1|Page Lectures of Physics by Qamar Hussain

AS Level Physics (9702)

Chapter # 11

PARTICLE PHYSICS
The chapter is divided into two sections.
1. Atoms, nuclei and radiation
2. Fundamental particles

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Introduction
• Atoms are basic building blocks of matter.

• An atom is the smallest particle of an element.

• Atoms are made of three particles called proton, neutron

and electron.

• The protons and neutrons are at the centre of the atoms

called nucleus and electrons orbit the nucleus.

• Masses at the atomic level are usually expressed in

atomic mass unit (u).

• 1 u= 1.66 x 10-27 kg.

particle Mass / u Charge Position

Proton 1.0073 +e Nucleus
Neutron 1.0087 0 Nucleus
electron 0.00055 -e Orbiting the
nucleus

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• Proton number (Z): the number of protons in the

nucleus of an atom.

• Nucleon number or the mass number (A): the number of

protons together with the number of neutrons in the
nucleus.

• A nucleon is the name given to a proton or a neutron in

the nucleus.

• The difference between nucleon number and proton

number gives the number of neutrons in the nucleus.

• A nuclide is a class of nuclei that have a particular

nucleon number and a particular proton number.

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Nuclide notation:

It should be noted that total charge and nucleon number is

conserved during a nuclear reaction.
Isotope:
Isotopes are different forms of the same element which have the
same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in
their nuclei.

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Alpha scattering experiment:

In 1911, Rutherford and his two associates, Geiger and
Marsden fired a beam of alpha particles at a very thin foil of
gold.
A zinc sulfide detector was moved around the foil to detect the
alpha particles that travelled after striking the foil.

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It was observed that:

1. The vast majority of alpha particles passed through the
foil with very little or no deviation from their original
path.
2. A small number of particles deviated through an angle of
more than about 100.
3. An extremely small number of particles (one in ten
thousand) were deflected through an angle greater than
900.

Therefore, it is concluded that.

1. The majority of the mass of an atom is concentrated in a
very small volume at the centre of the atom. Most alpha
particles would therefore pass through the foil undeviated.
2. The centre or nucleus of an atom is charged. Alpha
particles which are also charged, passing close to the
nucleus will experience a force causing them to deviate.

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3. Only alpha particles that pass very close to the nucleus,

almost striking it head-on, will experience large enough
forces to cause them to deviate through angles greater
than 900. The fact that so few particles did so confirms
that the nucleus is very small and that most of the atom
is empty space.

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Radioactivity
Some elements have unstable nuclei. The reason is that the
combination of protons and neutrons in these nuclei is such
that the forces between them are not balanced.Therefore, to
gain stability these nuclei emit
protons/neutrons/electromagnetic radiation. These emissions
are called radioactivity, and these nuclei are called
radioactive.

There are three types of radioactive emissions.

1. Alpha (α) particles
2. Beta (β) particles
3. Gamma (γ) radiation

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Properties of alpha (α) particles

1. Alpha particles are positively charged.
2. Alpha particles are identical to nucleus of helium. Which
means each alpha particle consists of two protons and two
neutrons.

3. Alpha particles move with a speed almost equal to 5 % of

speed of light.
4.Alpha particles are the least penetrating emission of all.
They can penetrate only a few centimeters in air, and
they can be stopped by a thin card.
5. The alpha particles emitted from a particular radioactive
nucleus; all have the same kinetic energy.
6. Alpha particles are good ioniser of gases.

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7.When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, it is said to

undergo an alpha decay. As a result of an alpha decay
the nucleus loses two protons and two neutrons. For
example, U-234 loses an alpha particle to become Th-230.

8. They affect photographic film.

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Properties of beta(β) particles

1. Beta emission can be positive and negative.
2. Negative beta particles are in fact fast-moving electrons
whereas positive beta particles are positrons. Positrons are
antiparticles of electrons that have the same mass as
electrons but opposite charge to an electron.

3. Beta particles have a range of speed that may exceed 99%

of the speed of light.
4.Beta particles are more penetrating than alpha particles
and can penetrate up to a meter in air and a few
millimeters thick aluminium sheet.

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5. In a beta(β-) decay, a negative electron is emitted, and a

daughter nucleus is formed with the proton number
increased by one, but with the same nucleon number.

6. In a beta(β+) decay, a positive electron is emitted, and a

daughter nucleus is formed with the proton number
decreased by one, but with the same nucleon number.

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7.The beta particles do not have same kinetic energies as

alpha particles emitted from a particular nucleus, but
they have a range of kinetic energies as neutrino and
antineutrinos are also released with them and the kinetic
energies of beta particles depend on the way the energies
are shared between beta particles and neutrinos and
antineutrinos.
8. They affect photographic film.

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Properties of gamma (γ) radiation

1. Gamma radiation are not particles but high frequency
electromagnetic waves of wavelength between 10-11 m to
10-13 m.
2. They carry no charge.
3. Their ionization power is very weak.
4.They are highly penetrating and can be absorbed by
several centimeters thick lead.
5. Their speed is equal to the speed of light.
6. They affect photographic film.

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Summary of radioactive emissions:

α- β- β+
Property γ-radiation
particles particles particles
Mass 4u u/2000 u/2000 0
Charge +2e -e +e 0
Helium Electromagnetic
Nature electron positron
nucleus waves
Up to Up to
Speed 0.05 c C
0.99 c 0.99 c
Affects
photographic yes yes yes Yes
film

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Radioactive decay series

When a radioactive decay occurs, a parent nuclide changes
into a daughter nuclide. The daughter nuclide may itself be
unstable to it can continue decaying further until a stable
nuclide is reached. This is called a radioactive decay series.
For example, a radioactive decay series begins with U-238
(Z=92)
U-238

U Th + He + γ
0
Th Pa + -1 e + γ
0
Pa U + -1 e + γ

U Th + He + γ

Th Ra + He + γ

Ra Rn + He

Rn Po + He

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Background radiation:
The radiation already present in our environment due to a
number of factors like;

• Radon gas in atmosphere

• Gamma rays from rocks and soil

• Medical sources

• Food

• Cosmic rays from outer space

etc.

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