Chapter 4 - ADE

A/D and D/A conversion techniques - Basic

Concepts (D/A : R-2-R only , A/D : successive
approximation )

D/A Conversion

A Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) converts a digital

input signal into an analog output signal. The digital signal
is represented with a binary code, which is a combination
of bits 0 and 1. This chapter deals with Digital to Analog
Converters in detail.

The block diagram of DAC is shown in the following gure

−

A Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) consists of a number of

binary inputs and a single output. In general, the number of
binary inputs of a DAC will be a power of two.

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 Types of DACs
There are two types of DACs—

Weighted Resistor DAC

R-2R Ladder DAC

R-2R Ladder DAC

The R-2R Ladder DAC overcomes the disadvantages of a
binary weighted resistor DAC. As the name suggests, R-2R
Ladder DAC produces an analog output, which is almost
equal to the digital (binary) input by using a R-2R ladder
network in the inverting adder circuit.

The circuit diagram of a 3-bit R-2R Ladder DAC is shown

in the following gure −

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 Recall that the bits of a binary number can have only one of
the two values. i.e., either 0 or 1. Let the 3-bit binary input
is b2b1b0 . Here, the bits, b2 and b0 denote the Most
Signi cant Bit (MSB) and Least Signi cant Bit (LSB)
respectively.

The digital switches shown in the above gure will be

connected to ground, when the corresponding input bits
are equal to ‘0’. Similarly, the digital switches shown in
above gure will be connected to the negative reference
voltage,−VR when the corresponding input bits are equal to
‘1’.

It is di cult to get the generalised output voltage equation

of a R-2R Ladder DAC. But, we can nd the analog output
voltage values of R-2R Ladder DAC for individual binary
input combinations easily.

The advantages of a R-2R Ladder DAC are as follows −

• R-2R Ladder DAC contains only two values of resistor:

R and 2R. So, it is easy to select and design more
accurate resistors.

• If more number of bits are present in the digital input,

then we have to include required number of R-2R
sections additionally.

Due to the above advantages, R-2R Ladder DAC is

preferable over binary weighted resistor DAC.

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 A/D Converter

An Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) converts an analog

signal into a digital signal. The digital signal is represented
with a binary code, which is a combination of bits 0 and 1.

The block diagram of an ADC is shown in the following

gure −

Observe that in the gure shown above, an Analog to

Digital Converter (ADC) consists of a single analog input
and many binary outputs. In general, the number of binary
outputs of ADC will be a power of two.

There are two types of ADCs: Direct type ADCs and

Indirect type ADC. This chapter discusses about the Direct
type ADCs in detail.

If the ADC performs the analog to digital conversion directly

by utilising the internally generated equivalent digital
(binary) code for comparing with the analog input, then it is
called as Direct type ADC.
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 The following are the examples of Direct type ADCs −
• Counter type ADC
• Successive Approximation ADC
• Flash type ADC

Successive Approximation ADC

A successive approximation type ADC produces a digital
output, which is approximately equal to the analog input by
using successive approximation technique internally.

The block diagram of a successive approximation ADC is

shown in the following gure

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 The successive approximation ADC mainly consists of 5
blocks− Clock signal generator, Successive Approximation
Register (SAR), DAC, comparator and Control logic.

The working of a successive approximation ADC is as

follows −

• The control logic resets all the bits of SAR and

enables the clock signal generator in order to send the
clock pulses to SAR, when it received the start
commanding signal.

• The binary (digital) data present in SAR will be

updated for every clock pulse based on the output of
comparator. The output of SAR is applied as an input
of DAC.

• DAC converts the received digital input, which is the

output of SAR, into an analog output. The comparator
compares this analog value Va with the external
analog input value Vi .

• The output of a comparator will be ‘1’ as long as Vi is

greater than Va. Similarly, the output of comparator will
be ‘0’, when Vi is less than or equal to Va.

• The operations mentioned in above steps will be

continued until the digital output is a valid one.

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 The digital output will be a valid one, when it is almost
equivalent to the corresponding external analog input value
Vi.

Logic Families - TTL , ECL , MOS , CMOS - Basic

Components

Logic families are di erent types of technologies being

used to build di erent logic gates. Logic gates are digital
circuits that perform basic logic operations like AND, OR,
NOT, NAND, and NOR.

• In positive logic, 0 is formed by a low voltage level,

and a high voltage level forms 1. It means the ON state
refers to high voltage as input or output while OFF
means low voltage as input or output.

• In negative logic, 0 is formed by a high voltage level,

and 1 is formed by a low voltage level. Here, the
situation is reversed to that of positive logic. ON
means a low voltage input or output while OFF means
high voltage as input or output.

Logical functions are the logical gate operations. The most

common logical functions are - AND, OR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, XOR.

Logic families are fabricated using various semiconductor

technologies utilising diodes and transistors as switching
components. Diodes are simple switching elements having

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 two states, ON as when in forward bias and OFF as when in
reverse bias.

Classi cation of Logic Families

Logic families can be broadly categorised as per the
following diagram

Logic family

Unipolar Logic Families

Unipolar means having a single type of charge carrier. This
logic family uses transistors that have either electrons or
holes(not both) as charge carriers. The most commonly
used technology is Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor(MOS). A
common example is Complementary MOS (CMOS) logic.

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 MOS

MOS stands for metal-oxide-semiconductor. The

combinational logic circuit performs Boolean operations
and the output is determined as the Boolean function of the
input. They are the basic building blocks of all digital
systems.

We will see that in the design and analysis of MOS circuits,

the basic principle used can be directly applied to the
combinational logic circuits.

Types of MOS logic circuit

• P-type MOS or PMOS logic

• N-type MOS or NMOS logic
• Depletion-load NMOS logic
• High-Density NMOS or HMOS logic
• Complementary MOS or CMOS logic
• Bipolar MOS or BiMOS logic

CMOS(Complementary MOS)
In CMOS technology, both n-type and p-type transistors
are used to design logical functions. The same signal which
turns ON one transistor is used to turn OFF the other
transistor. These characteristics of CMOS make it
compatible for designing logic devices using only simple
switching elements, without the need for a pull-up resistor.

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 Characteristics of CMOS
• Low power consumption - CMOS circuit consumes
very low power, making them ideal for battery-
powered devices.

• Low cost - The CMOS fabrication process is relatively

simpler compared to other semiconductor
technologies.

• High reliability and noise immunity - They are

considered to have a high noise margin and thus are
good for circuits that require high tolerance to noise.

• Limited Voltage Swing - They have a low voltage

range of operation, making them less suitable for high
voltage operations.

Bipolar Logic Families

In bipolar devices, the conduction happens due to both
charge carriers - electrons and holes. Bipolar logic families
use semiconductor diodes and bipolar junction transistors
as the basic building blocks of logic circuits. The simplest
bipolar logic elements use diodes and resistors to perform
logic operations; this is called diode logic. Most TTL logic
gates use diode logic internally and boost their output drive
capability using transistor circuits. Some TTL gates use
parallel con gurations of transistors to perform logic
functions. ECL gates use transistors as current switches to
achieve very high speed.
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 There are further classi cations of the bipolar logic family in
two types

Saturated
In this logic, the bipolar junction transistors(BJTs) used are
operated in saturated regions. This means that both the
emitter-base and collector-base junctions are forward-
biased, allowing maximum current ow through the
transistor.

Characteristics of Saturated Logic Families

• Can allow relatively higher current through transistors

• Very fast state switching

• Higher power consumption than non-saturated logic

families.

• Better noise immunity

• Examples include Transistor-

• Transistor Logic (TTL)

• Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)
• Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL).

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 Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)
Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) is a digital logic family
employing bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) to uphold logic
states and facilitate switching operations. Introduced in
1961 by James L. Buie of TRW, TTL remains prevalent in
various electronic devices and systems. Renowned for its
remarkable performance and adaptability, TTL nds
widespread application in logic gates, memory circuits, and
microprocessors.

Characteristics of TTL
• Logic Voltage Levels: TTL logic inputs are classi ed
as logical high when they fall between 2V and 5V, and
logical low when within the range of 0V to 0.8V.

• Propagation Delay: TTL stands out for having the

minimal propagation delay among digital integrated
circuits (ICs).

• Power Dissipation: A standard TTL device consumes

approximately 10mW of power.

• Noise Margin: TTL boasts a noise margin of about

0.4V

• Speed: TTL is renowned for its rapid switching speed.

• Compatibility: TTL devices are compatible with other

TTL devices.

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 Non-saturated
In non-saturated bipolar logic, the bipolar junction
transistors (BJTs) are operated in the active or linear region
and not in the saturation region. In other words, the
collector-base junction is reverse-biased, limiting the
current ow through the transistor.

Characteristics of Non-Saturated Logic Families

• Comparatively lower current ow than the saturated
logic family's transistors

• Slower switching speed

• Lower power consumption

• Examples include

• Emitter Coupled Logic(ECL)

• Schottky TTL.

Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL) family

Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) is a bipolar transistor logic
family that is considered to be the fastest logic available. It
was invented in 1956 at IBM by Hannon S. Yourke. ECL is
also known as current-steering logic (CSL), current-mode
logic (CML), or current-switch emitter-follower (CSEF) logic.
The key to reducing propagation delay in a bipolar logic
family is to prevent a gate’s transistors from saturating, we

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 learned how Schottky diodes prevent saturation in TTL
gates.

ECL is used in high-performance applications, such as:

Clock-distribution circuits, High-frequency-based
applications, Fiber-optic transceiver interfaces, Ethernet,
and ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) networks.

Characteristics of ECL logic family

• Power noise: ECL circuits generate relatively little
power noise

• Propagation time: The propagation time for ECL can

be less than a nanosecond

• Small voltage swing: ECL achieves its high-speed

operation by employing a relatively small voltage
swing and preventing the transistors from entering the
saturation region

• No external inverters: ECL devices operate without

the need for any external inverters to simultaneously
create the true and complementary output of the
desired function at the outputs

• Small voltage swing: ECL has a small swing which

generally varies with di erence of 0.8V

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 Characteristics of a Logic Family
• Operating Speed: This refers to the time taken for the
output voltage to change in response to a change in
the input voltage. It is desirable for this time to be
minimised.

• Fan-in: This denotes the number of inputs connected

to a logic gate. For instance, in an AND gate, the fan-in
is 2, whereas in a NOT gate, it's 1.

• Fan-out: Fan-out indicates the total number of

outputs that a gate can manage without signi cant
alteration in output voltage.

• Noise Immunity: Noise immunity gauges the capacity

of a circuit to endure noise or electrical interference
without causing a notable deviation in the output.

• Power Dissipation: Power dissipation refers to the

power required for operation. When a circuit
transitions from one state to another, power is
dissipated. Typically, there are two forms of
dissipation: static power dissipation, which is the
power consumed when the circuit's state remains
unchanged, and dynamic power dissipation, which is
the power utilised during state transitions.

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 Comparison of a Logic Family
Parameters TTL CMOS ECL RTL
Basic element Transistors, MOSFETs Resistor and resistor and
diodes, and transistors transistors
resistors
Fan out moderate highest(~50) high low
Propagation 10ns 70ns 2ns 12ns
Delay
Noise margin moderate high low poor
Power 10mW 0.1mW 40-50mW 30mW
dissipation
Circuit complex moderately complex simple
complexity complex
Basic gate NAND gate NAND/NOR OR/NOR NOR gate
Application Oscilloscopes, battery- high-speed practically
measurement powered switching obsolete due
devices circuits due to application to poor noise
low power margin
consumption,
mobile
equipments

Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Logic

Families

Advantages of CMOS
• Extremely low power consumption
• High fan-out (~50)
• Can operate in wider temperature ranges(-55 to 125
degree C)
• No static power dissipation. Power is dissipated only
for switching MOSFETs.
• Best Noise Immunity

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 Disadvantages of CMOS
• Slow speed of operation
• Propagation delay time is around 50ns while this is
around 10-12ns in TTL

Advantages of TTL
• Least susceptible to electrical damage
• Noise immunity is better than ECL but less than
CMOS
• Compatible with other logic families
• Lesser propagation delay than CMOS
• Better switching speed

Disadvantages of TTL
• Moderate power consumption.
• Prone to temperature variations
• Large power dissipation
• Poor noise immunity

Advantages of ECL
• Fastest speed
• Lesser temperature interference

Disadvantages of ECL
• Power consumption is higher than TTL and CMOS
• Lower operating voltage
• Very low noise immunity

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 Applications of the Logic Gate
Applications of CMOS

• Digital ICs: Microprocessors, Microcontrollers,

Memory chips

• Embedded systems: Robotics, Automotive

electronics

• Signal Processing: Analog-to-digital

converters(ADCs), lters, ampli ers

• Medical devices: MRI scanners, Pacemakers

Applications of TTL

• Legacy systems: Industrial plants having legacy

systems implanted.

• Testing instruments: Oscilloscopes, Logic analysers,

signal generators.

Applications of ECL

• High-speed computing: In legacy mainframe and

super-computers.

• Telecommunications: High-speed switches, routers

and communication interfaces.

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 • Military and Aerospace: Radars, Missile guidance
system.

A/D Converter Applications:

Audio Processing: Converting sound waves into digital
signals for recording, editing, and playback in music
production and broadcasting.

Medical Devices: Used in devices like ECG and EEG

machines to digitise physiological signals for analysis and
monitoring.

Sensor Data Acquisition: Capturing signals from

temperature sensors, pressure sensors, and other analog
devices in automation and control systems.

Digital Imaging: In cameras and scanners, converting light

intensity into digital data for image processing.

Communication Systems: Converting analog signals for

transmission in telecommunication networks, including
mobile phones and satellite systems.

D/A Converter Applications:

Audio Playback: Converting digital audio les back into
analog signals for playback through speakers or
headphones.

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 Video Display: Used in televisions and monitors to convert
digital video signals into analog signals for display.

Signal Generation: In function generators and

synthesisers, converting digital values into corresponding
analog waveforms for testing and experimentation.

Control Systems: Outputting control signals in industrial

automation, robotics, and process control systems to drive
actuators and motors.

Instrumentation: In scienti c and laboratory equipment,

providing analog output for displays or further processing.

Both types of converters play critical roles in bridging the

gap between the analog and digital worlds, enabling
modern technology to function e ectively.

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