PACKAGING

Definition:
Packaging refers to the technology used to enclose or protect products for safe
distribution, storage, and use. It plays a critical role in maintaining product quality,
optimizing costs, and boosting sales while meeting consumer expectations.
FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING (Robertson, 2005):
1. Containment:
o Prevents leakage and ensures the product can be transported and stored efficiently.
o Essential for liquids, powders, and fragile items (e.g., milk cartons, snack bags).
2. Protection & Preservation:
o Acts as a barrier against physical damage (e.g., impact, vibration). o
o Protects from chemical effects (e.g., oxidation, moisture, light). o
o Prevents microbial contamination to extend shelf life. o
o Examples:
▪ Vacuum-sealed packaging prevents spoilage. ▪
Tetra packs for aseptic storage of juices and milk.
3. Convenience:
o Makes the product easier to use, store, open, and reseal.
o Includes portion control and portability (e.g., resealable pouches, single-serve
yogurt cups).
4. Communication:
• Displays essential information such as:
 Brand name.
 Ingredients and nutritional value.
 Expiry and manufacturing dates.
 Price and barcode.
o Attracts customers with visual appeal and branding (e.g., graphics, logos).

PACKAGING MATERIALS
1. Metals:
o Tinplate: Steel coated with tin to resist corrosion. Used for canned foods.
o Aluminum: Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and recyclable. Common for cans,
foils, and beverage containers.
2. Glass:
o Transparent, rigid, and inert. Ideal for products like jams, pickles, and beverages.
o Fully recyclable but heavy and breakable.
3. Paper and Cardboard: o Lightweight, cost-effective, and printable.
o Often used for dry foods (e.g., cereal boxes). May need lamination for moisture
resistance.
4. Polymers (Plastics):
o Widely used due to versatility, light weight, and cost-effectiveness.
 o Can be rigid (e.g., PET bottles) or flexible (e.g., cling film, pouches).
o Types of polymers:
 Polyethylene (PE).
 Polypropylene (PP).
 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

PACKAGING ATMOSPHERES
The atmosphere surrounding the food in the package has a profound effect of the shelf life of
the product. The principal techniques that make use of the in-package atmosphere for
improving the preserving action of the package are:

Vacuum Packaging
• Definition: Food is sealed in a package with all air removed, creating a vacuum.
• Purpose: Extends shelf life by minimizing oxygen, which slows microbial growth
and oxidation.
• Usage: Common for meats, fish, cheese, and coffee.

Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP)

• Definition: The atmosphere inside the package is actively controlled and
monitored to maintain specific gas levels.
• Features:
• Oxygen is reduced to prevent spoilage.
• Carbon dioxide and nitrogen levels are adjusted based on the product's
needs.
• Usage: Widely used for long-term storage of fruits, vegetables, and grains.

Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)

• Definition: Food is packaged in a specific gas mixture (e.g., reduced oxygen,
higher CO₂ or nitrogen). Unlike CAP, the gas composition isn’t constantly
monitored.
• Purpose: Extends shelf life by slowing spoilage and preserving freshness.
• Gases Used:
o Carbon Dioxide: Inhibits microbial growth.
o Nitrogen: Prevents oxidation and replaces oxygen.
o Oxygen: Sometimes added for specific products like red meat to maintain color.
• Examples: Dairy, bakery items, meat, poultry, fish, fruits, and vegetables.
• Limitation: Risk of anaerobic pathogen growth if oxygen is too low.
Active & Intelligent Packaging
• Active Packaging: Enhances shelf life and product safety by interacting with the
packaged food.
• The active principle, which may be a preserving agent or an antioxidant is included
in the packaging film and slowly released into the atmosphere of the package
during storage.
o Features:
 Oxygen absorbers: Prevent oxidation.
 Carbon dioxide absorbers/generators: Maintain freshness.
 Ethylene absorbers: Delay ripening in fruits.
 Moisture regulators: Control humidity.
o Example: Silica gel sachets.
• Intelligent Packaging: Monitors the condition of the food and provides real-time
information.
o Features:
 Indicators for freshness, temperature, or gas levels.
 Barcodes or RFID for product tracking.
o Purpose: Ensures quality, safety, and traceability of food products.

This summarized explanation should make it easier to remember while keeping all
essential details intact.
DEHYDRATION
Definition:
Dehydration is the process of removing water from food using controlled heat to:

• Reduce microbial growth.

• Minimize enzyme activity.
• Prolong shelf life while retaining nutrients.

DRYING METHODS

1. Convective Drying:
o Hot air flows over the food surface, evaporating moisture.
o Examples: Tray dryers, fluidized bed dryers.
2. Conductive Drying:
o Heat transfers from a hot surface to the food.
o Examples: Vacuum drying, drum drying.
3. Freeze Drying:
o Food is frozen, and water is removed via sublimation. o Retains texture, flavor,
and nutrients. Common for high-value products like coffee and fruits.
4. Solar Drying:
o Uses natural sunlight for drying. Cost-effective but weather-dependent.
5. Microwave Drying:
 o Electromagnetic waves generate heat, removing moisture. o Fast and energy-
efficient.

KEY TERMS

Humidity and Psychrometry

1. Absolute Humidity vs. Relative Humidity (RH):

• Absolute Humidity refers to the total amount of water vapor present in a given
volume of air, typically measured in grams per cubic meter (g/m³).
• Relative Humidity (RH), expressed as a percentage, compares the current amount
of water vapor in the air to the maximum amount the air can hold at a specific
temperature.
2. Psychrometry:
• Psychrometry is the study of the physical and thermodynamic properties of air-water
vapor mixtures.

3. Dry-Bulb Temperature and Wet-Bulb Temperature:

• Dry-Bulb Temperature is the regular air temperature measured by a thermometer.
• Wet-Bulb Temperature is the temperature measured by a thermometer with its bulb
wrapped in a wet cloth. As water evaporates from the cloth, it cools the thermometer.

The difference between the dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature is used to
calculate the relative humidity on the psychrometric chart.

Drying Kinetics with Heated Air

The ability of air to remove moisture from food depends on:
1. How much water vapor the air already carries.
2. The air temperature.
3. The air movement (velocity) over the food.

Mechanism of drying
When hot air flows over wet food, water evaporates from the surface and is carried away by the
air. A moisture gradient forms from the wet interior of the food to the dry air, helping to draw out
water. The faster the air moves, the thinner the barrier (boundary film) around the food, which
increases drying speed.

Stages of Drying
1. Constant-Rate Period:
o Initially, the food surface heats up to the air's wet-bulb temperature (the lowest
temperature water can reach by evaporating).
o Drying occurs steadily as long as water moves from the inside to the surface at the
same rate it evaporates.
 o This stage ends when the surface begins to dry out, known as the critical moisture
content.
2. Falling-Rate Period:
o After the critical moisture level, drying slows down as water moves from inside the
food to the surface more slowly.
o For non-hygroscopic foods (don’t absorb water from the air), there’s one falling-
rate period.
o For hygroscopic foods (absorb water easily), there are two periods:
▪ First Period: Water vapor moves from inside to the surface.
▪ Second Period: Water is removed from the food through desorption (water
binds less strongly to food particles).
o Drying continues until the food reaches the equilibrium moisture content, where it
balances with the surrounding air.

MIXING
In food processing, mixing is a critical mechanical operation used to combine ingredients to
create a uniform mixture or to achieve desired characteristics in a product. This process plays
a vital role in food manufacturing, with applications across different food products, including
liquids, solids, and emulsions. The purpose of mixing can range from improving the texture of
dough to accelerating chemical reactions or enhancing heat and mass transfer. Objectives of
Mixing in Food Processing:
1. Increase Homogeneity:
The primary objective of mixing is to increase the uniformity of a material in bulk. This
ensures that ingredients are well-distributed throughout the mixture, leading to
consistency in the final product.
2. Enhance Heat and Mass Transfer:
By improving the distribution of ingredients and their interactions, mixing can accelerate
heat or mass transfer processes, such as in cooking, fermentation, or emulsification.
3. Accelerate Chemical Reactions:
In some food processes, mixing promotes faster chemical reactions, such as fermentation
or enzyme catalysis, by improving the contact between reacting substances.
4. Create Structure:
In processes like dough making, mixing is used to develop the structure (e.g., gluten
formation) that gives food products their texture, elasticity, and strength.
5. Change Texture:
By controlling the mixing process, manufacturers can alter the texture of the product,
making it smoother or more granular depending on the desired outcome.
Basic Mechanism of Mixing
Mixing involves moving the parts of a material relative to each other. The type of mixing process
depends on whether liquids, solids, or gas-liquid interactions are involved:
• Liquid-Liquid, Liquid-Solid, and Liquid-Gas Mixing:
The collision between moving domains during mixing results in the interchange of
momentum and kinetic energy. This promotes the formation of a homogeneous mixture
by improving the interaction between different phases.
Factors Influencing Mixing:
1. Viscosity:
The viscosity of the material determines the type of mixing required. More viscous
materials may require specialized equipment or slower mixing speeds to achieve
homogeneity.
2. Particle Size:
Smaller particles tend to blend more uniformly than larger particles, influencing the
blending uniformity of the mixture.
3. Temperature:
Temperature can influence the mixing efficiency, especially for ingredients sensitive to
heat or when heat is needed to facilitate reactions (e.g., in emulsification).
4. Mixing Speed and Time:
The speed and time of mixing must be controlled to prevent over- or under-mixing.
Overmixing can lead to undesirable product characteristics, such as the breakdown of
texture or the generation of excess heat.
Types of Mixers Used in Food Processing:
1. Paddle Mixers:
o Description: Paddle mixers consist of flat blades mounted on a shaft. These
mixers are used for blending liquids and semi-viscous products.
o o Application: Often used in kettles with a bowl-shaped bottom or jacketed
cooking kettles.
o o Operation: Paddle mixers generally operate at low speeds (tens of
revolutions per minute) to prevent overheating or excessive shear forces.
2. Turbine Mixers:
o Description: Turbine mixers have multiple blades mounted on a vertical shaft.
The impellers can be open, semi-closed, or fully shrouded.
• Application: Suitable for high-shear applications such as emulsification,
homogenization, and mass transfer in fermenters.
• Operation: They operate at high speeds (hundreds of revolutions per
minute) and exert considerable shear forces, making them ideal for liquid-liquid
and liquid-gas mixing.
3. Propeller Mixers:
o Description: Propeller mixers have a smaller impeller and are typically used for
low-viscosity liquids.
 o Application: Common in industries where portability is essential, as these
mixers are often movable from one vessel to another.
o Operation: These mixers are high-speed (hundreds to thousands of revolutions
per minute) and designed for fast, efficient blending of fluids.
Effect of Mixing on Foods:
• Nutritional Quality:
The action of mixing itself does not directly impact the nutritional quality or shelf life of
the food. However, it may have indirect effects by allowing ingredients to react together,
potentially altering the nutritional profile of the final product.
• Heat Generation:
In some cases, significant heat may be generated during mixing, which can accelerate
chemical reactions or potentially affect the sensory qualities or nutritional value of
temperature-sensitive ingredients.
• Sensory and Functional Properties:
Mixing can significantly influence the texture, taste, and appearance of food. For
example:
• Gluten Development: In dough-making, mixing stretches and folds
protein molecules (e.g., gluten) to develop the structure and texture necessary
for bread making.
• Uniformity: Effective mixing ensures that ingredients are evenly
distributed, resulting in consistent flavor and texture across the food product.
Summary:
Mixing is an essential operation in food processing, used to create homogeneous mixtures,
enhance the texture, or facilitate chemical and physical changes in the ingredients. The choice of
mixer depends on the viscosity of the ingredients, the required speed, and the type of mixing
needed. While mixing does not directly affect the nutritional quality or shelf life, it plays a
crucial role in achieving the desired product characteristics. Proper control over mixing
parameters such as speed, time, and temperature is key to ensuring product quality and
consistency.
Formula use in numerical
Key points
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size reduction
In the food industry, size reduction is a crucial mechanical process that involves breaking
down larger food materials into smaller pieces, particles, or powders. This process enhances the
handling, processing, and overall product quality of food ingredients. Size reduction is utilized
for various raw materials and intermediate products, and it encompasses techniques such as
cutting, chopping, grinding, milling, mashing, atomizing, and homogenizing. Applications of
Size Reduction in the Food Industry:
1. Milling of Cereal Grains:
This is done to obtain flour from cereal grains such as wheat, corn, or rice.
2. Wet Grinding of Corn:
Wet grinding of corn is used in the manufacture of starch.
3. Wet Grinding of Soybeans:
In the production of soy milk, soybeans are wet-ground in water.
4. Fine Grinding of Chocolate Mass:
This process refines chocolate mass to achieve the desired texture and smoothness.
5. Flaking of Soybeans:
Before solvent extraction, soybeans are flaked to improve the extraction efficiency.
6. Cutting Vegetables and Fruits:
Vegetables and fruits are cut into desired shapes (cubes, strips, slices) for further
processing or packaging.
7. Fine Mashing of Baby Food:
Mashing is used to create a fine consistency suitable for baby food.
8. Homogenization of Milk and Cream:
The homogenization process ensures that the fat in milk or cream is evenly distributed,
improving texture and consistency.
9. Foaming in Ice Cream, Batters, and Coffee Drinks:
Size reduction plays a role in the creation of stable foams in products like ice cream and
batters.
10. Emulsification:
Size reduction techniques are employed in emulsification to create stable mixtures of
liquids that do not naturally mix, such as oil and water.
Defining the Size of a Single Particle:
The size of a particle can be characterized using a small number of dimensions. For
regularshaped particles (e.g., spheres or cubes), one or two dimensions may suffice. However,
most food particles are irregular in shape, so an equivalent diameter is used to define the size of
these particles. The equivalent diameter is the diameter of a sphere that behaves in the same way
as the particle during a specific measurement or test.
• Sauter Diameter (D32):
The Sauter diameter is an important parameter used to describe particle size in terms of
both surface area and volume. It is the diameter of a sphere that has the same volume-
tosurface area ratio as the particle or droplet system. This diameter is useful when
considering mass transfer and surface-related properties in food processing.

Particle Size Distribution (PSD) and Mean Particle Size:

In food materials, particles often vary in size, necessitating the determination of particle size
distribution (PSD), which refers to the proportion of particles within different size ranges. The
mean particle size is a statistical measure that characterizes the average size of the particles in a
population.
• Methods for PSD Determination:
1. Sifting: A simple technique where material is passed through a stack of sieves
with progressively smaller openings, and the amount retained on each sieve is
measured.
2. Microscopic Examination: Often paired with automatic image analysis to
observe and measure particle sizes.
3. Laser Diffraction Techniques: A modern method that uses light scattering to
determine particle size distribution.
Sieve analysis is commonly used to evaluate the fineness of powders and the distribution of
particle sizes in a sample.
Energy Consumption in Milling Processes:
Size reduction operations, particularly milling, are energy-intensive processes. Energy
consumption is a significant cost in food processing, especially in operations like wheat milling.
• Energy for Wheat Milling:
Milling one bushel (approximately 27 kg) of wheat requires around 1.74 kWh of electric
energy. Milling operations are divided into two main energy components:
1. Energy Imparted to the Material: Energy used to break down and reduce the
size of the material.
2. Energy to Overcome Friction: Energy used to operate machinery, such as
bearings and other moving parts in the mill.
Since milling is energy-heavy, managing and optimizing energy usage is crucial in reducing
operational costs in large-scale food processing.

Summary:
Size reduction plays a vital role in the food industry, facilitating the processing of raw materials
and improving product quality. Techniques such as grinding, milling, and homogenization are
integral to various food products, from cereals to baby food and beverages. Understanding
particle size distribution, equivalent diameters like the Sauter diameter, and managing energy
consumption during size reduction processes are essential for efficient and high-quality food
production.
dono formula diya huwa ha value add karo bss
REFRIGERATION IN FOOD PROCESS
ENGINEERING
In food process engineering, refrigeration refers to the process of removing heat from a
substance or material to lower its temperature, typically to levels below the ambient temperature,
for preserving food quality and extending shelf life.

BASIC MECHANISM
Refrigeration preserves food by reducing molecular mobility, which in turn slows down
chemical reactions and biological processes. Unlike heat treatments, refrigeration does not kill
microorganisms or deactivate enzymes; it simply slows down their activity. Therefore:

• Refrigeration retards spoilage, but it cannot improve the initial quality of the product.
Ensuring high microbial quality in the starting material is crucial.
• Refrigeration is not permanent preservation. Refrigerated foods still have a shelf life,
which is temperature-dependent.
• The preservation effect exists as long as low temperatures are maintained. Maintaining a
reliable cold chain throughout the food’s commercial life is essential.

EFFECT OF REFRIGERATION ON FOOD

The impact of refrigeration on food extends to several aspects of food quality, including
microbial activity, enzymatic reactions, and physical properties.

1. Microbial Activity

• Inhibition of Microorganisms: Refrigeration slows down the growth of spoilage and

pathogenic microorganisms like bacteria, yeasts, and molds. Most pathogens are inactive
below 4°C (40°F), lowering the risk of foodborne illness. However, some psychrotrophic
microorganisms can grow at refrigeration temperatures, making temperature control
essential.
• Psychrotrophs: These microorganisms grow at temperatures ranging from 0°C to 7°C
and can cause spoilage even in refrigerated products. Common examples include
Pseudomonas spp., Listeria monocytogenes, and Bacillus cereus.
• Mesophiles: These microorganisms thrive between 20°C and 45°C, including pathogens
like Escherichia coli and Salmonella. Proper refrigeration can control the growth of these
organisms.

2. Enzymatic Reactions

Refrigeration reduces the activity of enzymes responsible for food spoilage (e.g., proteases and
lipases). However, enzymatic browning and lipid oxidation can still occur unless additional
steps, like blanching or the use of antioxidants, are implemented.
3. Chemical Stability

• Reduced Chemical Reactions: Low temperatures slow down oxidation of fats

(rancidity), degradation of vitamins, and changes in pigments and flavors.
• Moisture Migration: Refrigeration can lead to surface dehydration, resulting in weight
loss and textural changes.
• Nutrient Retention: Slows the loss of nutrients, particularly in perishable items such as
fruits and vegetables.
• Firmness Retention: Fruits and vegetables retain their firmness due to reduced
respiration and water loss during refrigeration.

SOURCES OF REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration can be achieved through three primary sources:

1. Natural sources: Ice, snow, and specific climatic conditions.

2. Mechanical refrigeration: This is the most widely used method, particularly in
industrial food processing and storage.
3. Cryogenic agents: Using substances like liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide for
rapid freezing.

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION
Mechanical refrigeration is the process of cooling a space or material using mechanical
systems, widely utilized in food industry applications, including food storage and
transportation, to preserve food quality and safety by inhibiting microbial growth and
slowing biochemical changes.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION

The basic principle of mechanical refrigeration is based on the Rankine cycle or vapor
compression cycle. The cycle involves the following stages:

1. Compression: The refrigerant gas is compressed, increasing its pressure and temperature.
2. Condensation: The high-pressure refrigerant gas releases heat and condenses into a
highpressure liquid.
3. Expansion: The high-pressure liquid refrigerant passes through an expansion valve,
where its pressure decreases, causing the temperature to drop.
4. Evaporation: The cold refrigerant absorbs heat from the environment, evaporating into a
gas and cooling the space or material.
5. Cycle Repeats: The refrigerant gas returns to the compressor to restart the cycle.
COMPONENTS OF A MECHANICAL REFRIGERATOR
The key components of a mechanical refrigeration system are:

• Evaporator: Where the refrigerant absorbs heat and evaporates.

• Compressor: Increases the pressure of the refrigerant.
• Condenser: Releases heat to the surroundings and condenses the refrigerant.
• Expansion Valve: Reduces the pressure of the refrigerant, initiating the cycle.

FREEZING IN FOOD PROCESSING

Freezing is a critical unit operation that lowers the temperature of food below its freezing
point, causing water to change state into ice crystals. Freezing preserves nutritional and
sensory qualities when proper techniques are used.

BASIC PHENOMENON AND TEMPERATURE CURVE OF FREEZING

During freezing, sensible heat is removed to lower the temperature of food to the freezing
point. When freezing fresh food, heat produced by respiration is also removed. A
characteristic freezing curve can be obtained by monitoring the temperature at the
thermal center of the food, which cools most slowly. The freezing curve includes six
components:

1. Cooling phase: Heat is removed to lower the temperature to the freezing point.
2. Phase transition: Ice crystals start to form, releasing latent heat.
3. Final freezing phase: The food reaches its final frozen temperature.

FREEZING KINETICS AND TIME

Freezing time is the time required to remove heat from food and convert it into a frozen
state. The rate of heat transfer from the freezing front to the cold air is equal to the rate of
heat release during ice formation.

TYPES OF FREEZERS
1. Cooled-Air Freezers: These freezers use natural-circulation air to freeze food at
temperatures between -20ºC and -30ºC. While effective, they are not used in commercial
freezing due to their slower freezing rates (3–72 hours).
2. Blast Freezers: These are more efficient than cooled-air freezers, using forced air
circulation to freeze food more rapidly.
3. Cooled-Liquid Freezers:
o Immersion Freezers: These submerge food in a cooling liquid (usually brine or
refrigerant) to rapidly freeze the product.
4. Cooled-Surface Freezers:
 o Plate Freezers: Freeze food by direct contact with chilled plates. o Scraped-
Surface Freezers: Continuously scrape off the ice layer from the freezer surface,
improving the heat transfer rate and accelerating the freezing process.
MICROBIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN REFRIGERATION AND
FREEZING
Refrigeration and freezing are essential for controlling the growth of harmful
microorganisms in food products. However, psychrotrophic microorganisms, which
can grow at refrigeration temperatures, and mesophilic bacteria, which thrive at
moderate temperatures, remain a concern in both refrigeration and freezing processes.

Proper temperature maintenance throughout the cold chain, from processing to storage
and transportation, is crucial for ensuring the microbial safety and quality of refrigerated
and frozen foods. For example, Listeria monocytogenes, a psychrotrophic bacterium,
can grow at refrigeration temperatures and is a significant concern in the food industry.
Therefore, maintaining the cold chain and applying additional treatments like blanching
or controlled atmosphere packaging are essential strategies for controlling microbial
contamination in refrigerated and frozen foods.

FINAL THOUGHTS
Refrigeration and freezing are essential techniques in food preservation, slowing down
microbial growth and chemical reactions that lead to spoilage. However, they are not
foolproof methods of preservation and must be combined with other practices to maintain
food safety and quality throughout the supply chain. The right equipment, monitoring,
and maintenance of temperature control systems are crucial to the success of refrigeration
and freezing processes in the food industry.
CONVECTIVE HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Heat and mass transfer in fluids occur almost always simultaneously with bulk movement of the
medium. In the context of food processing and engineering, convection is an important
mechanism for efficient heat and mass transfer. Convection is categorized into two types:

1. Natural (or Free) Convection:

This occurs when fluid movement is caused by heat or mass transfer itself, usually due to
density differences. For example, in a room with a hot stove, the air near the stove heats
up, expands, becomes less dense, and moves upward. The cold air, which is denser,
replaces the hot air, creating a continuous flow of air driven by the temperature
difference. This process is referred to as convection currents. In food processing, natural
convection can be seen in processes like drying, where heated air moves over the food to
remove moisture.
2. Forced Convection:
Fluid movement is induced by an external factor, such as a fan or pump, that forces the
fluid over or through a surface. For instance, using a fan to blow air over a cup of tea or
over the surface of food in an industrial oven increases the rate of heat transfer. Forced
convection is often used in food processing to control and accelerate drying, freezing, or
cooking processes.
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION
Radiation refers to the transport of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. Unlike
conduction and convection, radiation does not require a medium and can occur through a
vacuum. In food processing, radiation plays a significant role in methods like microwave
heating, infrared cooking, or solar drying.

Interaction between Matter and Thermal Radiation:

When thermal radiation interacts with matter, the radiation is partly transmitted, reflected, and
absorbed. These interactions are characterized by the following properties:

• Transmissivity: The fraction of radiation that passes through a material.

• Reflectivity: The fraction of radiation that is reflected by the material.
• Absorptivity: The fraction of radiation that is absorbed by the material and causes
heating.

A material that absorbs all of the incident radiation is called a black body. The absorptivity of a
black body is unity, meaning it absorbs all incoming radiation. Black bodies are also the best
emitters of thermal radiation at any given temperature. The relationship between the emissive
power of a black body and its temperature is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann equation, which is
as follows:

This equation is crucial for understanding heat transfer in processes such as infrared heating,
where the material absorbs and emits radiation at specific rates, influencing the overall cooking
or drying process.
Important Formulas
OHMIC HEATING
Introduction
Ohmic heating is a process where an electric current passes through a material, generating heat
internally rather than through a surface. It is primarily used to rapidly heat fluids, such as water,
and is gaining popularity in food processing. Unlike traditional methods, ohmic heating doesn't
require a temperature gradient or heat transfer surface, minimizing fouling.
This method has been in use for years for applications such as the rapid heating of water in
household appliances and for on-demand heating in food service outlets. Its application to food
processing is more recent
The process involves electrodes through which a voltage is applied, with the food acting as an
electrical resistance. Heat is generated directly inside the food due to the current's resistance.
Basic Principle
The rate of heat generation in a resistive conductor is governed by Joule’s Law:
• The electric current applied in ohmic heating is alternating current, in order to avoid
electrolysis. Most systems now use common commercial line frequency (50 or 60 Hz).
• The electrical resistance of a conductor depends on the geometry of the conductor and its
electrical conductivity