growth expectations. Today coniferous forests expand far beyond the limits of their natural ranges.
These changes have been accompanied by a loss of biodiversity, a shift to nonsite adapted tree species and reduce the resistance against
storms, snow, ice, droughts, insects and fungi. Some of these hazards were further intensified by the increasing average stand age, as well as
in some areas by severe air pollution. Climatic fluctuations, especially changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme warm and dry
climatic conditions and of heavy storms, had considerable impact on forest ecosystems.
The changing demands of today require a widened scope of forest management. Society is asking for sustainable forestry emphasizing
biodiversity and naturalistic forest management. It is of great economic and ecological relevance to know on which sites today’s forests are
most susceptible to climatic and other environmental changes and hazards. In those areas adjustments of management through a conversion
the prevailing forests towards more site adapted mixed forests needs to be considered with priority. The high diversity in site conditions,
ownership, economic and socio-cultural conditions require strategies adapted to the local and regional needs. Higher resistance of forests will
increase economic and social benefits of forests and reduce the risks by maintaining sustainable forestry.
q 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Biodiversity; European forests; Environmental changes; Forest resistance; Forest management; Risk; Temperate zone

1. Situation and late frost as well as herbivorous population density

(Schmidt-Vogt, 1987).
1.1. History of temperate forests in Europe The forests in the temperate zone of Europe span large
parts of western and central Europe (Fig. 1). The Atlantic
Temperate forests in Europe cover a large bioclimato- climate in the western part turns to a continental climate
logical range from oceanic to continental forests, from with decreasing humidity and higher temperature variation
floodplain to mountain forests up to the alpine timberline. in the eastern part of Europe. Large areas in the temperate
Temperate forest ecosystems seldom consist of just one tree zone have been converted to agricultural land, and former
species. Naturally pure stands can be found only on forest area has been used for buildings, roads and other land
particular extreme sites (Mitscherlich, 1978; Schmidt-Vogt, uses. Some decades ago this development has changed.
1991). Natural composition of tree species is governed by Forest area in Europe has increased from 1980 to 1995 by
competition with other species, history of migration 4.1%, which is higher than increases observed in other
modified by mountain barriers, edaphic factors, and insects, developed countries (FAO, 1997). Similar increases in
which leads to an incomplete migration, by climatic forest area can be found in almost all countries in the
conditions such as drought periods in summer, frost dryness temperate zone of Europe. In some countries the area of
forests available for wood supply has decreased while the
* Tel.: þ49-761-203-3737; fax: þ49-761-203-3740. area not available for wood supply has increased (TBFRA,
E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Spiecker). 2000). In the European part of the Russian Federation
0301-4797/02/$ - see front matter q 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0301-4797(02)00188-3
56 H. Spiecker / Journal of Environmental Management 67 (2003) 55–65

60% of the forest area is broadleaved dominated. In most

countries ‘high forest’ is by far the most common
silvicultural category. However, in Bulgaria, France,
Liechtenstein, Republic of Moldova and Ukraine coppice
forests and coppice with standards contribute to more than
40% of the forest area. Most high forests are even aged.
Only in some countries, for example, in Croatia, Germany,
Liechtenstein, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland, the area
of uneven aged forests amounts for 15% and more
(data: TBFRA, 2000).

2. Problems

For centuries temperate forests in Europe have been

affected by forest devastation and soil degradation by
exploitation, grazing and litter racking. Applying great
Fig. 1. Temperate forest zone in Europe. The ecological zone map has been
developed, based on the Köppen-Trewartha climate system in combination
efforts to eliminate the severe wood shortage of those days
with natural vegetation characteristics (FRA, 2000). (Kirby and Watkins, 1998), successful countermeasures
were taken during the last 150 years by regenerating and
the area of forests has also increased by 1.2 mill. ha during tending highly productive forests. Coniferous species,
the period from 1966 to 1998 (Pisarenko et al., 2001). primarily Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway
Currently about 26% of the total area is covered with often spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.), were often favoured
fragmented forests (Fig. 2). because they were easy to establish and to manage and
As site conditions, ownership and cultural, economic and gave reason for high volume growth expectations.
social conditions vary at short distances in temperate forests Also Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco)
of Europe also forest management differs locally. European has been introduced, driven by the same motivation.
temperate forests today are the result of centuries of human Additional advantages of coniferous species were the low
activities. In some countries, for example, Denmark, United cost of planting, including low repair planting required,
Kingdom, Ireland and The Netherlands, the forest cover is relatively low deer browsing damage and solid knowledge
only about 10% of the total area, while in other countries of of the management of these forests. By substituting faster
the temperate zone, for example, Austria, Estonia, Latvia, growing species for less productive species not only has
Liechtenstein, Slovakia, and Slovenia the forest cover wood production increased, revenues have increased even
exceeds 40%. In Austria, Ireland, Poland and United more because of the higher softwood prices as compared to
Kingdom more than 60% of the forest area is coniferous hardwood prices at that time.
dominated while in Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Hungary, Today the area covered by coniferous species expands
Luxemburg, Romania and Republic of Moldova more than far beyond the limits of their natural range. Consequently,
the current species composition of temperate forests in
Europe is mainly determined by former management rather
than by natural factors (Ellenberg, 1986). European
temperate forests today are the result of centuries of
human activities. Most of the forests have been planted or
seeded and species composition has been subject to drastic
changes. In central Europe broad-leaved species dominated
the forest by covering approximately 2/3 of the area until this
was reversed on many sites by human activities (Mayer,
1984). The area of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.),
oaks (Quercus sp.) and other broad-leaved species has been
reduced while the area of Scots pine and Norway spruce has
been increased substantially.
Norway spruce and Scots pine today are common and
economically most important tree species in the temperate
forests of Europe. The highest coverage of Norway spruce
Fig. 2. Changes in forest cover of the temperate zone in Europe: original
in European temperate forests with more than 25% of the
forests (dark grey) and current forests (light grey). Source: http://www. total land area is found in Austria where 350 000 ha
globalforestwatch.org/english/interactive.maps. are covered with Norway spruce and Scotch pine forests
 H. Spiecker / Journal of Environmental Management 67 (2003) 55–65 57

outside their natural ranges (Prskawetz, 2000). A rather high management. The discussion about the future of the forest
coverage of Norway spruce of 15 –25% of the total land and sector has never been more intensive and politically-
more than 25% of the forest area can be found in Czech orientated than it is today.
Republic and Slovakia. In Switzerland and Germany Currently, a more ecological oriented approach of forest
Norway spruce covers 10 – 15% of the total land and more management is being applied (Rykowski et al., 1999). As
than 30% of the forest land. In these two countries spruce management has formed the current forests it is justified to
has been often planted within its natural range in the ask the question on how future management can scope with
mountains but also outside, especially in hilly regions and new objectives such as maintaining biodiversity and
lowlands. resistance.
The western border of the Norway spruce area has been Forest management affects biological diversity on
moved considerable to the west. Substantial Norway spruce various levels: genes, individual organisms, species, popu-
areas that extend beyond the natural range can be found in lations, biotic communities, ecosystems, landscapes and
Belgium, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, and in Denmark, regions. As forest management affects directly the compo-
where Norway spruce covers about half of the 10% of forest sition of structural species such as trees, shrubs and herbs, it
land, but also in Great Britain, Ireland and in various parts of affects mosaic patterns of forests in various development
France. Best growth is often found outside of its natural stages, the amount of dead wood in forests, the vertical
range (Schmidt-Vogt, 1987). Although Norway spruce is structure of habitats, and forms edge habitats. Unfortunately
said to be a species adapted to continental climate, warm only limited information about composition, structure and
winters seem not to have a detrimental impact on Norway function of forest ecosystems is available on a large scale.
spruce; long growing seasons may even increase growth Assessment of, and planning for, forest diversity requires a
rates. Scots pine has become popular on dry and temperate set of new methods that provide sound information on the
continental sites. In addition, these forests are also subjected current state of forests and their reactions to management
to a variety of other anthropogenic influences such as activities. Currently, the implementation of management
atmospheric deposition, chemistry of the air, and changes concepts is difficult because it is not easy to plan for aims
caused by unbalanced game populations (Weidenbach, that cannot be measured adequately (Köhl et al., 1998). It is
2001). assumed that forest structure such as tree species compo-
sition, tree age composition and standing woody biomass
have strong impact on biological diversity and forest
3. Objective resistance. As information on these parameters is available
on a large scale they will be discussed here in more detail.
In this paper it will be reviewed and discussed the
changes in the stand structure, growth and conditions of 4.2. Changes in tree species composition
temperate forests in Europe, the causes of changes and
measures how the forest structure could be converted by Tree species composition in the temperate forests in
silvicultural measures towards more resistance structure in Europe has been historically subject to drastic changes.
order to maintain the long term sustainability. Genetic diversity has been reduced during glacial times.
Immigration during the warmer interglacials could not
compensate for the extinction during the cold periods.
4. Recent changes and future perspectives for managing Later on, land use had a major effect on tree species
temperate forests in Europe composition. While starting at the end of the thirteenth
century and, more extensively, during the last 200 years,
4.1. Recent changes in forest management aims conifers have been introduced on sites naturally dominated
by broadleaved species currently the question is raised
Forest management recently has been affected by the whether these forests should be converted to broadleaved
relatively decreasing importance of commodity functions of forests again. Motivation for the reverse change in tree
forests. Rapid changes occur in energy sources, changes in species composition is the evidence of disadvantages
production and traffic technologies, as well as changes in the associated with pure coniferous forests under certain
use of wood for construction work. In addition, with rising conditions: the risk of increased mortality under drought
living standards, protective, environmental, social and conditions, relatively high susceptibility to storm, snow and
cultural functions became more important. Changing social ice, with rather high salvage cuttings as well as higher
demands today require a widened scope of forest manage- susceptibility to fungi and insects. In addition, a shift of tree
ment and principles of sustainable forest management, species composition closer to that determined by the current
forest laws, directions and regulations are being reviewed climatic and edaphic conditions is expected to increase the
(see e.g. resolutions H1 and H2 of Helsinki Ministerial capacity of forest to adapt to changing climatic conditions.
Conference, 1993). Society is asking for sustainable Increased hardwood prices relatively to softwood and
forestry emphasizing biodiversity and naturalistic forest the popularity of close to nature forestry stimulate this
58 H. Spiecker / Journal of Environmental Management 67 (2003) 55–65

shift towards more broad-leaved species as well. Volume Plusczyk, 2001; Knoke et al., 2001). The conversion of
growth is judged as less important, while wood quality even-aged coniferous forests not only require investments
receives higher attention. Higher ecological and economic but will also lead to a significant change in cash-flow.
value of slower growing species may at least partly However, the direction and dimension of this change will
compensate for losses in volume growth (Ripken and vary with the silvicultural target and the silvicultural
Spellmann, 1979; Brandl, l988). conversion strategy. Regarding the political aspects of
Since conversion has an impact on almost every aspect of conversion, this issue has hardly been covered in surveys
forest management, there is a great need for well-founded (Schraml et al., 2000; Stipp and Schraml, 2001) although
information regarding the conversion of secondary conifer- several studies about opinions and attitudes toward forests
ous forests. In two conferences at the international level and forestry have been made in individual European
(Hasenauer, 2000; Klimo et al., 2000) the question of countries (Pelissié, 1992; Lafitte, 1993; Koch and Rasmus-
conversion has been discussed extensively and in various sen, 1998; Kramer, 1998; Wiersum, 1998; Rametsteiner,
national research initiatives the consequences of conversion 1999; Finnish Forest Association, 2000; Schmithüsen and
has been investigated. This includes-but is not limited to- Wild-Eck, 2000; Sondergaard and Koch, 2000; Terrasson,
improved comparative understanding of the functioning of 1998).
pure coniferous forests vs. mixed forests with varying Changes in species composition are occurring rather
proportions of tree species and of the ecological and slow because of the long lasting life of forest generations.
economic implications during the conversion phase, which Only in exceptional occasions, such as after storm or serious
will, in most instances, last many decades. Effects on the insect attacks, may this process be accelerated. A good
potential of forests for providing sustained productivity indicator of changes in the minds of the managers is the
under ecological stability, i.e. stability in biodiversity, of future plans of species competition. One example of such
water regimes, and of nutrient cycles have to be considered. changes in long-term species composition planning can be
Mixed stands may use resources differently and may be seen in Fig. 3.
more resistant against physical and biotic stress factors It shows that the former human induced changes are
(Cannel et al., 1992; Kelty et al., 1992). Some species supposed to be at least partly reversed in the future.
combinations were found to increase wood production The impact of the planned changes will be visible in the
(Mitscherlich, 1978). Possible reasons include a change in
overall species composition only after many decades,
canopy structure and light interception, the reduction in
because the percentage of conifers in existing younger
crown and root competition, increased litter decomposition
stands is relatively high. The area of young forests in this
rates and enhanced mineralization rates (Kreutzer et al.,
region is smaller as compared to ‘normal’ conditions, while
1986; Rothe et al., 2002). Aspects of soil degradation need
the area of forests at an age of approximately 50 years is
to be considered including soil acidification and the
relatively high as a consequence of extensive clear-cuts at
processes of decomposition as well as microbial and fungal
the end of World War II (see Fig. 4). The area covered with
populations and the effect on the carbon budget and finally
conifers in these reforested stands is relatively high and
the future timber supply.
these stands will most likely not be cut prematurely in
The vitality and stability of secondary coniferous forests
the near future. A conversion of the coniferous forests on
is affected by a complex set of stress factors, which may be
subdivided into three important groups: anthropogenic, sites which are naturally broad-leaved dominated to more
biotic and abiotic factors. They put pressure on secondary stable, natural forests in foreseeable future seems only
spruce stands as well as on forests under conversion or new
mixed forest and may entail forest management problems,
economic losses, and changes in social functions. At present,
the forest community has no integrated forest protection
strategies to prevent impairment by the above factors during
each stage of conversion. The risks inherent in the
conversion process and outline measures that will increase
the natural resistance and resilience of coniferous stands
against the complex array of stress factors such, as the
increase in windthrow and bark beetle risks by opening the
canopy of old Norway spruce stands, need to be considered.
While the economics of various tree species in
the temperate zone are well known under different
scenarios, the economics of conversion itself have not
Fig. 3. Long-term planning of future tree species composition in the public
been investigated adequately. This applies in particular to forest of Baden-Württemberg in 1965 and 1993. While in 1965 the aim of
the conversion of secondary coniferous forests into Norway spruce area was about 40% in 1993 this area has been reduced to
mixed broadleaved stands (Hanewinkel, 1998; Knoke and about 25% (Riedl 1978; Moosmayer 1993).
 H. Spiecker / Journal of Environmental Management 67 (2003) 55–65 59

and final cuttings-has remained at the same level during the

last few decades, whereas the net annual increment being
40 – 50% higher than the fellings. Only in exceptional cases
have fellings reached the level of net annual increment.
Average growing stock in exploitable European forests has
increased during the period 1950– 2000 from 98 m3 per ha
to 143 m3 per ha (Kuusela, 1994; TBFRA, 2000). European
wood resources are greater now than at any time during the
last 200– 300 years.
Today in several countries in central Europe average
Fig. 4. Age and tree species composition of forests in former West Germany
in % area. The area of young forests is smaller as compared to ‘normal’
growing stock exceeds 300 m3 per hectare. In Austria
conditions while the area of forests between 21 and 40 years (in 1990!) is average growing stock per hectare amounts to approxi-
relatively high as a consequence of extensive clear-cuts at the end of World mately 250 m3 (FBVA, 1995) and in Switzerland to
War II. The relative area covered with conifers in the younger stands is approximately 330 m3 (Schweizerisches Forstinventar,
high. In more recent years the conifer area has decreased (BML, 1993).
1988). Cutting rates have been clearly below growth
rates.
feasible through active intervention. The percentage of Mantel (1952) suggested a sustainable long-term growing
coniferous species, however, would still increase for some stock of approximately 170 m3 per ha for former West
time if no active intervention by regeneration, tending, German forests. From 1950 up to 1990 average growing
thinning and regeneration fellings would change species stock increased in West Germany from approximately
composition. Even the active conversion of some of the 105 m3 to about 300 m3 per ha (data 1950 rough estimate:
coniferous forests without cutting premature trees is Wiebecke, 1955; data 1990: BML, 1993). Even though
expected to last longer than one century. annual removals increased considerably in the last century,
average growing stock has continued to increase.
4.3. Changes in tree age composition Mantel suggested in 1952 a long-term annual allowable cut
of 3.4 m3 per ha. Based on the first national inventory 1986–
The age composition of forests varies considerably with 1990, Polley et al. (1996) suggested a long-term allowable
species, site conditions and historic events. Generally the cut of 6.2 m3 per ha. Taking into account annual fellings of
average age of forests in Europe has increased during recent approximately 4 m3 per ha and an increase in average
decades. While young forests are underrepresented the growing stock of about 4 –5 m3 per ha per year during the
area of older forests has increased. In Switzerland this last few decades (assuming a rise in average growing stock
development is especially pronounced. In the former West by 160 –200 m3 in 40 years) a growth rate of 8 – 9 m3 per ha
Germany the area of the youngest age class has decreased in and year has been accomplished. Compared with this
recent years while the area of forests older than 60 years has estimate the suggestion of Polley et al. (1996) seems to be
increased in all age classes. In the public forest of Baden- rather conservative and would presumably results in a
Württemberg, for example, the area covered with forests further increase in growing stock.
older than 80 years has increased in 20 years by 19%. While the average growing stock per ha today amounts
The relatively large area of age class 21 –40 relates to the to approximately 270 m3 (TBFRA, 2000) in Germany, in
clear cuts at the end of World War II (Fig. 4). the southern states almost 400 m3 has been reached even
Increasing age and more active thinning led to a change though annual removals have been higher there than in
in tree size distribution. While in former times thinning other parts of Germany. This indicates the high pro-
activities in young and medium aged forests provided large ductivity of the forests in this region. Growing stock as
amounts of small sized timber these assortments are now well as net annual increment has been systematically
getting scarce while the number of large sized trees underestimated in former decades. This was partly due to
increases. conservative forest management planning but also due to
The observed changes in age and size of the trees in unexpected changes in forest productivity.
many parts of the temperate zone in Europe affects the The increase in the area of conifers in former times
ecological, economic and social services provided by contributes to the observed increase in wood volume growth
forests. It has an impact on nutrient cycling, the carbon of European forests. The increased average growing stock
budget as well as on animal and plant habitats. and the unexpected high growth rate can be explained
by several factors which have changed over time: incon-
4.4. Growing stock sistencies in former inventory methods, changes in forest
area, in tree species composition, in age composition, in site
According to national forest statistics of several Euro- productivity and in management intensity (Päivinen et al.,
pean countries (Kuusela, 1994), the annual drain-thinnings 1999).
60 H. Spiecker / Journal of Environmental Management 67 (2003) 55–65

4.5. Changes in environmental conditions

While natural changes always affected forest ecosystems

large scale impacts of human induced environmental
changes became more evident in recent decades. Changes
in average air temperature, in precipitation, as well as
changes in air chemistry, such as elevated CO2 or changed
Ozone concentration, and changes in N deposition.
Besides changes of average conditions frequency of
extreme events such as storms, droughts and frosts have
an especially strong impact on forest ecosystems.
These environmental changes have an impact on forest
growth behaviour (Spiecker et al., 1996), species compo-
sition and ecosystem stability.

Fig. 5. Salvage cuttings due to storm in public forests in the Black Forest,
Germany. The cutting volume is expressed in percent of the allowable cut.
5. Impact of recent changes on forest resistance
The year-to-year variation is high (Landesforstverwaltung Baden-Würt-
temberg, 1953–1998).
5.1. Disturbances affecting forests in the temperate
zone of Europe fir about 20% of the public forests which have a total size of
240 000 ha (Landesforstverwaltung Baden-Württemberg,
The drastic shift in tree species and age composition, as 1953– 1998). The annual variation of the salvage cuttings
well as changing site conditions, are changing forest is rather high (Fig. 5). Even though there is no clear trend
resistance. In the temperate zone of Europe the two most the maximum wind throw seems to have increased through
important disturbances causing mortality are storm and time. One reason for the increased salvage cuttings due to
snow while drought and frost generally cause less mortality. storm in recent years (the high volume of the wind throw in
Furthermore, drought and frost may increase susceptibility December 1999 is not shown in Fig. 5) may possibly be
to insect attacks. Major outbreaks of insects and fungi are related to higher wind speed in recent years but also to a
closely related to the occurrence of dead and dying trees. higher standing volume per ha and to a higher proportion of
For example, following wind and snow damage, trees are old coniferous trees. It is difficult to draw general
often more susceptible to other storms, and to fungal and conclusions from the frequency and severity of these events
insect pests (Schröter et al., 2000). Broken and uprooted because they seldom occur, the observation period is
trees stimulate insect attacks on the remaining trees because relatively short and the local wind speed is not known.
of the increased availability of breeding material (Schroeder The visible increase in salvage cut volume can however be
and Eidmann, 1993). explained by the increase in standing volume during
the observation period. The large salvage cut volume in
5.2. Storm the temperate zone of Europe results in irregular harvesting
procedures with increased costs and disturbed timber
Storm is one of the major risk factors affecting forests in markets with imbalances between the supply and demand
the temperate zone. Storm risk is highest in stands adjunct to of timber.
newly clear-felled areas and within newly thinned stands, In the future, risk of storm-induced mortality may
especially if stands that have not been previously thinned increase as trees continue to age throughout Europe.
are suddenly thinned heavily. The risk decreases, however, Also wide spread selective cuttings may lead to sudden
with the time elapsed since thinning. This is the result of the openings of the canopy and therefore on sites generally
increasing capacity of trees under various site conditions to susceptible to wind throw may increase storm-induced
resist wind due the enhanced growth after thinning and the mortality. Finally possible changes in occurrence of extreme
increase in root mass and strength of roots (Nielsen, 1990). windspeeds along with climate changes may affect storm
The risk of wind throw and wind breakage damage is thus risk (Thomasius, 1988; König, 1995).
related to the management and growth of trees.
An increasing tree age and higher standing volume of
mature trees reduces the stability of forests. The risk of wind 5.3. Snow and ice
throw and wind breakage increases with the height of
the trees. As an example, Fig. 5 shows the mortality due to A higher stand density generally destabilizes individual
storm in percent of the allowable cut during the last 45 years trees. Their crowns are shorter and the height/diameter ratio
in the public forest of the Black Forest region. is larger. These types of trees are more susceptible to snow
Norway spruce covers in this region about 50% and silver and ice breakage, in particular, in pole-sized stands. In these
 H. Spiecker / Journal of Environmental Management 67 (2003) 55–65 61

stands branches of neighbouring trees grow into each other disturbances in natural as well as in managed ecosystems.
and lead to a closed canopy, which does not allow the snow Also, nutrient cycling will be largely affected by climate
to pass through between the crowns. In dense stands heavy changes.
loads of snow may lead to simultaneous breakage of larger Trends in forest productivity are generally associated
groups of trees. Long crowns may also break because of with climatic variation, particularly with variation in
heavy snow fall in their upper part, the trees however precipitation. High air temperature associated with low
will recover with less severe impacts on their vitality precipitation during the growing season reduced growth
(Thomasius, 1988). even at higher altitudes of the Black Forest where average
precipitation is high and average temperature is relatively
5.4. Frost low (Kahle and Spiecker, 1996). High summer temperature
and associated drought increase the growth of insect
Tree response to climatic influences varies with species, populations through accelerating their turnover. A decreas-
provenance, competition status and site conditions. Changes ing growth rate therefore is associated with increased tree
in average climatic conditions, such as air temperature, mortality (Fig. 6). Suppressed trees in dense stands are
affects the length of the growing season and influences site especially susceptible to drought (Spiecker, 1986, 1995b).
productivity (Fabian and Menzel, 1999). A positive As compared to salvage cuttings due to storm and snow the
correlation between air temperature increase and plant volume of desiccated trees and trees killed by insects is
growth seems likely in the boreal and temperate climate generally rather low. It has been shown that growth rates
zone. Extreme and unusual events, such as late spring frosts, and mortality are closely related to climatic fluctuation, and
unusual cold and wet or hot and dry summers, as well as especially to drought conditions, as for example, in the
extreme and abrupt temperature changes, may reduce 1940s, the 1970s or the 1990s.
growth and increase mortality. Extreme climatic events There are indications that in some regions in the
not only have a direct effect on trees, but also on insects or temperate zone of Europe Norway spruce is showing an
microbial pathogens, and on biological as well as chemical increased sensitivity to climate variation (Kahle, 1994).
and physical processes in the soil. In the temperate zone, the Changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme warm
timing of spring budburst of many species is dependent on and dry climatic conditions during the last few decades and
both high temperatures in spring and the sequence and the effects of increased atmospheric depositions have been
duration of low chilling temperatures during winter. discussed as possible causes for this observation. The shift
Minimum winter temperature can be critical for the survival in the tree species composition may have changed
of some species with low maximum winter frost hardiness, the balance between host species and populations of
for example silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) and beech phytophagous organisms.
(Fagus sylvatica L.). The increase of winter temperatures
may broaden the potential distribution range of such species
in Europe, but may, however, also increase the risk of late 5.6. Nutrient availability and soil chemistry
frost damage.
Stand composition affects litter and humus quality and
5.5. Drought, insects and fungi abiotic site factors like soil physics and chemistry. The pH of
the soil is generally lower in coniferous than in broad-leaved
Effects of droughts on forest health have until recently stands and coniferous litter is in general less hospitable for
been underestimated. In the temperate zone of Europe a
growth recession due to drought occurred, for example, in
the late 1940s. Another severe drought that attracted high
attention occurred in the mid 1970s at the beginning of the
discussion on defoliation and forest dieback. The long-
lasting after-effects of such extreme events complicate the
detection of possible effects of droughts. The impacts
of drought may be reduced through wider spacing in
plantations and more intensive thinnings. Climate changes
as a result of the enhanced ‘greenhouse effect’ are believed
to be a global environmental threat. The exploitation of
forests and other natural resources, the accumulation
of anthropogenic emissions and the increasing amount of
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmos- Fig. 6. Salvage cuttings of desiccated trees and trees killed by fungi and
insects in % of allowable cut (bars) in public forests and annual variation of
phere might damage the functioning of ecosystems and radial growth (ir: solid line) of Norway spruce (Picea abies L.) in the Black
decrease biodiversity. Climate changes affect the compe- Forest region, Germany. Annual radial increment of 45 Norway spruce
tition between tree species. This may lead to major trees and mortality are correlated.
62 H. Spiecker / Journal of Environmental Management 67 (2003) 55–65

decomposers (Mitchell and Kirby, 1989). However, the growth, forest nutrition, biodiversity, roundwood pro-
changes resulting from forest management, for example, duction, wood quality, timber market, forest economics,
from site preparation, fertilization, thinning and felling, are forest planning and operations, employment and others,
probably larger than those caused by tree species. Liljelund making clear that forest conversion is not only of practical
et al. (1986) showed in a literature review that a replacement relevance but also of political interest.
of deciduous forests by coniferous induces a soil acidifica- New planning and decision tools have to be applied to
tion and that new coniferous plantations on formerly open encompass uncertainty and risk in long-term forest planning.
land have similar effects. Remarkable loss of nitrogen from Traditional anticipation of goals and means may not be
the ecosystem have been noticed through the change of adequate to scope with risk and uncertainty. Adaptive
deciduous tree species to Norway spruce in Germany planning on the other hand may lead to inefficient manage-
(Kreutzer, 1981; Feger, 1993). ment. Flexible planning which takes into account all
As a consequence of higher forest productivity intensi- conceivable scenarios and allows various options for future
fied harvesting, including removal of forest biomass, may development may be best suited. Forests should be adaptive
potentially affect site productivity. Traditional timber for future demands of society, have multiple function ability
harvesting is not considered to lead to the impoverishment and potential for multiple use. The amount and complexity of
of the soil because the nutrient content of wood is rather low the scientific problems evolving from the observed situation
(Mälkönen, 1976). In field experiments with slash removal show that solutions can only be developed by a multi-
Staaf and Olsson (1991) found that soil acidity had disciplinary cooperation of scientists and decision makers at
increased in plots where slash had been removed and that an international level. This cooperation will lead to a more
removal of all slash caused higher acidity than removal of comprehensive understanding and will provide a more
slash except needles. According to Kreutzer (1979) the realistic and reliable information basis for decision support.
nutrient losses by intensive whole-tree utilization are similar In the given situation, a conversion to stable, more
to that of litter utilization and may affect the production natural, forests is only possible through active forest
conditions on poor sites. Increased N deposition stimulates management. This includes the necessity to cut trees.
growth and enhances humus decomposition. If NH4 Without intervention, forest health will decline (Spiecker,
becomes the main source of N supply accelerated rhizo- 1995a). Tending of young stands is aimed at creating a
sphere acidification results from NH4 consumption (Evers mixed stand structure. Growth of young stands may be
and Hüttl, 1990– 1991). strongly influenced by soil preparation, selection of species
In the temperate zone of Europe, the forested areas are and provenances, quality of plant material and weed control.
the main source of the ground water. Water for human use Competition control requires site adjusted tending and
from forested areas is generally preferred to water from thinning methods because diverse species may react
agricultural land because of its quality. Forests absorb differently to site conditions. Furthermore, changes in site
precipitation and reduce the risk of floods. In the productivity may alter competition between trees.
mountainous areas, forest cover reduces the risk of An adjusted management regime is also required to
erosion, landslide or avalanches. Forests sequestrate CO2 counterbalance accelerating growth rates, otherwise the
and wood-based products store CO2 over longer periods. increase in average growing stock will continue and
the stability of forests will be reduced.
Mixed stand structures can be maintained and improved
6. Discussion by thinning. Thinning practices result in an increased total
harvest. Thinning in particular increases the proportion of
Today, in various European countries there exist on large large-sized timber in total harvest volume. Intensified
areas numerous nonsite-adapted homogenous coniferous thinning may have some effect on site productivity by
forests. In order to reduce the resulting risks a conversion of altering nutrient cycling and reducing competition for light,
some of these forests to near-natural, site-adapted and often nutrients and water. In some areas of the temperate zone
mixed forests has to be considered. The conversion process coppice and coppice with standards have a long tradition
affects almost all activities in forestry including and will be of some importance in the future, as, for
forest management, timber markets and forest policy. For example, on various sites in France. These forests show high
planning a conversion, information about the technical biological diversity by supporting light-demanding species.
alternatives of conversion and their ecological and econ- Fertilizers and lime have been applied to parts of European
omic impacts is needed on stand, landscape and regional forests for many decades in order to increase site
level. The development and evaluation of strategies of the productivity and to overcome some effects of site degra-
conversion of secondary pure coniferous forests to near- dation caused by former land use or acid rain.
natural mixed forests and the assessment of its ecological It is recommended to reserve parts of the forests for
and socio-economic impacts during and after the conversion different kinds of conservation purposes. In addition to
is a research task in several European countries. Impacts are these special protected areas, where any forestry activity
expected in the fields of forest ecology, silviculture, forest is prohibited, there exist small ecological valuable biotopes
 H. Spiecker / Journal of Environmental Management 67 (2003) 55–65 63

within managed forests also worthy of protection. vor dem 03.10.1990 einschließlich Berlin (West) 118 pp. Volume II:
Forest management needs to consider explicitly diversity Grundtabellen für das Bundesgebiet nach dem Gebietsstand vor dem
03.10.1990 einschließlich Berlin (West) 366 pp.
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percentage of broadleaved species are favoured. FAO, 1997. State of the World’s Forests, FAO, Rome, 200 pp..
Natural regeneration in small gaps are generally rec- FBVA, 1995. Österreichische Forstinventur. Ergebnisse 1986/90. For-
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262 pp.
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Variation von klimatischen Elementen des Wasserhaushalts und dem
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