ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat, work,
temperature and energy. The principles of thermodynamics are fundamental to understanding
how energy is transformed and transferred in natural processes and engineering systems. These
principles underpin a circle range of scientific and engineering disciplines including physical
chemistry, mechanical engineering and environmental science. An in-depth understanding of
thermodynamics is crucial for advancing technology, improving energy efficiency and
addressing global challenges such as climate change and sustainable energy production.
Despite its importance, thermodynamics is often perceived as a complex and abstract
field. This project aims to demystify the core concept thermodynamics by exploring the three
main laws and their practical applications. The goal is to provide a clearer understanding of how
these principles operate in everyday life and technological system.
AIM
To explore fundamental concepts of thermodynamics through real-world applications,
emphasizing their significance in understanding energy interactions and transformation in
various system.
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics in physics is a branch of science that deals with heat, work and energy
radiation and physical matter.
To be specific, it explains how thermal energy is converted from one form to another and how
matter is affected by this process. Thermal energy is the energy that comes from heat. This heat
is generated by the movement of tiny particles within an object, and the faster the particles move
the more the heat is generated.
Thermodynamics is a macroscopic science. This means that it deals with the bulk system and
does not deal with the molecular constitution of matter.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics has its own unique vocabulary associated with it.

THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
A thermodynamic system is a specific portion of matter with a definite boundary on which our
attention is focused. The system boundary maybe real or imaginary, fixed or deformable.
There Are three types of systems:
 Isolated system – An isolated system cannot exchange energy and mass with its
surroundings. The universe is considered an isolated system
 Closed system – Across the boundary of the closed system, the transfer of energy will
take place.
Eg: Refrigerators, Compression of gas in piston
 Open system – In an open system, the mass and the energy maybe transferred between
that system and surroundings.
Eg: A steam turbine

THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
A system undergoes a thermodynamic process when there is some energetic change within the
system that is associated with changes in pressure, volume and internal energy.
There are four types of thermodynamic processes, they are:
 Adiabatic process – A process where no heat transfer into or out of the system occurs
 Isochoric process – A process where no change in volume occurs and the system does no
work.
 Isobaric process – A process in which no change in pressure occurs.
 Isothermal process – A process in which no change in temperature occurs.
A thermodynamic cycle is a process or a combination of process conductor such that the
initial and the final and the final states of the system are the same. A thermodynamic cycle is
also known as cyclic operation or cyclic process.

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Thermodynamic properties are defined as characteristic features of a system, capable of
specifying the system’s state.
Thermodynamic properties maybe intensive or extensive.
 Intensive properties – Properties that do not depend on the quantity of the matter.
Eg: Pressure, Temperature
 Extensive properties – Their values depend on the mass of the system.
Eg: Volume, Energy enthalpy

WHAT IS ENTHALPY?
Enthalpy is the measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system. The quantity of
enthalpy is equal to the total heat content of a system, equivalent to the system’s internal
energy plus the product of volume and pressure.
Mathematically,
H = Enthalpy
E = Sum of internal energy
P = Product of pressure
V = Volume
H = E+PV

WHAT IS ENTROPY?
Entropy is a thermodynamic quantity whose value depends on the physical state or the
condition of a system. In other words, it is a thermodynamic function used to measure the
randomness or disorder.

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if 2 systems are each in thermal equilibrium
with the third system then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This law
establishes the concept of temperature and allows for the construction of temperature
scale.

CONCEPT OF THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM

Consider two thermodynamics systems, both filled with gas are kept in an adiabatic
environment.
One system is A with parameters pressure P1, volume V1 and temperature T1. Another
system is B with parameters P2, V2, T2. Here these two systems are in contact with each
other and they are in thermal equilibrium even when their temperatures are different, i.e.
T1 and T2. This happens because the boundary around these bodies is adiabatic.

EXPLANATION FOR THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Suppose two bodies that are in contact with each other and kept inside an adiabatic
boundary, and the wall between the bodies is also adiabatic.
Consider two bodies A and B having a fluid inside them. The pressure, volume and
temperature for body A and B be Pa, Va, Ta and Pb, Vb, Tb respectively. Since no heat
transfer takes place, i.e. the bodies are in thermal equilibrium even if the temperatures T1
and T2 are different. Two bodies with different temperatures can be in thermal
equilibrium because the bodies are kept in an adiabatic frame. Therefore, their state
remains constant.
An example of the zeroth law of thermodynamics is when you have two glasses of water.
One glass contains hot water, and the other contains cold water. Now, if we leave them on
the table for a few hours, they will attain thermal equilibrium with the temperature of the
room.

APPLICATION OF ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Zeroth law is used for comparing the temperature of different objects. For getting an
accurate temperature, we take a reference body and check certain characteristics that
change in it. It has several applications in our daily lives and various fields including
temperature measurement, heat transfer, thermal insulation, colorimetry, thermodynamic
circles and air conditioning, medical applications, materials science and also in various
industries like energy production and distribution, transportation, construction, health
care, manufacturing and food processing and storage.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics is a fundamental concept that has for-reaching
implications in out daily lives and various fields.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of energy conservation, states:
“Energy cannot be created or destroyed only converted from one form to another.”
Mathematically, this is expressed as:
E= Q-W
Where:
 E is the change in energy of a closed system.
 Q is the amount of energy added to the system (as heat)
 W is the amount of energy lost by the system (as work done)
This fundamental law applies to all energy interactions and transformations, and is a
cornerstone of thermodynamics.
The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of energy conservation, explains
that: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another.
In other words, the total energy of an isolated system remains constant over time, but the
form of the energy can change.
Imagine a cup of hot coffee:
 Initially, the energy is in the form of thermal energy(heat).
 As the coffee cools down, the thermal energy is converted into kinetic energy (the
motion of molecules) and potential energy (the energy stored in the bonds
between the molecules).
 Eventually, the thermal energy id transferred to the surroundings, and the coffee
reaches room temperature.
In this example:
 Energy is conserved (the total energy remains the same).
 Energy is converted from one form (thermal) to another (kinetic and potential
energy).
The first law of thermodynamics applies to all energy interaction, from the smallest
molecular collisions to the largest cosmic events. It’s a fundamental principle that helps
us understand and predict energy transformation in various fields, including physics,
engineering and chemistry.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS - KEY CONCEPTS
The first law of thermodynamics is a fundamental principle in physics and chemistry that
deals with the conservation of energy. In simple terms, it states that energy cannot be
created nor be destroyed in an isolated system; it can be converted from one form to
another or transfer from one part of the system to another.
Here’s a breakdown of its key concepts:
 Conservation of energy – The total energy of an isolated system remains constant
over time. Energy ca be converted between different forms (like heat, work or
chemical energy), but the total amount remains unchanged.
 Energy transfer – The first law explains how energy can be transferred into or out
of a system through processes like heat transfer or work done by or on the system.
 Internal energy – It includes both the kinetic energy (energy due to motion) and
potential energy (energy due to position or stored energy) of the particles within a
system. Changes in internal energy can occur through heat transfer or work.
 Heat and work – Heat is energy transferred due to temperature difference, while
work is energy transferred by mechanical means, such as moving a piston or
rotating a turbine.
 Applications – This law is crucial in understanding and designing engines,
refrigerators, chemical reactions and many other processes where energy
transformation is involved.
Overall, the first law of thermodynamics sets the foundation for understanding how
energy behaves in different physical and chemical processes, guiding everything from
engineering principles to biological systems.
APPLICATIONS OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
transformed from one form to another. This principle finds application in various
everyday scenarios and scientific context:
 Heat engines – It explains how heat engines work, where the thermal energy
(heat) is converted into mechanical work. Examples include car engines and
steam turbines.
 Calorimetry – In calorimeters, the first law helps in measuring heat exchange
during chemical reactions or physical changes by accounting for energy changes
as heat.
 Food nutrition – Its relevant in understanding how our bodies metabolize food.
The energy content of food (calories) is determined by the heat produced when its
burned, reflecting the energy our bodies can use
 Thermal insulation – In building design, insulation materials are chosen based on
their ability tot conserve heat energy. The first law explains how energy transfers
through different materials.
 Electric power generation – It applies to power plants where chemical energy or
nuclear energy is converted into electricity through turbines and generators.
 Environment science – Understanding energy flows in ecosystems and the
impacts of human activities on energy balances relates directly to the first law.
  Energy storage – From batteries to compressed air systems, devices that store
energy rely on principles governed by the first law to ensure energy is conserved
in the process of storage and retrieval.
In each case, the first law of thermodynamics provides a fundamental frame work for
understanding energy transformations and conservation, whether in practical applications
or fundamental scientific research.
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The second law of thermodynamics states that the state of entropy of the entire universe,
as an isolated system, will always increase over time. The second law also states that the
changes in the entropy in the universe can never be negative.
The second law of thermodynamics is a physical law based on universal empirical
observation concerning heat and energy interconversions. A simple statement of the law
is that heat always flows spontaneously from hotter to colder regions of matter (or
‘downhill’ in terms of the temperature gradient). Another statement is: “not all heat can
be converted into work in a cyclic process”.
The second law of thermodynamics establishes the concept of entropy as a physical
property of a thermodynamic system. It predicts whether processes are forbidden despite
obeying the requirement of conservation of energy as expressed in the first law of
thermodynamics and provides necessary criteria for spontaneous processes. For example,
the first law allows the process of a cup falling off a table and breaking on the floor, as
well as allowing the reverse process of the cup fragments coming back together and
‘jumping’ back on to the table, while the second law allows the former and denies the
latter. The second law may be formulated by the observation that the entropy of isolated
systems left to spontaneous evolution cannot decrease, as they always tend toward a state
of thermodynamic equilibrium where the entropy is highest at the given internal energy.
An increase in the combined entropy of system and surroundings accounts for the
irreversibility of the natural processes, often referred to in the concept of the arrow of
time.
Historically, the second law was an empirical finding that was accepted as an axiom of
thermodynamic theory. Statistical mechanics provides a microscopic explanation of the
law in terms of probability distributions of the states of large assemblies of atoms r
molecules. The second law has been expressed in many ways. Its first formulation, which
proceeded the proper definition of entropy and was based on caloric theory, is Carnot’s
theorem, formulated by the French scientist Sadi Carnot, who in 1824 showed that the
efficiency of conversion of heat to work in a heat engine has an upper limit. The first
rigorous definition of the second law based on the concept of entropy came from German
scientist Rudolf Clausius in the 1850s and included his statement that heat can never pass
from a colder to a warmer body without some other change, connected therewith,
occurring at the same time.
The second law of thermodynamics allows the definition of the concept of
thermodynamic temperature, but this has been formally delegated to the zeroth law of
thermodynamics.
APPLICATIONS OF THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 According to the law, heat always flows from a body at a higher temperature to a
body at lower temperature. This law is applicable to all types of heat engine
 cycles including Otto, Diesel, etc. For all types of working fluids used in the
engines. This law has led to the progress of present – day vehicles.
 Another application of this law is refrigerators and heat pumps based on the
Reversed Carnot Cycle. If you want to move heat from a body at a lower
temperature to a body at a higher temperature, then you have to supply external
work. In the original Carnot Cycle, heat produces work while in the Reversed
Carnot Cycle work is provided to transfer heat from lower temperature reservoir
to a higher temperature reservoir.
Removing heat from the food items in the refrigerator and throwing it away to the
higher temperature atmosphere doesn’t happen automatically. We need to supply
external wok via the compressor to make this happen in the refrigerator.
Air conditioner and heat pump follow the similar law of thermodynamics. The air
conditioner removes heat from the room and maintains it at a lower temperature by
throwing the absorbed heat into the atmosphere. The heat pump absorbs heat from the
atmosphere and supplies it to the room which is cooler in winters.
In both the cases above, external work or energy in the form of electricity has to be
supplied; larger the temperature difference, larger is the external work required.
SOME OTHER APPLICATIONS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Here are some more applications of thermodynamics:
 Sweating in a crowded room – In a crowded room, everybody (every person)
starts sweating. The body starts cooling down by the transferring the body
heat to the sweat. Sweat evaporates adding heat to the room. Again, this
happens due to the first and second law of thermodynamics in action. One
thing to keep in mind, heat is not lost but transferred attaining equilibrium
with maximum entropy.
 Melting of ice cube – Ice cubes in a drink absorb heat from the drink making
the drink cooler. If we forget to drink it, after sometime, it again attains room
temperature by absorbing the atmospheric heat.
All this happens as per the first and second law of thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics can also be observed in application to biological systems. An
example that can be used to show thermodynamics in nature is the process of
photosynthesis. Plants utilize light energy, from the sun or an artificial source, and
water, which they change into chemical energy.
CONCLUSION
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships and conversions
between heat and other forms of energy. It encompasses principle governing the behavior of
systems in equilibrium and their transformations, including concepts like temperature, entropy
and energy transfer. Thermodynamics has brad applications across various scientific fields from
chemistry and engineering to biology and environmental science.
In conclusion, the laws of thermodynamics form the foundational principles that govern energy,
entropy and the behavior of matter in the universe.
THE ZEROTH LAW
This law states if two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are
in thermal equilibrium with each other. Temperature determines the direction of flow of heat
when two bodies are in contact. Hence, two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium when
they have same temperature. So, the zeroth law of thermodynamics leads to the concept of
temperature.
FIRST LAW
Energy conservation principle states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred
or transformed within a system.
SECOND LAW
Entropy principle asserts that in any isolated system, the total entropy tends to increase over
time, implying the directionality of natural processes and the concepts of irreversibility.
These laws together provide a foundation for understanding and predicting the behavior of
energy and matter in various physical systems, from engines to living organisms, and even to the
universe as a whole.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

 www.byjus.com
 www.wikipedia.com
 Meta AI
 NCERT Physics text
 ChatGPT