Green Chemistry:

The future of sustainable science

QUANTUM
PHYSICS
Presented by Olivia Wilson
Discovery of
Radiation
In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays
when he was working on cathode ray tubes. He
noted that some type of radiation which could
penetrate some substances and project a
shadow of solid objects such as bones. This
was the first experience of discovering
electromagnetic radiation other than visible
light. X ray has found extensive applications in
medicine and physics, and it helped also to
understand electromagnetic waves.
Discovery of Cathode
Rays
Streams which are emitted from a cathode in a
vacuum tube and contain negative charge are called
cathode rays. In 1897, **J.J. Thomson worked upon
cathode rays and concluded that they contained
negatively charged particles which were much
smaller than atoms. He established that those
particles were electrons, which were the first sub
atomic particles to be d.
Quantum Laws:
Understanding
the Basics
Quantum mechanics offers a rulebook
governing the behaviors of particles at a very
small scale. Opposed to classical physics,
which works very well for large objects,
quantum mechanics is a science of
probabilities and uncertainties that explains
the dual nature of particles. The following are
the key quantum laws:
 Wave-Particle
Duality
Wave-particle duality is the property of particles, such as electrons and photons, to behave as
waves or particles. This idea was first stated by Louis de Broglie in 1924. Certain experiments,
such as the double-slit experiment, had it that when the particles were not observed, they
acted as a wave and an interference pattern emerged, while they were behaving as particles
when observed.
 Heisenberg's
Uncertainty Principle
Proposed by Werner Heisenberg in 1927, the uncertainty principle basically says that it is
impossible to know both the exact *position and momentum of a particle at the same time. The
more precisely we know one, the less precisely we can know the other.

This law pinpoints the intrinsic limitation of measurement in quantum mechanics and
introduces the concept of intrinsic uncertainty in nature.
 Quantum
Superposition
Quantumsuperposition states that a particle can exist in multiple states at once until it is
observed or measured. This principle was illustrated by the famous Schrödinger's cat thought
experiment, where a cat in a box is considered both alive and dead until someone opens the
box and observes it.

Superposition refers to the ability of quantum bits, or qubits, to represent 0 and 1

simultaneously, hence increasing the power of computation enormously.

---
 Quantum Entanglement

Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon where particles become so entangled that their

state becomes inextricably linked to changing the state of another instantaneously, no matter
how distant the two might be. It was first proposed by Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and
Nathan Rosen in what is known as the EPR paradox back in 1935, but has since been
experimentally confirmed.

He once called it "spooky action at a distance." Entanglement has been a significant

contributor to the development of technologies like quantum teleportation and quantum
cryptography.
 Pauli Exclusion
Principle

As early as 1925, Wolfgang Pauli put forward this principle. No two fermions or electrons,
protons, neutrons, occupying the same quantum state in any quantum system may be
present there. This shows that electrons inside an atom always occupy different levels of
energy; therefore, electrons build up different periodic tables of structures.

Due to the exclusion principle, this accounts for much of the stability of matter and even
explains the electronic behavior in an atom.
 Quantum
Tunneling
Quantum tunneling is the phenomenon whereby particles pass through a classically forbidden
barrier. It's a direct result of the wave nature of particles and the probabilistic nature of
quantum mechanics.

Quantum tunneling plays an important role in such technologies as semiconductors and

nuclear fusion.
These quantum laws form the basis of quantum
mechanics and explain phenomena that classical
physics cannot. Their understanding has led to
groundbreaking advances in technology and
opened up new fields of research, such as quantum
computing, quantum communication, and quantum
cryptography.
Quantum Laws:
The Basics
Quantum mechanics is a set of rules that describes
the behavior of particles at very small scales. In
contrast with classical physics, it works perfectly for
large objects and hence speaks of probabilities,
uncertainties, and wave-particle duality. Here come
important quantum laws:
Wave-Particle
Duality
Wave-particle duality, the fact that particles
such as electrons and photons can
sometimes be described as waves and
sometimes as particles, was first proposed
by Louis de Broglie in 1924. Particles,
unobserved, act like waves-to be proven later
by experiments such as the double-slit
experiment: an interference pattern is given
by them; when observed, though, they
behave like particles.

Hence proving that the particles do not

possess any pre-defined nature; it is the way
we measure that defines their behavior.
The uncertainty
principle by What today became known as the
uncertainty principle-the impossibility, that is,
of determining position and momentum of a

Heisenberg particle in the same instant-had been

originally advanced by Werner Heisenberg in
1927. There is a reciprocal relation between
the two sides involved: the better we fix the
one, the worse we can determine the other.

This is the ultimate bound on measurement in

quantum mechanics and introduces an
intrinsic uncertainty in nature.
Quantum
Entanglement
Entanglement-quantum: Particles somehow become connected in
such a way that the state of one particle influences the state of
another instantly, regardless of the distance separating them. It was
first described by Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen
in the EPR paradox in 1935, and experimentally confirmed later.

Entanglement is what Einstein famously called "spooky action at a

distance." It is the basis of developing technologies like quantum
teleportation and quantum cryptography. --- These quantum laws
are the basics of quantum mechanics, explaining phenomena that
otherwise could not be explained by classical physics. Their
knowledge brought big achievements in technology and opened
completely new fields of research: quantum computing, quantum
communication, and quantum cryptography.
Field Theory
Field theory explains it by describing the interaction
between the different fields and matter. A field is any of the
physical objects that exist at every point in both space and
time; it may have an influence on objects in it.
Types of Fields
Gravitational Field:
01 A field around masses, which attracts other
masses. Governs the force of gravity.

Electromagnetic Field:
02 A field produced by electrically charged particles.
It exerts force on other charged particles in
attraction or repulsions.
Quantum Fields:
03 A more sophisticated idea of how particles interact
at the quantum level (e.g., electron fields, photon
fields).
String Theory
String theory postulates that the fundamental
entities that constitute the universe are not point-
like objects but tiny vibrating strings.
These strings vibrate at different frequencies, and
their vibrations determine the properties of the
particles, including mass and charge.
Strings
One-dimensional objects, far smaller than subatomic
particles, that can be excited in different ways.
Each vibration corresponds to a new particle: quarks,
electrons, etc.
Additional Sizes:

String theory assumes extra spatial dimensions in

addition to the three known to man: length, width,
height.
These dimensions are compactified and do not
appear openly in everyday life.
Types of Strings:
Open Strings: Those are the strings having two ends
01 which could correspond to particles like photons.

02 Closed Strings: Form loops and are associated with

forces like gravity.
Goal of String Theory
String theory seeks to unify all four fundamental
forces of nature:
Gravity Force (Gravitational) Electromagnetic
Force: light, electricity Strong Nuclear Force:
holds atomic nuclei together Weak Nuclear
Force: responsible for radioactive decay
Challenges and Unanswered Questions
Experimental Validation: In spite of all its potential,
string theory remains untested to this date
because it is still devoid of experimental evidence.
Complexity- Higher order of mathematics is
involved in this theory, which has not yet been
completed.
Applications of Quantum
physics
01 Quantum Computing:
The basis of quantum computers is qubits which are different from
the digital computers’ use of 0s and 1s. As it is possible for qubits to
operate in more than one state unlike binary bits, quantum ables a
computer to solve a number of problems simultaneously which
gives it an edge over current day computers to a large extent. In
addition, sapces like deep learning, machine learning, cyber
security, and complex simulations will witness dire improvements
with the incorporation of Quantum technology.
 02 Transistors
Transistors can also be defined as conductive switches used in
electronic devices in order to allow or shut the passage of current
in a specific location in the circuit. On a more elementary level,
transistors are based on principles of quantum physics. Due to the
electronic tunneling effects transistors can work and shrink down
remarkably small sizes meaning they can be effective on a more
minute level. This significantly advanced the development of
electronics and allowed for the advancement of micro chips that
fuel computers, smartphones and tablets.
 03 Lasers:
The interaction of energy with atoms or molecules stimulates them,
and this basic quantum mechanical concept called ‘Stimulated
Emission’ is harnessed by lasers.
Conclusions
the journey through quantum physics reveals the evolution of atomic theory, from
the discovery of electrons, the nucleus, and neutrons to quantum mechanics'
revolutionary principles like wave-particle duality and uncertainty. These ideas
reshaped science, leading to advancements like transistors and radiation
technology. Theoretical pursuits such as string theory aim to unify forces, while
ongoing research in quantum computing and cryptography continues to push
scientific boundaries, demonstrating that discovery is a never-ending process.
Thank
you!
Do you have any questions?