Application

guide to
fluorescent
lamp control
gear
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APPLICATION GUIDE TO FLUORESCENT

LAMP CONTROL GEAR

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contents 1

Page Page
1 INTRODUCTION 6 4 ELECTRONIC LAMP
1.1 Lamp families 6 CONTROL GEAR 57
1.2 Standards and quality; 4.1 Electronic high-frequency
environmental aspects 7 system 57
1.3 Mains power supply voltage 11 4.1.1 Block diagram 57
1.4 Reliability, service life and 4.1.2 Circuit diagram 57
warranty 12 4.1.3 Choice of frequency 59
1.5 Date and origin code 13 4.1.4 Ignition and re-ignition 60
1.6 Developments in lamp 4.1.5 Ballast types 63
control gear 15 4.1.6 Cut-off principle 63
4.1.7 Harmonic distortion 64
2 GENERAL ASPECTS 17 4.1.8 Power factor 66
2.1 Main ballast functions 17 4.1.9 Inrush current 68
2.2 Luminaire classifications 18 4.1.10 Circuit breakers and fusing 70
2.2.1 Electrical safety (four luminaire 4.1.11 Earth leakage 71
classes) 18 4.1.12 Electrical connections 72
2.2.2 Dust and moisture protection 4.1.13 Internal and external cabling 72
(IP classification) 19 4.1.14 Lifetime 74
2.2.3 Degree of flammability of the 4.1.15 Effects of mains voltage
mounting surface 20 fluctuations 76
2.3 Electromagnetic compatibility 4.1.16 Ambient and operating
(EMC) 21 temperatures 78
2.3.1 General 21 4.1.17 Earthing 80
2.3.2 Influence on other electrical 4.1.18 Fault finding 81
or electronic equipment 23 4.1.19 Installation aspects 85
2.3.3 Regulations 26 4.2 Light regulation with
2.3.4 Luminaire design 29 HF ballasts 90
2.4 The Energy Efficiency Index 34 4.2.1 General: block and circuit
diagrams 90
3 LAMPS 35 4.2.2 The dimming process 91
3.1 Range 35 4.2.3 Ignition and re-ignition 92
3.2 Stabilisation 38 4.2.4 Ballast types 92
3.3 Ignition and run-up 40 4.2.5 Harmonic distortion 92
3.4 Lamp behaviour as a function 4.2.6 Power factor 92
of the frequency 43 4.2.7 Electromagnetic
3.5 Lamp and system efficiency 45 compatibility (EMC) 92
3.6 Effects of temperature 46 4.2.8 Starting and operating
3.7 Optimum operation 50 temperature 93
3.8 Lamp life and depreciation 50 4.2.9 Input voltage versus light
3.9 Influence of switching cycle 53 output with analogue ballasts 94
3.10 Stroboscopic effect and 4.2.10 The digital DALI ballast 96
striations 54 4.2.11 Installation aspects 102
3.11 Dimming 55 4.3 Control possibilities 103
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Page Page
4.3.1 TRIOS luminaire-based 5.1.2 Stabilisation 138
controllers 104 5.1.3 Ignition and re-ignition 139
4.3.2 Room-based solutions 110 5.1.4 Types of ballasts 139
4.3.3 Lighting Management Systems 113 5.1.5 Ballast specification and
4.3.4 General-purpose products 114 marking 141
4.3.5 Abbreviations 115 5.1.6 Maximum coil temperature
4.3.6 Installation aspects 115 tw and ∆t 142
4.4 Electronic ballasts for 5.1.7 Watt losses 144
DC supply voltages 116 5.2 Starters 144
4.4.1 Introduction 116 5.2.1 Main starter functions 144
4.4.2 Special lamps 116 5.2.2 Starter types 144
4.4.3 Emergency lighting: 5.2.3 Lifetime 146
definitions and standards 117 5.3 Systems 147
4.4.4 Emergency lighting systems 119 5.3.1 Components 147
4.4.5 The standard and regulating 5.3.2 Capacitors 148
HF ballast with standard lamps 124 5.3.3 Filter coils 149
4.4.6 Products - Emergency 5.3.4 Power factor correction 151
control gear 125 5.3.5 Series connection of lamps 155
4.4.7 Battery information 126 5.3.6 Neutral interruption and
4.5 The fluorescent induction resonance 156
lamp system (QL) 127 5.3.7 Electrical diagrams 158
4.5.1 Preface 127 5.3.8 Mains voltage interruptions
4.5.2 Introduction 127 and short-circuiting 161
4.5.3 General construction and 5.3.9 Harmonic distortion 161
working principle 127 5.3.10 Electromagnetic interference 164
4.5.4 Steady operation 131 5.3.11 Lifetime 165
4.5.5 Ignition and run-up 131 5.3.12 Ambient and operating
4.5.6 Luminous efficacy 132 temperatures 166
4.5.7 Energy balance and influence 5.3.13 Effects of mains voltage
of ambient temperature 133 fluctuations 170
4.5.8 Stray radiation and radio 5.3.14 Electrical wiring 170
interference 134 5.3.15 Hum 173
4.5.9 Lamp life and depreciation 134 5.3.16 Dimming 173
4.5.10 Electrical aspects 134 5.3.17 Stroboscopic effects
4.5.11 Installation aspects 136 and striations 175
5.3.18 Circuit breakers, fusing
5 ELECTROMAGNETIC and earth leakage 179
LAMP CONTROL GEAR 138 5.3.19 Fault finding 183
5.1 Ballasts 138 5.3.20 Installation aspects 187
5.1.1 Main ballast functions 138 5.3.21 Non-standard supply voltages 187
5.3.22 Maintenance 188

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1.

Introdu c t i o n We are living in a rapidly changing world, and

technological developments play an important part in
this. Also in the world of lighting, new products and
applications are launched all the time in order to give the
best solution for the changing demands of the customers.
Issues like better colour properties, lower power
consumption, smaller dimensions, longer lifetime, lower
costs, more flexibility, are the basis for modern lighting
systems. New or improved lamp types and luminaires can
be an adequate answer to the changing demands.
But the heart of any lighting system still is and will
continue to be the lamp and its control gear.The lamp
circuits have to answer to numerous basic needs,
including compliance with national and international
safety standards, ease of installation, compatibility and, of
course, price/performance ratio.

This Guide provides information on those aspects of

lamp control gear that is needed to acquire and
understanding of the total lighting system.Together with
the publications on the Internet and the various product
data sheets, it forms a set of information that will
hopefully provide answers to all practical questions.
Knowledge of all ins and outs enables designers,
installers, OEMs and end-users to make a good choice
when looking for the best possible lamp control gear.

Related Internet sites:

For the home site of Philips Lighting:
http://www.lighting.philips.com/index.htm

For the European catalogue, including lamps and gear:

http://www.eur.lighting.philips.com/products/html/index2.s
html

1.1. Lamp families

Following the main principle of operation, the family of
electric light sources can be sub-divided as follows:

LAMPS

INCANDESCENT GAS-DISCHARGE

CONVENTIONAL HALOGEN

MERCURY SODIUM

LOW- HIGH- LOW- HIGH-

PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE
TL ML SOX SON
PL HP SDW
SL HPI
QL MHN
MHW
MHD
CDM

This Guide deals with control gear for the Low-Pressure

Mercury lamps, as indicated in the grey area.
A second guide deals with the HID (Sodium, High-
pressure Mercury and Metal Halide Lamp) circuits.

Both guides are divided into two parts:

– conventional gear, comprising electromagnetic ballasts,

ignitors (starters) and capacitors
– electronic ballasts and controllers.
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In this Guide, information about Control possibilities

(controllers/sensors, DALI) is also included, and a
separate DALI Specification Guide is available to provide
detailed technical support on the application of systems
using the DALI (Digital Addressable Lighting Interface)
protocol.

Following the Philips nomenclature this guide deals with:

ELECTROMAGNETIC
Explanation of the abbreviations:
LAMP WATTAGE BALLAST STARTER ELECTRONIC
BPL = Ballast PL
'TL' miniature 4-13 BTL S2/S10 e-Matchbox
BTL = Ballast 'TL' miniature
'TL' D 18-58 BTA- S2/S10 e-Kyoto/e-Matchbox
BTA = Ballast 'TL'(D)
S2E/S10E HF-B/HF-P/HF-R
HF-B = High-frequency Basic
SiS2/SiS10
HF-P = High-frequency Performer
HF-R = High-frequency Regulator
70 - S16 HF-P
e-Matchbox = High-frequency
'TL'D 50W HF 50 HF-P
e-Kyoto = High-frequency
'TL'5 HE 14-35 - - e-Matchbox/HF-P/HF-R
HF-R DALI
'TL'5 HO 24-54 - - HF-P/HF-R
HF-R DALI
'TL'5 C 22-40 e-Matchbox/HF-P
'TL' E/'TL' U 20-65 BTA S10/S10E -
PL-S 2-pin 5-11 BPL - -
PL-S 4-pin 5-11 BPL S2/S10 e-Matchbox
PL-C 2-pin 8-26 BTL-BPL-BTA - -
PL-C 4-pin 10-26 BTL S2/S10
10-13 e-Matchbox
10-26 HF-P
18-26 HF-R
PL-L 18-36 BTA S2/S10
S2E/S10E
SiS2/SiS10
18-24 - - e-Matchbox/HF-P
36/55 - - HF-B /HF-R /HF-P
PL-T 2-pin 18-26 BPL-BTA - -
PL-T 4-pin 18-42 BPL-BTA SiS2/SiS10 e-Matchbox/HF-P/ HF-R
S2/S10
S2E/S10E
QL 55-85-165 - - QL55/85/165S11

The range of 'TL' lamps is much wider than the types

mentioned in the table, which contains only the more or
less 'standard' types.There are many more versions
('TL' F/X/R/RS/MRS/A) and higher lamp powers.
Information on the various types and the related gear can
be supplied by the local Philips Lighting organisation.
Gear for the Retrofit lamps (SL and PL*E family) is not
mentioned in the table, since with these lamps the gear is
incorporated in the lamps themselves.

1.2. Standards and quality: environmental

aspects
Designers, contractors and installers are regularly
confronted with a great variety of standards and
recommendations in the field of lighting, and lamp control
gear is by no means an exception in this respect.
What makes things even more complicated is the fact
that such standards and regulations often differ from
country to country.
To start with, international worldwide electrical standards
for lighting have been laid down by the IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission).

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There is, for example, an IEC standard for tubular

fluorescent lamps for general lighting purposes: IEC 81.
This standard specifies:
- lamp electrical characteristics,
- reference ballast characteristics,
- lamp starting test,
- lamp dimensions,
- further information on ballast, ignitor and luminaire
design.

Not all types within a lamp family are standardised and

for some new lamp types there are as yet no standards
at all.
Apart from these worldwide standards there are
equivalent European standards as laid down by CENELEC
for the EU countries.
The home page of CENELEC can be found on:
http://www.cenelec.org/

For fluorescent lamps and control gear relevant IEC and

EN standards are:

- lamp caps and holders: IEC 61 EN 60061

- ballasts for tubular fluorescent lamps (50/60Hz) IEC 920/921 EN 60920/60921
- starters for tubular fluorescent lamps: IEC 155 EN 60155
- capacitors for discharge lamp circuits: IEC 1048/1049 EN 61048/61049
- starting devices (other than glow starters): IEC 926/927 EN 60926/9027
- AC supplied electronic ballasts for tubular fluorescent lamps: IEC 928/929 EN 60928/60929
- tubular fluorescent lamps for general lighting purposes: IEC 81 EN 60081
- single-capped fluorescent lamps (PL): IEC 1199/901 EN 61199/60901
- DC supplied electronic ballasts for tubular fluorescent lamps including QL: IEC 924/925 EN 60924/60925
- self-ballasted lamps for general lighting services (SL): IEC 968/969 EN 60968/60969
- batteries IEC 86
As control gear is often built into a luminaire, the most important IEC
standard in this respect is: IEC 598 EN 60598

EMC requirements have been laid down in: CISPR 15

The standards are often split up into a Safety and a

Performance edition.The Safety edition deals with aspects
for operation without danger to the user or the
surrounding, while the Performance edition deals with
issues as guarantee for ballast/lamp interchangeability,
satisfactory starting and operation and the like.

Copies can be ordered via the IEC Internet address:

http://www.iec.ch/

Recently, a new set of IEC Standards has been edited.

The set forms the new "Omnibus Standard" for Lamp
Control Gear.
The new standards are:

IEC 61347-1 General and safety requirements

IEC 61347-2-1 Particular requirements for starting devices (other than glow starters)
IEC 61347-2-2 Particular requirements for d.c. or a.c. supplied electronic step-down converters for filament lamps
IEC 61347-2-3 Particular requirements for a.c. supplied electronic ballasts for fluorescent lamps
IEC 61347-2-4 Particular requirements for d.c. supplied electronic ballasts for general lighting
IEC 61347-2-5 Particular requirements for d.c. supplied electronic ballasts for public transport lighting
IEC 61347-2-6 Particular requirements for d.c. supplied electronic ballasts for aircraft lighting
IEC 61347-2-7 Particular requirements for d.c. supplied electronic ballasts for emergency lighting
IEC 61347-2-8 Particular requirements for ballasts for fluorescent lamps
IEC 61347-2-9 Particular requirements for ballasts for discharge lamps (excluding fluorescent lamps)
IEC 61347-2-10 Particular requirements for electronic invertors and convertors for high-frequency operation of cold start tubular discharge
lamps (neon tubes)
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This set of IEC Standards will replace the safety

standards: IEC (60)920, (60)922, (60)924,(60)926, (60)928
and (6)1046. In general the contents of this first edition
of the "omnibus" is the same as the contents of the "old"
standards.
For IEC the "old" standards remain valid until they are
withdrawn, but they will vanish from the list of standards
that can be bought.
For CENELEC there will be definite dates for the validity
of the "old" standards.
Amendments and new items will be incorporated in the
"omnibus" only from now on.
Note:The performance standards are not affected.

CE is the abbreviation of 'Conformité Européenne'.

It states conformity of products to the most essential
requirements of the European Community Directives and
as such forms a kind of passport for goods to circulate
freely throughout the countries of the European
Community. It also enables Market Controlling Bodies to
perform their inspection task more easily.
Lighting products are covered by two European
directives: the Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
Directive and the Low Voltage (LV) Directive.
Philips HF electronic ballasts carry the CE marking on
the basis of fulfilling the following standards:
EN 61547, EN 61000-3-2 and EN 55015 (as tested in a
Philips reference luminaire). CE is mainly related to safety
aspects.

ENEC is the abbreviation of 'European Norm

Electrotechnical Certification'. Over twenty Certification
bodies from CENELEC member countries joined the
'Agreement on the use of a commonly agreed mark of
conformity for luminaires complying with European
standards', referred to as the LUM agreement. It means
that if the ENEC marking is provided by one of the
Certification bodies, this is also recognised by the other
members.The marking can be obtained for luminaires for
which a European Norm (EN) exists, barring luminaires
for emergency lighting. In 1995 the LUM group and the
LVE-AC (Low Voltage Electrical Equipment Advisory
Committee) agreed that also luminaire accessories such
as gear, ignitors, lampholders, electronic converters and
capacitors, can also obtain the ENEC marking if they fulfil
the harmonised EN standards.
Philips HF electronic ballasts received the ENEC marking
on the basis of standards EN 60928 and EN 60929, as
well as the ISO 9001 certificate. ENEC is mainly related
to performance aspects.
The number in the ENEC marking indicates the test
house which gave the approval:

01 AENOR - Spain 12 BSI - United Kingdom

02 CEBEC - Belgium 13 SEV - Switzerland
03 IMQ - Italy 14 SEMKO - Sweden
04 IPQ - Portugal 15 DEMKO - Denmark
05 KEMA - Netherlands 16 FIMKO - Finland
06 NSAI - Ireland 17 NEMKO - Norway
07 SEE - Luxembourg 18 MEEI - Hungary
08 UTE - France 19 BEAB - Great Britain
09 ELOT - Greece 20 ASTA - Great Britain
10 VDE - Germany 21 EZU - Czech republic
11 OVE - Austria

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Lighting products always have to comply with the safety,

electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), performance and
reliability rules as laid down in the relevant standards
(e.g. EN 55022A) before they can be introduced into the
market.The examination required guaranteeing such
compliance is carried out in Philips' own testing
laboratories under official supervision.
In those cases where commercial interests or legal
requirements demand additional national approval marks,
these must be sought by submitting the products to the
test authority concerned. Once approval has been
received, the manufacturer is entitled to add the
appropriate stamp of approval to the unit and offer it for
sale.

For products originating in the Netherlands, the Dutch

inspection institute KEMA (Keuringsdienst
Electrotechnische Materialen Arnhem - Inspection
Institute for Electrotechnical Materials in Arnhem) is the
national test authority and can act as representative for
testing authorities such as CSA (Canada) and UL (USA).

To ensure optimum quality of internal procedures, the

internationally recognised ISO 9001 system for quality
assurance has been implemented and is stringently
applied in Philips factories and sales organisations. For
example, for the ballast factory in Oss the ISO
certification was obtained in 1991 for electronic gear and
in 1992 for electromagnetic gear. It involves virtually all
phases of development and production, including after-
sales service to Philips customers.

Finally, a few words must be said on environmental

considerations.
Philips Lighting was one of the first to admit that it has a
duty to set a good example when it comes to the proper
management of our natural resources.This has led to
considerable positive environmental effects throughout
the 'cradle-to-grave' product life cycle, which basically
consists of four phases: the use of raw materials, the
manufacturing of the product, the usage of the product
and, at the end of product life, the disposal or re-usage of
the materials.
Aspects that play a role in all this include:
- Raw material mining and refining. Suppliers are
requested to provide the relevant environmental
information and are expected to meet the same high
environmental standards as Philips.
- Materials and energy used for production. Philips has
introduced so-called Environmental Management
Systems (EMS) and has committed itself to start
certification of EMS in all its factories throughout the
world.
- Production methods and their side effects.
The development and machine construction
departments have implemented eco-design procedures
to ensure that environmental effects are taken into
account in the creation process of new products and
technologies.This also involves the reduction and
possibly the elimination of eco-toxic materials in
existing products and processes. Philips had also
committed itself to strive for a 25 per cent reduction of
its energy consumption by the year 2000 (compared
with the 1993 level). Naturally, all this is also true for
the packaging materials used.
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- Treatment and processing of production rejects.

A continuing programme has been started to study the
feasibility of recycling and/or effective treatment of
auxiliary materials and production waste ('zero-waste'
production).
- Energy and material consumption during usage of the
product. As a result of ongoing development new,
innovative and ever-more efficient lamps, ballasts and
luminaires are continually being introduced.We are also
currently heavily engaged in developing a whole range of
light-control devices that will enable users to tailor
their lighting to the needs of the moment, thereby
bringing even more energy savings.
- End-of-life disposal of the product. Great value is
attached to the efficient disposal of spent products and
the use of recycled materials where possible.

To achieve the maximum benefit from all these efforts,

we must work together with all parties concerned: our
suppliers, our customers, the trade, other manufacturers,
and the governing authorities.

1.3. Mains power supply voltage

Before the end of the year 2003 all European EEC and
EFTA countries (except the United Kingdom) will change
over to a nominal mains voltage of 230 V +/- 10 %.
Therefore, the standard range of control gear will be
nominally 230 V, 50 Hz.
At this nominal voltage, the control gear will perform
well within the limits set in the various standards, unless
stated otherwise in the relevant data sheets.
To obtain optimum efficiency for the total lighting system
at the different mains voltages in use today, control gear
is available for 220 - 230 - 240 V, 50 and/or 60 Hz.
It is beyond the purpose of this guide to describe all the
effects in the case of differences in the mains voltage and
the indicated control gear voltage. Such information can
be given on request.
According to the IEC standards the system must under
all circumstances function between 92 per cent and 106
per cent of the rated voltage.
In general, if the mains voltage is too low, the
consequences are:
- reduced light output,
- colour shifts,
- ignition problems in extreme cases;

and if the mains voltage is too high:

- reduced lifetime of lamps,
- reduced lifetime of control gear,
- colour shifts,
- increased power consumption,
- possible safety effects in extreme cases.

It is therefore advisable to always operate to use lamp

control gear in accordance with the local mains voltage.
Of course, the effects of mains-voltage fluctuations on
the lamp are much higher with electromagnetic gear than
with HF gear.
For mains voltages or frequencies other than those
specified, information can be given on request by the
local Philips Lighting organisation.

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1.4. Reliability, service life and warranty

Purchase decisions regarding lighting installations, for
example, with respect to investment or running costs, are
mostly based on a lifetime of 10 to 15 years for the
installation as a whole. In practice, however, there are
well-constructed installations, which still function
perfectly well after 20 to 25 years.
It is a well-known fact that good maintenance improves
the lifetime of an installation.
The actual burning hours and the way of switching of
course also have some effect, as do deviations from the
nominal rated circumstances.
In general, the system lifetime depends on the lifetime of
the individual components, including lamps, luminaires,
gear and cabling, as well as that of electrical distribution
components such as switches and transformers. In fact, all
these components are constructed to function well
under nominal circumstances for approximately 10 years
of continuous use, except lamps. Obviously, when the
installation is not working continuously, the actual lifetime
can be proportionately longer.
When the circumstances differ from those rated as
nominal, the practical lifetime of the lighting system will
change as well.To what extent this is the case, depends
on several aspects, such as:
- what component is involved (e.g. under/overloaded
lamp, ballast, starter)
- what factor is out of specification (e.g. temperature,
voltage, frequency)
- for what period does the deviation last (e.g. for hours
or continuously)
- the switching cycle; this too can have a certain influence
(heating up/cooling down).

There is, therefore, no general rule for predicting the

lifetime, but when all the components are used within
their specifications, the deviations from the average
lifetime of 10 years will not be great.
Possible reasons for replacing a lighting system, besides
end of lifetime, can be:
- catastrophe
- renovation
- the need for a higher performance
- change-over to newer concepts such as modern light
sources or luminaires
- saving of energy costs
- environmental aspects.

Details for lamp and gear life can be found in the related
chapters.

Over the years, the dimensions and specifications of

control gear equipment have changed considerably.
Reasons can be:
- new lamps
- phased-out lamps
- lower dimming levels required
- multi-wattage gear
- smaller luminaires need smaller ballasts
- extra features

For replacement of obsolete control gear in existing

projects there are then three possibilities:
1. Service type: existing stock of the obsolete original
type
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2. Commercial type: a regular commercial ballast

3. Service type: the so-called SRV ballast with a 12 NC
starting with 8222 as a special replacement type.
Details can be found in brochure "Service policy and
product replacement overview for HF control gear".

Warranty

Warranty is a commercial issue and can vary according

to country, production centre, product or even customer.
Philips Lighting Business Unit Lighting Electronics & Gear
warrants in general that the products manufactured shall
be free from defects in material and workmanship for a
period of two (2) years after the date of sale to the
customer, but with a maximum of three (3) years from
the date of manufacture of the product.
The warranty and remedies set forth herein are
conditional on proper storage, installation, use and
maintenance and conformance with any
recommendations of Philips.
The standard failure rates are for HF ballasts 1 per cent
per 5000 h and for the conventional types 1 per cent per
6000 h. Maximum Zero hours inoperatives are 2500 ppm
for the HF ballasts and 1000 ppm for the conventional
types.

1.5. Date and origin code

In order to be able to identify the place and date of
manufacturing of Philips lighting products, these are
marked with a special code.This can be very useful in the
case of after-sales service.The lamps and gear are being
made in a number of different factories, the most
important in Europe being:

Incandescent lamps: Weert (Holland), Dijon (France),

Barcelona (Spain), Pila (Poland)
Fluorescent lamps: Roosendaal (Holland), Chalon-sur-
Saône Cedex (France), Hamilton
(UK)
Halogen lamps: Pont-à-Mousson (France), Aachen
(Germany), Dijon (France)
HID lamps, QL lamps: Turnhout (Belgium), Hamilton
(UK)
Lamp control gear: Oss (Holland), Pila and Ketrzyn
(Poland), Istanbul (Turkey)
Starters/SL/PL: Terneuzen (Holland), Pila (Poland)

The factory marks or symbols are standardised in the

Philips standard ULN-D 1175, while the date markings
are described in ULN-D 1745.

Marks:

Terneuzen Pila

Weert Pont-à-Mousson

Turnhout Oss

Hamilton Chalon-sur-Saône
Cedex

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Most Philips lighting products carry the following date

code, although there are some products that, for practical
reasons, follow another system.
The date code consists of a figure from 0 to 9 in
combination with a letter from A to M with the
exception of the letter I.The letter stands for the month
in the year, for example, C for March , M for December.
The figure stands for the year in a particular decade.
One decade the sequence is: letter followed by figure.
The next decade the sequence is: figure followed by
letter.Thus, a certain code will not be repeated until after
20 years. For the nineties the sequence is: figure-letter, so
5C means March 1995, whilst March 2005 will be
indicated by C5, as was March 1985.

Another date code used on older types of HF ballasts is

indicated in Fig. 1.The 12 triangles above the indication of
the year represent the 12 months of the year. At the
beginning of each production month another dot is
placed in the relevant triangle.The last dot thus indicates
the production month of the ballast.The example in the
figure indicates the production month May 1995.
Nowadays, all types have the date code printed on the
printed-circuit board near the terminal block in the form
YYMMDDB, viz. year - month - day and batch number.

. ..
..
..
. .
. .. . ..
. .

Fig. 1 Old date code on BHF ballasts.The number of dots

corresponds with the month of production: e.g. five dots means
that the ballast was produced in May.

Date (de)coding on Philips lamp control gear (Oss

manufacture)

‘TL’ HF

1. Printed on a sticker above the lamp connector.

LA Produced in Oss
L3 L for the month (November) and 3 for the year
(1983)

2. Printed on a sticker near the input connector.

HF-P258TLD is the type of ballast.
96-09 is the production date 1996 month 09.

3. Printed on the PCB near the input connector.

HF-B258TLD is the type of ballast.
960112W is the production date meaning:
96 = 1996
01 = month 01 (January)
13 = day 13
W = shift W

4. Printed on the PCB near the input connector.

00280R is a number for tracing the type of ballast
during production.
648 is the production date meaning 6 for 1996 and
48 for week 48.
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5. Printed on a sticker near the lamp connector.

This is used for the square ballasts.You have to open
the ballast to see the sticker
HF-R 232 PLT is the type of ballast.
9749 is the production date 1997 week 49.

6. This coding is used on slim-line TL5 products.

01980R is a number for tracing the type of ballast
during production.
716 is the production date meaning 7 for 1997 and
16 for week 16.

‘TL’ Electromagnetic

This code is stamped in the bottom plate on the

backside with the following meaning:
321104 the last 5 digits of the 12NC of the
product
LA8 stands for produced in Oss in 1998
18 week 18
5N day 5 shift N

This code is stamped in the bottom plate on the

topside meaning year 1998 and month E (May)

Lamps can have a different code. As example for TL5

lamps:
Example: 01L9S2

01 : Day of the month

L : Month (A = January, etc.)
9 : Year (9 = 1999, 1 = 2001, etc.)
S : Hour (A = 00.00 – 01.00 hrs., etc.)
2 : Team number of production.

It should be noted that wattage and lamp colour are

mentioned on the lamp cap.
The lamp colour on the lamp is decisive, that is to say if a
different colour is mentioned on the lamp, the marking
on the lamp cap is decisive.

1.6. Developments in lamp control gear

As the control gear is part of the total lighting system,
some overall trends in the world of lighting can be
distinguished that will also affect the future of the control
gear:

- miniaturisation:
smaller luminaires require smaller ballasts and control
gear, which fit perfectly in the space available
- fewer components:
lamps with starter incorporated, as in the 2-pin version
of the PL
- integration:
the ballast is incorporated in the lamp, as is the case
with the compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), like SL and
PL*E
- electronification:
new lamps are developed that can only function well
with electronics, such as PL-T, QL and TL5
- introduction of controls:
dimming and switching, intelligent ballasts (DALI) or
luminaires

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1.

- higher demands on safety/system protection:

incorporated fuses and thermal-switches
- higher customer demands:
customer-tailored connection and mounting possibilities
(e-Matchbox)
- higher environmental demands:
self-stopping starters, recycling, environment-friendly
design, lower energy consumption
- more outdoor applications:
examples include SL and QL
- lower costs
- reduction in maintenance costs
- more attention to system cost approach:
the customer purchase is handled more and more as an
investment decision, including payback, etc.
- tele-management as status information for
individual lighting points
- multi-wattage ballasts (e-Matchbox, HF-
Performer Ultra).
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2.

General as p ec t s

2.1. Main ballast functions

The optimum functioning of fluorescent lamps largely
depends on the properties of the control gear used.
As with all gas-discharge light sources, fluorescent lamps
cannot function properly when they are operated directly
from the mains supply voltage. Certain electrical and/or
electronic devices have to be built into the lamp circuit,
either in the lamp itself or externally in the form of what
is called control gear.The control gear performs a
number of functions:
- it limits and stabilises the lamp current, a necessary
measure in view of the negative resistance characteristic
of gas-discharge lamps (viz. when the lamp current
increases, the lamp voltage will decrease),
- it ensures that the lamp continues to operate despite
the fact that twice during each frequency cycle of the
mains supply the voltage is zero,
- it provides the ignition voltage (higher than the normal
operation voltage) for the initial lamp starting,
- it supplies controlled energy to heat the lamp
electrodes during ignition (warm-start ballasts), and in
some cases also during normal operation (regulating
ballasts).
In addition to these basic functions, the control gear must
fulfil a number of other, equally important requirements.
It must:
- ensure a sufficiently high power factor,
- limit the harmonic distortion of the mains current,
- if possible, present a high impedance to frequencies
used for switching purposes in automatic frequency-
regulation circuits (AFRC or Actadis) in outdoor
applications,
- offer adequate suppression of any electromagnetic
interference (EMI) that might be produced by the
lamp/ballast system and that could otherwise interfere
with other electronic equipment,
- limit the short-circuit current and/or the current during
running-up of the lamp, to protect the lamp electrodes
from overloading,
- switch off the lamps when these cannot be ignited
normally.This safety requirement is only valid for the
HF ballasts,
- keep the lamp voltage, lamp current and lamp power
within the specification during mains-voltage variations.

Finally, there is a third group of requirements dictated by

the needs of both luminaire manufacturer and user: to
have control gear of small dimensions, long life, low losses
(also with a view to controlled temperature), and a non-
audible noise level.

With the electromagnetic control gear system, various

separate components, including ballast, starter, capacitors
and filter coils, help fulfil all these requirements together
with the lamp.
In the case of the electronic HF ballast, and also in the
QL induction lighting system, all the above-mentioned
functions have been integrated into one electronic device,
which might be called the 'black box'.

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2.

2.2. Luminaire classifications

There are basically three ways of classifying luminaires as
far as their design and construction are concerned:
1.According to the sort of protection offered against
electric shock, viz. electrical safety.
2.According to the degree of protection provided
against the ingress of foreign bodies (e.g. dust and
moisture).
3.According to the degree of flammability of the
supporting surface for which the luminaire is designed.
The following are summaries of the classifications
detailed in IEC 598 - Part 1.

2.2.1 Electrical safety

(four luminaire classes)
The electrical safety classification drawn up by the IEC
embraces four luminaire classes: Class 0, I, II and III.The
official definitions are too long to be reproduced in full
here, but can be summarised as follows:

Class 0 - symbol
(Note: Applicable to ordinary luminaires only, viz. a luminaire
without special protection against dust or moisture).
These are luminaires that are electrically insulated.There
is no provision for earthing.The housing may be of an
insulating material, which wholly or partly performs the
insulating function, or it may be of metal that is insulated
from current-carrying parts.
Class 0 luminaires may include parts with reinforced
insulation or double insulation.

Class I - symbol
Luminaires in this class, apart from being electrically
insulated, are also provided with an earthing point
(labelled) connecting all those exposed metal parts that
could conceivably become live in the presence of a fault
condition.
Where the luminaire is provided with a flexible power
lead, this must include an earth wire.Where this is not
the case, the degree of electrical protection afforded by
the luminaire is the same as that afforded by one of
Class 0.
Where a connection block is employed instead of a
power lead, the metal housing must be connected to the
earth terminal on the block.The provision made for
earthing the luminaire must in all other respects satisfy
the requirements laid down for Class I.

Class II - symbol
Class II luminaires are so designed and constructed that
exposed metal parts cannot become live.This can be
achieved by means of either reinforced or double
insulation, there being no provision for protective
earthing.
In the case of a luminaire provided with an earth contact
as an aid to lamp starting, but where this earth is not
connected to exposed metal parts, the luminaire is
nevertheless regarded as being of Class II.
A luminaire having double or reinforced insulation and
provided with an earth connection or earth contact must
be regarded as a Class I luminaire. However, where the
earth wire passes through the luminaire as part of the
provisions for through-wiring the installation, and is
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2.

electrically insulated from the luminaire using Class II

insulation, then the luminaire remains Class II.

Class III - symbol

The luminaires in this class are those in which protection
against electric shock relies on supply at Safety Extra-
Low Voltage (SELV), and in which voltages higher than
those of SELV (50 V AC r.m.s.) are not generated. An AC
operating voltage of 42 volt maximum is common.
A Class III luminaire should not be provided with a
means for protective earthing.

The standard ballasts are developed for Class I

luminaires. Information for other Classes can be obtained
from the local Philips Lighting organisation.

The earthing of ballasts with metal housing depends on

the class and construction of the luminaire.
See also IEC 598.

Class 1 luminaire (luminaire has safety earth connection):

1. Metal housing of ballast can be touched during lamp

removal.
Metal housing must be connected to safety earth (via
bottom plate or connector).

2. Metal housing of ballast (incl. ignition aid) cannot be

touched during lamp removal.
Only functional earthing is required for proper ignition
and EMC

Class 2 luminaire (luminaire has no safety earth

connection):

3. Metal housing of ballast (incl. ignition aid) cannot be

touched during lamp removal.
Only internal functional connection between ballast
and ignition aid is needed for reliable ignition and
EMC.

Today many luminaires are Class 1 and the metal ballast

housing can be touched during lamp removal.
All these ballasts must be connected to the safety earth
via bottom plate or earth connector if available.

2.2.2 Dust and moisture protection

(IP classification)
The IP (International Protection) system drawn up by the
IEC classifies luminaires according to the degree of
protection afforded against the ingress of foreign bodies,
dust and moisture.The term foreign bodies includes such
things as tools and fingers coming into contact with live
parts.
The designation to indicate the degrees of protection
consists of the characteristic letters IP followed by two
numerals (three numerals in France) indicating
conformity with the conditions stated in two tables (here
combined into one).The first of these so-called
'characteristic numerals' is an indication of the protection
against the ingress of foreign bodies and dust, while the
second numeral indicates the degree of sealing against
the penetration of water.The third numeral in the French
system indicates the degree of impact resistance.

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2.

IEC classification according to the degree of dust and moisture protection

Dust protection Moisture protection
First numeral Symbol Degree of protection Second numeral Symbol Degree of protection
0 Non-protected 0 Non-protected
1 Protected against 1 Protected against
solid objects dripping water
greater than 50 mm
2 Protected against 2 Protected against
solid objects dripping water when
greater than 12 mm tilted up to 15˚
3 Protected against 3 Protected against
solid objects spraying water
greater than 2.5 mm
4 Protected against 4 Protected against
solid objects splashing
greater than 1.0 mm
5 Dust-protected 5 Protected against
water jets
6 Dust-tight 6 Protected against
heavy seas
7 Protected against
effects of immersion
8 ..m Protected against
submersion

Example: IP 65 indicates a luminaire, that is dust-tight,

and waterjet proof.

2.2.3. Degree of flammability of the

mounting surface
Luminaires cannot be mounted on just any convenient
surface.The flammability of that surface and the
temperature of the luminaire mounting plate impose
certain restrictions in this respect. Naturally, if the surface
is non-combustible, or if a certain distance spacer is
employed, there is no problem.
For the purpose of classification, the IEC defines
flammable surfaces as being either normally flammable or
readily flammable.
Normally flammable refers to those materials having an
ignition temperature of at least 200 ºC and that will not
deform or weaken at this temperature.
Readily flammable are those materials that cannot be
classified as either normally flammable or non-
combustible. Materials in this category are not suitable as
mounting surfaces for luminaires. Suspended mounting is
then the only solution.
The permitted temperature of that part of the luminaire
housing coming into contact with the mounting surface is
laid down in the so-called F-requirements. Luminaires
that satisfy these requirements may bear the symbol .
On the basis of these requirements, the following
classification has been drawn up:

IEC luminaire classification according to flammability

Classification Symbol
Luminaires suitable for direct mounting only on non-combustible surfaces No symbol, but a warning notice is required
Luminaires without built-in ballasts or transformers suitable for direct
mounting on normallyflammable surfaces No symbol
Luminaires with built-in ballasts or transformers suitable for direct
mounting on normally flammable surfaces on type plate
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2.

2.3. Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

2.3.1 General
The importance of electromagnetic compatibility is
increasing rapidly, resulting in a greater need to
understand the behaviour and control of electromagnetic
phenomena. In our modern technological society we rely
on the electromagnetic spectrum for radio
communication, and it has long been a priority to protect
the usable spectrum from spurious emissions.
But this very same technological society is proliferating
uncontrolled sources of interference that pollute this
environment. A good example is data processing
equipment containing high-speed processors, which if not
carefully designed and built are notorious for emitting
wide-band electrical noise. On the other hand, this very
same data processing equipment is vulnerable to
transient and surge voltages in the mains networks.
The European Union has imposed mandatory regulations
to protect the electromagnetic environment and to
ensure that all electrical and electronic equipment works
correctly. Manufacturers have a duty to provide electrical
and electronic products that do not cause undue
interference and that are not unduly affected by it.
The term Electro-Magnetic Compatibility (EMC) can be
understood as the peaceful co-existence of transmitters
and receivers. In other words, the transmitted signal
should only reach the receivers it is intended for, and
receivers should only react to the signals coming from
the transmitter that has been chosen.There should be no
unwanted mutual influencing between the two taking
place.The terms 'transmitter' and 'receiver' are not used
here purely in a communicative sense, but also in a wider
understanding of the terms.To the intended transmitters
of electromagnetic energy, including radio and television,
other sources of electromagnetic energy influencing the
environment can be added.
Such sources, which can be designated as 'interferers',
include:
- motorcar ignition systems,
- fluorescent lamps and accessories,
- electronic devices in the home,
- switching contacts (relays),
- atmospheric discharges (lightning).

Conversely, examples of electromagnetic receivers,

besides radio and television, include:
- electronic ballasts,
- electronic step-down converters for low-voltage
halogen lamps,
- lighting control equipment,
- information processing equipment,
- heart pacemakers,
- bio-organisms.

So it appears that the present-day notion of EMC

embraces far more than just radio interference.
The term electromagnetic compatibility can be defined as
'the ability of an electrical device to function satisfactorily
in its electromagnetic environment, without unduly

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2.

influencing this environment in which other electrical or

electronic appliances may be present'. From this definition
it follows that there is an active and a passive aspect to
EMC. Hence, electromagnetic compatibility can be divided
in two areas:
- Emission (or interference) suppression.This should
ensure that the unintentional emissions from electrical
and electronic products are kept sufficiently low, so that
legitimate use of the frequency spectrum is not
disrupted.
- Immunity.This should ensure that products are
sufficiently immune to electrical interference as to be
able to operate as intended in the presence of normal
and acceptable background electromagnetic signals.

electrical
or
electronic
system

Fig. 2 The electromagnetic environment.

The electromagnetic environment has been represented

in Fig. 2. It involves all the electromagnetic frequencies
and can be split up into different frequency bands, each
one related to specific applications (see Fig. 3). One could
also express the frequency spectrum in terms of
wavelength, because the product of frequency and
wavelength equals the speed of light: 300 000 km/s.

104 109 10111012 1014 1015 1019 1022 frequency (kHz)

30 3.10-4 3.10-6 3.10-7 wavelength (m)

d iss ies

ys
s
s
ow s
es

ra tion
U di n

ay
ay
TV

icr ite

ra
ra tio
an sm enc
di n

av

io

ar
-r
au io

m tell

ic
a
at
le ia
d

X
ra o)

m
an u

sm
an

ib rad

di
tr eq

sa

co
o
er fr

ga
nd

vis IR
di

V
ow low

ra
da
ra
(p

Fig. 3 The electromagnetic spectrum.

Any piece of electrical or electronic equipment interferes

with its environment due to the laws of
electromagnetism, viz. an electrical current can never be
dissociated from producing electric and magnetic fields
which influence the environment. In the case of the
HF lamp system, not only the HF ballast, but also the
whole combination of ballast, wiring, lamp and luminaire
should be considered.
To ensure that electrical or electronic systems will not
cause unacceptable interference with the environment,
regulations have been drawn up that place limits on the
amount of interference that may be emitted by such
systems.
The requirements as laid down in the Directives on EMC
(Electromagnetic Compatibility) by the EU are intended
to prevent electromagnetic interference.This is related to
emission and immunity of products having an intrinsic
function. Luminaires are clearly products with an intrinsic
function, and must therefore comply with all essential
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2.

requirements of the EMC Directive.Whether individual

components (ballasts for example) should also comply
with the EMC requirements is still part of discussion
between the relevant bodies of the CENELEC and the
EU.

Relevant standards are:

A: For the frequency range from 0 Hz to 9 kHz:
EN 61000-3-2: limits for harmonic current emissions
(former EN 60555-2)
EN 61000-3-3: limits concerning voltage fluctuations
and flicker (former EN 60555-3)
IEC 1547: EMC immunity requirements for equipment
for general lighting purposes,
B: For frequencies above 9 kHz:
EN 55015: electrical lighting and similar equipment:
radiated and conducted interference <30 MHz
EN 55022: information technology equipment:
radiated field 30 - 1000 MHz,
C: For the USA:
FCC, 47 CFR Part 18: non-consumer equipment:
conducted interference and radiated interference
≥ 30 MHz.

These standards apply for the electromagnetic as well as

for the QL and the HF lamp systems. All Philips
HF electronic ballasts surpass these norms for higher
harmonics and are therefore suitable for use in
installations where stringent norms for harmonics are
set.
Next to these general norms, there are some specific
norms for rooms where diagnostic or observation
equipment is placed. In VDE 0107, norms are defined for
such rooms. Measurements with Philips electronic ballasts
showed that in the relevant frequency ranges, no
interference of any consequence could be measured.
Luminaires with Philips electronic ballasts have been
handed over to the Lawrence Berkeley laboratory in the
United States. Here, too, they could not find any influence
on sensitive CAT, EEG and ECG apparatus.
As the influence of HF systems on interference is much
more delicate than with the traditional copper/iron
circuits, the accent will be laid on the Philips HF systems
when dealing with this subject in this section.

2.3.2 Influence on other electrical or

electronic equipment
Introduction

The interference can be split up into two categories:

1.Via wiring - interference conducted through the mains
lead
2.Via the air - interference radiated to the environment.
Each category can be further split up into:
Via wiring:
- mains harmonic distortion, 0 - 2 kHz,
- conducted interference, RFI, 9 kHz - 30 MHz,
Via radiation:
- magnetic field, RFI, 9 kHz - 30 MHz,
- electric field, RFI, 30 MHz - 1000 MHz,
- infrared.

Electromagnetic fields in the frequency range from 9 kHz

up to 1000 MHz may disturb radio and television and is

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2.

therefore called Radio Frequency Interference, RFI. It

applies to the spectrum given in Fig. 4.

TL-HF
QL
4 26 88 105 470 960 MHz
VHF UHF UHF
LW MW SW FM
1 3 4&5

0.15 1.6 47 68 174 230 MHz

Fig. 4 The radio-frequency spectrum.

Via wiring

Mains harmonic distortion

In the electronic circuit of the HF ballast, harmonic
distortion is caused by the rectifier and the electrolytic
capacitor.The harmonics of the input current are injected
into the public electricity supply system - the mains.
An electronic circuit combined with a mains input filter
included in the HF ballast ensures that the HF lamp
system complies with the mains harmonic distortion
regulations.
In the electromagnetic circuit, harmonic distortion is
caused by the rectangular wave-shape of the lamp voltage
(see Section 5.3.9).

Conducted interference
Conducted interference is caused by the switching
devices and the HF signals in the electronic circuit of the
HF ballast.This kind of interference can be represented
by three kinds of currents: symmetrical, asymmetrical and
surroundings or common-mode currents, which are all
together in the range of microamperes (4 µA maximum).
These currents will be conducted through the mains and
can disturb other equipment operating in the radio-
frequency band.
The interference level can be measured with the aid of an
artificial mains network that simulates a typical public
electricity supply system.There are limits for the terminal
voltage measured at this network, caused by the
interference currents in the live and neutral conductors.

Symmetrical current (Fig. 5a)

This current will be generated inside the electronic
circuit and flows in the same direction as the normal
supply current. Earthing has no influence on the current.
The mains input filter will reduce this current.

0 HF ballast
Is

Fig. 5a Symmetrical current.

Asymmetrical current (Fig. 5b)

This current can be split up into a 'low' and 'high'
frequency part.The low- frequency part with the
operating frequency is caused by the capacitive coupling
of the lamp voltage to the housing. Both the lamp and the
so-called 'hot' wire cause capacitive coupling, represented
by C1 for the lamp and C2 for the wiring in Fig. 5b.
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2.

The high-frequency part is caused by the capacitive

coupling between the electronic circuit and the housing.
These capacitive currents, called Ias are symmertrical.
They flow from the phase and neutral to the housing and
then via the earth to the mains supply to close the
current loop, and have the same direction. Owing to the
presence of the mains input filter, only a small part of the
asymmetrical current will be conducted through the
mains lead. Furthermore, asymmetrical currents can
occur due to 'cross-talk' between lamp wiring and mains
wiring, represented by C3 in Fig. 5b.
Note:The asymmetrical current is sometimes confused with
the common-mode current.

0 HF ballast
Ias
C3
C2
++ --
C1

Fig. 5b Asymmetrical current.

Surroundings or common-mode current (Fig. 5c)

The lamp radiates an electric field. Because of the
presence of a parasitic capacitor between the lamp and
its surroundings, represented by C4, a parasitic current,
called Isurr will flow to the surroundings.This current
returns to the circuit via the mains lead including the
earth wire, and is therefore called Icommon-mode.
Because this current will flow mainly through the ground
wire, the input filter cannot reduce it. A part of this
current contributes to the asymmetrical current in the
mains lead, Ias in Fig. 5b. Isurr can be reduced considerably
by means of a well-grounded shielding.
At the same time, with this shielding, no currents can be
induced into the mains lead or other surrounding wiring
owing to the magnetic field of the lamp.
If there is no earth lead, Isurr will flow back via the phase
and/or neutral to close the current loop.This is only
acceptable if C4 is small – as, for example, in the case of
small lamp length, as with the PL*E/C.

0 HF ballast
Isurr

++ --

Isurr C4

Fig. 5c Surroundings current.

Radiated interference

Magnetic field
This interference will mainly be produced by the lamp.
The strength of the magnetic field created by the lamp
current is depicted by the area A in Figs 6a and 6b.
The magnetic interference can be kept small by
decreasing area A or by using some additional screening,
which can be a part of the luminaire.This will also
prevent the magnetic field from inducing currents in the
mains lead,

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2.

which would increase the conducted interference.

Furthermore, a low working frequency results in a low
amount of radiation, which is why the working frequency
has been chosen at 28 kHz or 45 kHz.
The magnetic field can be measured very conveniently by
means of a large loop antenna.

0 HF ballast

Fig. 6a and 6b Strength of the magnetic field in area A.

Electric field
Due to the harmonics of the lamp voltage, the lamp will
radiate an electric field.The harmonics are reduced
considerably by means of an additional output filter in the
circuit. Interference to the surroundings can be reduced
by means of a shielding. Nevertheless, a field from the
total system will still remain.

Infrared
Apart from the emission of visible light, the fluorescent
lamp also emits a certain amount of invisible infrared
radiation (IR). Above the operating frequency, this
radiation is modulated with double the lamp-current
frequency (56 or 90 kHz).The choice of the operating
frequency will prevent disturbance with the Philips
lighting control systems, which operate at a modulated
frequency of 36 kHz (RC5 protocol).

2.3.3 Regulations
Europe

Mains harmonic distortion

The harmonics of the input current must comply with
EN 60555-2, amendment 1.The limits for class C apply
(Lighting equipment having an input power ≥25 W).
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2.

Harmonic input current limits

Harmonic order Maximum value expressed as a
N percentage of the fundamental
input current of the luminaires
2 2
3 30 . power factor
5 10
7 7
9 5
11≥n≥39 3

Conducted interference
The requirements of EN 55015 apply (see Fig. 7).
U (dBµv)

0
12
0
10
80
quasi-peak
60
average
40
20

01

10

0
0.1
1

10
0.0
0.0

f (MHz)

Fig. 7 Limits of mains terminal interference voltage in the

range from 9 kHz to 30 MHz, according to EN 55015.

Radiated interference, magnetic field

The requirements of EN 55015 apply (see Fig. 8).
Y1: I(dBµA) Y2: H(dBµA /m)
80
0
10

60
80
60

40
40

20
20

0
-2
0
0
01

0.1

10
1

0
0.0

10
0.0

f (MHz)

Fig. 8 Limits of the magnetic field induced current in a 2m

loop antenna around the device under test, according to
EN 55015.

Radiated interference, electric field

The requirements are under consideration!
In order to keep the radiation level as low as possible a
radiation level, Philips are verifying all their HF ballasts
according the requirements of EN 55022, Class B
(no restrictions on its use).This in advance of
requirements, which have yet to be defined (see Fig. 9).
Note: If the field strength measurement cannot be made
at 10 m, it is permissible to carry out this measurement
at a closer distance, e.g. 3 m.The field strength limits can
then be adjusted using 1/d as an attenuation factor, so
10 dB from 3 m to 10 m.

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2.

E (dBµV/m)

80
60
3m
10m

40
20
10
0

0
10

00
10

10
f (MHz)

Fig. 9 Limits of radiated interference field strength in the

frequency range from 30 MHz to 1000 MHz for Class B
equipment, according to EN 55022.

Infrared interference
At the time of writing, no regulations apply.

U.S.A.

Mains harmonic distortion

At the time of writing, no regulations apply.The HF lamp
system fulfils the requirements of EN 60555-2
amendment 1 (see Section 2.3.2).

Conducted interference
The requirements of the FCC apply: 47 CFR Part 18,
paragraph 18.307 Conduction limits for non-consumer
equipment (see Fig. 10).

E (dBµV)
0
12
0
10
80
60
40
20
0.1

10

0
1

10

f (MHz)

Fig. 10 Limits of mains terminal interference voltage in the

range from 450 kHz to 30 MHz for non-consumer
equipment, according to FCC, 47CFR Part 18.

Radiated interference, magnetic field

At the time of writing, no regulations apply.The HF lamp
system fulfils the requirements of EN 55015.
See under 'Europe'.

Radiated interference, electric field

No regulations apply.

Infrared interference
No regulations apply.
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2.

2.3.4 Luminaire design

Basic rules

The degree of electromagnetic compatibility is basically

determined by the HF ballast concept in combination
with the luminaire design.Taking the following basic rules
into consideration will optimise the EMC behaviour of
the system and help to fulfil the requirements.The basic
rules are valid for both PL and TL applications where
functional and/or protective earth is required. Functional
earth can be required in order to fulfil the EMC
requirements or to guarantee proper operation of the
system. It means that an ignition aid or other metal
surfaces are necessary, which should be connected
electrically to the housing of the HF ballast.

1. Ensure a firm electrical connection between the HF

ballast and the metal luminaire.
The contact resistance has to be as small as possible,
so affix the HF ballast directly to the luminaire.The use
of additional mounting plates or several junctions has a
negative influence on EMC.
2. Keep the lamp wiring short.
Avoid redundant wiring, e.g. loops.The so-called 'hot'
wires (see Section 4.1.13) should be the shortest.
3. Keep the mains wiring well away from lamp wiring.
Ensure that the mains wiring inside the luminaire is as
short as possible. Minimise stray capacitance by
ensuring that mains wiring does not run parallel to
lamp wiring.
4. Provide good electrical contact between the metal
luminaire and reflector and/or louvre.
5. Use a shielding around the lamp, well connected to the
luminaire.
This will help to reduce surroundings currents.
6. Minimise capacitance between wires and luminaire.
If possible, mount the lamp wiring on spacers.

Screening

In the following section the effect of screening will be dealt

with.The basic concept is illustrated, and the basic rules
governing screening are presented in a number of practical
examples.With good engineering judgement, various
combinations of the examples presented here are possible.

Effect of screening
Fig. 11 (a and b) shows the effect of screening on the
axial magnetic field.This magnetic field will be reduced by
induction currents in the shielding. A good conducting
material is necessary, but this need not necessarily be
connected to the circuit or earth.

Fig. 11a Magnetic field, not screened.

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2.

Fig. 11b Magnetic field, screened.

Fig. 11c Electric field, radial.

The electric field, which is always radial (Fig. 11c), will be

reduced by a capacitive screening.This will allow currents
to flow back to the circuit, resulting in a low
surroundings current.The shielding must also be of good
conducting material and must have low resistance to the
HF ballast!

Basic concept
A basic screening is represented in Fig. 12.The mounting
plate has been used as a reflector and as a screening, and
it has good electrical contact with the HF ballast.Wires
are short. Stray capacitance between lamp and wires and
between individual wires is low.

mounting plate

HF ballast

Fig. 12 Basic concept of luminaire design.

Battens
Fig. 13a shows a properly assembled batten with reflector.
Mains wiring within the housing has been kept as short as
possible, so cross-talk is virtually eliminated.The lamp
wiring is redundant, see rule 2 and the 'hot' side is the
shortest.The reflector acts as a shield and is well
connected to the HF ballast with no intermittent contacts.

HF ballast

Fig. 13a Batten with reflector.

Fig. 13b shows a poor assembly. Basic Rule 3 (see above)

has been broken. Due to stray capacitance, cross-talk
between mains and lamp wiring will occur. Major
problems will arise when if the long wire is also 'hot', see
Rule 2.
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2.

HF ballast

Fig. 13b Poor assembly of batten with reflector.

Luminaires
The following is valid for both surface-mounted and
recessed luminaires.

Fig. 14a shows an assembly similar to that depicted in

Fig. 13a.Wiring is close to the (metal) luminaire.
The HF ballast makes good contact with the luminaire.
The mains wiring is short.The luminaire acts as a
shielding, so magnetic and electric fields are small.

HF ballast

Fig. 14a Luminaire with wiring close to the luminaire.

An assembly like the one illustrated in Fig. 14b is also

allowed. Notice that the 'hot' wire is the shorter.

HF ballast

Fig. 14b Similar to Fig. 14a; notice that the 'hot' wire is the
shortest.

Fig. 14c shows a construction that breaks with Rule 1.

Electrical contact between HF ballast and luminaire is
poor. Unnecessary junctions between ballast and housing
are introduced, with increased change of poor electrical
contact. At the same time, temperature householding
becomes poor.

HF ballast

Fig. 14c Luminaire with poor electrical contact between HF

ballast and luminaire.

For a twin-lamp luminaire, a construction such as that

shown in Fig. 14d can be used. Mounting the HF ballast
between the lamps is preferred to mounting it to one
side. Long lamp wiring is close to the lamps, so loops are
kept small, see Rule 2.

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2.

HF ballast

Fig. 14d Mounting of the HF ballast in a twin-lamp luminaire.

A PL application is shown in Fig. 14e. Compared to 'TL'

luminaires, no special constructions are necessary. In fact
wiring can be kept even shorter in this case, because the
lamp connections are on one side.
The alternative construction shown in Fig. 14f is not
recommended. For both PL and TL it is best to place the
ballast between the lamps and not at the side.

HF ballast

Fig. 14e Mounting of the HF ballast in a PL application.

Generally speaking, the wiring for each lamp in a multiple

lamp version should have the same length.This will also
avoid differences in lumen output.This is especially
important for the 'hot' side of the ballast.

HF ballast

Fig. 14f This construction of the HF ballast in a PL luminaire is

not recommended.

Master-slave application
Several applications require two luminaires to be
operated from one HF ballast. Fig. 15 shows the
preferred construction. It is important that mains wiring
be led out as close to the ballast as possible, and 'hot'
lamp wiring be the shortest.
The RFI behaviour of the master/slave luminaire depends
on the kind of cable used. Shielded wire will reduce RFI,
but will increases cable capacity.

HF ballast

Fig. 15 Preferred construction of one HF ballast operating two

luminaires.
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2.

Reflectors and louvres

In most types of luminaires a reflector or a louvre can be
used.These are of conducting material (steel or
aluminium).The constructions depicted in Fig. 16 are
preferred.
In Fig. 16a the reflector acts as a shield. Rule 3 is
optimised. Provided the reflector makes good electrical
contact with the luminaire, the lamp will have no stray
capacitance to the wiring, It should be realised, however,
that the shielding function can only be effective if a low
ohmic contact resistance between reflector and luminaire
is established. For high-frequency signals (harmonics of
the operating frequency) conductors act as an inductor
with high impedance and will therefore no longer
represent a low ohmic resistance. Good electrical contact
can be obtained with a short earth wire or an earth
spring.

short wire earth spring

Fig. 16a Reflector acting

as a shield.

earth spring

Fig. 16b Conducting louvre, acting as a shield around the

lamp.

In Fig. 16b a conducting louvre has been used in

accordance with Rule 5. Surroundings currents to the
environment are very low. In this case, too, it is very
important to have reliable contacts, because if they are
intermittent it will make EMC behaviour even worse.The
lamellae should be well interconnected, and the louvre
should be connected to the metal luminaire.

No functional and protective earth

A small number of the HF ballasts do not require
functional and safety earth. For this reason they do not
have a provision for earthing the ballast.These ballasts
are optimised for applications where there are no
conducting surfaces close to the lamp or HF ballast.
Indeed, the presence of conducting surfaces can even
make the EMC behaviour worse. It is recommended to
keep the number of conducting surfaces close to the
lamp or HF ballast to a minimum.

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2.

2.4 The Energy Efficiency Index

The European Community has agreed upon a new
directive for banning electromagnetic control gear for
fluorescent lamps.This new directive is based upon the
Energy Efficiency Index (EEI) as agreed by the Committee
of European Luminaire Manufacturers Association.
This 'Celma' Components group has made a proposal on
how the industry can be more energy efficient in lighting
systems, ranking the different ballasts in different classes
from A1 to D. A1 is the most efficient system, D the least
efficient. From January 1998 the method employed for
measuring the energy classification became obligatory.
It is to be executed and implemented as laid down in a
Cenelec standard.

What does this mean?

April 2002
All ballasts with an EEI of D will be banned.

October 2005
All ballasts with an EEI of C will be banned.

2005
A joint declaration has been made.This declaration
includes that 55 per cent of all ballasts sold should be
electronic A1, A2, or A3.The rest may consist of
electromagnetic ballasts B1 and B2. If this percentage is
not reached, the European Community will review this
declaration and discuss a further official ban of B2 and B1
(see also table below).

Some types in the existing range of electromagnetic

control gear are classified as EEI C.These will be adapted
to B2 to comply with these regulations on soon as
possible.

It goes without saying that, thanks to their energy

efficiency, this directive stimulates the promotion of our
electronic fluorescent control gear.

The EEI classification of the ballasts can be found on the

product data sheets.

A1 Dimmable electronic

A2 Low-loss electronic Phase 2b (2005)

Joint declaration: 55% of the
A3 Standard electronic ballasts which will be sold
should be electronic
B1 Extra-low-loss magnetic

B2 Low-loss magnetic
Phase 2a (< Oct. 2005)
C Normal-loss magnetic
Ban C-class electromagnetic ballasts
D High-loss magnetic Phase 1 (< April 2002)
Ban D-class electromagnetic ballasts
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3.

Lamps

3.1 Range
The low-pressure mercury vapour lamp, or fluorescent
lamp, is by far the most widespread of all discharge lamp
types. It is employed almost universally: in indoor
applications like shops, theatres, etc., in social and civil
interiors, but also in street and tunnel lighting.
The introduction of the more compact versions has led
to its application in homes too.
There are many different versions of the fluorescent
lamp, including very special lamp types used for
reprography, disinfection, sun-tanning, inspection and
analysis, various photochemical processes and effect
lighting, but they all work on the same principle. It is not
the purpose of this Guide to mention all the various
types and their sometimes special gear requirements.
Technical aspects of the lamps will only be dealt with in
so far as they are directly related to the gear employed.

Low-pressure mercury vapour lamps can be divided in

five groups:

visible radiation ultraviolet radiation

fluorescent powder mercury atom electrode

electrons

Fig. 17 Working principle of a tubular fluorescent lamp.

1) Tubular fluorescent lamps

The tubular fluorescent lamp works on the low-pressure

mercury discharge principle (Fig. 17).The discharge tube
has an elec-trode sealed into each end and is filled with
an inert gas and a small quantity of mercury, the latter
being present in both liquid and vapour form.The inside
of the tube is coated with a mixture of fluorescent
powders.These convert the ultraviolet radiation of the
mercury discharge into longer wavelengths within the
visible range. A great many different fluorescent powders
or 'phosphors' are available for almost any desired colour
temperature and colour rendering characteristic.
Unlike an incandescent lamp, a fluorescent lamp cannot
be connected directly to the mains. Some device to limit
the electric current flowing through it must be included
in the circuit.This device can be an HF ballast or an
electromagnetic ballast with starter.To facilitate starting,
the electrodes of most fluorescent lamps are preheated
prior to ignition, which is accomplished by means of a
preheat current. Starting without preheating of the
electrodes is also possible, but at the cost of lamp life, as
most lamps are not designed for so-called cold ignition.

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3.

Some types in the Philips 'TL' lamp range, the so-called

cold-start lamps ('TL'S, 'TL'R, 'TL'X) and preheat
starterless lamps ('TL'RS, 'TL'M) require special gear,
which is not covered in this Guide.

The tubular 'TL' fluorescent lamp group can be further

sub-divided as follows (see Fig. 18):

T12

T8

T5

Fig. 18 Comparison of tube diameter of different 'TL' lamps.

a) Straight miniature lamps with G5 lamp cap, with a

diameter of 16 mm (code T5, which means that they
have a diameter of 5 times 1/8 inch) and with a length
dictated by the wattage (4 to 13 watt) and by common
building modules.This type of lamp can be stabilised
with both electromagnetic and electronic
(e-Matchbox) gear .

b) Straight 'TL' lamps with a diameter of 38 mm (code

T12) and with a length dictated by the wattage and by
common building modules.These so-called 'old' or
'thick' 'TL' lamps are stabilised by electromagnetic gear.
The normal versions have by now in most cases been
replaced by the modern 'TL'D lamps, especially in
Europe. In this range, specials can be found, such as
'TL'X, 'TL'R, 'TL'S, 'TL'M, 'TL'RS, 'TL'F, 'TL'A and 'TL'C,
sometimes with special lamp caps and special gear.

c) Straight 'TL'D lamps with G13 lamp cap and 26 mm

diameter (code T8), the so-called 'thin' lamps.
This most popular krypton-filled type can nowadays be
stabilised with both electronic and electromagnetic
gear. Also the 'TL'D Super 80 New Generation lamps
with improved efficacy and lumen maintenance are in
this category.

d) Straight ‘TL’5 lamps, with higher wattages than the

miniature lamps and the benefits of the 'TL'D New
Generation lamps.They are 5 cm shorter than the
equivalent T8 types and are operated on HF gear.The
reason for the reduced length is that optimum
compatibility with the most common standard
European ceiling systems is obtained that way.
There are two ranges:
'TL'5 HE 14, 21, 28 and 35 W High Efficiency lamps.
'TL'5 HO 24, 39, 49, 54 and 80 W High Output lamps.

2) Bent fluorescent lamps

a) The circular 'TL'E lamp has a special 4-pin lamp cap

(G10q) and a diameter of 29 mm (code T9).
They are available in lamp wattages of 22-32-40-60 W
and can be stabilised with electronic or
electromagnetic ballasts.
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3.

b) The U-shaped 'TL'U has the standard G13 lamp caps

and a diameter of 31 mm. Available in lamp wattages
20-40-65 W and are stabilised on electronic or
electromagnetic ballasts.

c) The ‘TL’5C (Circular) lamps with lamp cap 2GX13 are

in 22 and 40 W with a diameter of 18 mm.They can
only be stabilised with HF gear.
This range will be extended with new types in the
short term.

3) Non-integrated compact fluorescent lamps

Starting from the straight fluorescent lamp, reduction of

the tube length and tube diameter (10 - 16 mm) and
combination of two or more such small tubes into one
lamp, has led to the PL lamp family with a considerably
reduced lamp length. In this way a wide lumen package in
small dimensions is obtained.This offers considerable
energy savings when used as a replacement for
incandescent lamps.
In the case of non-integrated lamps, the lamp and ballast
are separated.
In principle they can be sub-divided as follows:
- the PL-S and PL-L with 2 parallel tubes
- the PL-C with 4 tubes in square formation
- the PL-T with 6 tubes.

The parallel tubes are connected by bends or bridges, so

electrically they are one tube.
Apart from this, various colours are available, and most
types are available in two versions:
- 2-pin version, with the starter incorporated in the lamp
cap, stabilised with electromagnetic gear, and
- 4-pin version, stabilised with electromagnetic or
electronic gear.

Due to the different wattages and versions available,

there is a wide variation in lamp caps, information on
which can be found in the lamp documentation. Lamp and
gear are separated, giving more freedom to the luminaire
designer and an increased lifetime of the lighting system,
since the lamps can be replaced.

4) Integrated compact fluorescent lamps

a) The PL lamp family

The arc tubes and the electronic gear are integrated to

form one complete lamp with a standard lamp cap: E14,
E27 or B22.The PL lamp is available in different wattages
as PL*Electronic/C, PL*Electronic /D(Decor) and
PL*Electronic/T for the mains voltage range 230-240
V/50-60 Hz.

b) The SL lamp family

Here reduction of the lamp length has been achieved by

bending and double-bending the arc tube.
The electromagnetic ballast and the starter are
incorporated in the outer glass bulb and the lamp is
equipped with the standard E27 or B22 lamp cap.
Different versions are available in various colours,
wattages and shapes.There are SL lamps for mains
voltages of 230 or 240 V/50 or 60 Hz.

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3.

5) Electrodeless fluorescent lamps: the QL

induction lamp system

These are dealt with in more detail in Section 4.5.

They are based on the principle of induction.The light
generation in the gas discharge is achieved by inducing
electromagnetic energy of a very high operating
frequency, which is transformed into visible light by
means of phosphors on the bulb wall. In this way no lamp
electrodes are needed (normally the bottleneck in a
lamp's life because they wear out), resulting in a very long
lifetime of the induction lamp system. At the moment,
three wattages (55, 85 and 165 W) in various colour
temperatures are available, with the lamp and the
HF generator separated.This smallest family of
fluorescent lamps has a great potential for the future, and
higher wattage versions and/or regulating versions will
follow.

3.2 Stabilisation
As described in Section 2.1: the main ballast function is to
stabilise the lamp current, as a fluorescent lamp cannot
function properly when it is operated directly on the
mains voltage.The first and foremost function of a ballast
is to limit the electric current passing through the lamp
to a value prescribed for that particular lamp rating.
All discharge lamps need such a current-limiting device
because they have a negative voltage-current
characteristic (see Fig. 19).
V

I
Fig. 19 Current/voltage characteristic of a gas discharge
(simplified).The voltage required decreases as the current
increases.The characteristic is negative, meaning that the
current will without limit if no measures are taken.

Without a current-limiting device in the circuit (lamp

voltage = mains voltage), the slightest increase of the
lamp current would cause a drop in lamp voltage. But as
the mains voltage is still applied to the lamp, the lamp
voltage cannot decrease, so the current will now increase
even further.This process of steeply rising current will
soon cause the lamp to fail or the fuse to blow.
On the other hand, at a slight decrease of the lamp
current the lamp voltage has to increase. As the mains
voltage is still applied, it will become too low for stable
operation and the lamp will extinguish.
The presence of a ballast between the lamp and the
mains-voltage connection (Fig. 20) limits the current
flowing through the lamp.The lamp current – being equal
to the ballast current supplied to the lamp – is now fixed
by the quotient of the ballast voltage and the ballast
impedance.
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3.

B
Ib Vl -
+ - +
La
+
Vm S
Il

0
-
Fig. 20 Current limitation by means of a ballast in a simple
discharge circuit.

As the ballast voltage is the difference between the mains

voltage and the lamp voltage, the maximum lamp current
is limited by the mains voltage. In this way a stable
operating point is obtained for all mains voltages higher
than the minimum voltage Vmin (see Fig. 21).

Vlamp + Vballast
Vm
.
in
Vm

V ballast
Vlamp

Fig. 21 Current/voltage characteristic of a circuit with a

ballast in series with the lamp.Thanks to the ballast, the
required lamp voltage increases with increasing lamp current,
leading to a stable situation.

Ilamp = Iballast

Iballast = Vballast / Zballast Ilamp = (Vmains - Vlamp) Zballast

Vballast = Vmains - Vlamp

Another very important function of the ballast is to keep

the power consumption of the lamp within certain
margins so as to prevent too high a temperature in the
cathodes, which would result in a diminished lamp life.
The power of the lamp is equal to the lamp voltage Vla
times the lamp current Ila times a constant, which is
called the lamp factor (α la):

Pla = Vla . Ila . α la

The lamp factor α la depends on the shape of the lamp

voltage and the lamp current, and is therefore also called
the 'shape factor'.The value depends on the method of
stabilisation and is approx. 0.8 for electromagnetically
stabilised lamps and 0.99 for HF stabilised lamps (see
Section 3.4).
In stable operation the voltage across the lamp is rather
constant under all circumstances.Therefore the lamp
power (and so the light output) is depends mainly on the
lamp current.

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3.

The level of the mains voltage is important, as well as the

impedance of the ballast.The influence of the frequency
of the mains voltage is a hidden factor: this variable
influences the impedance of the choke ballast,
as Z = ω L with ω = 2πf (f = frequency).The inductance L
is depends on the number of copper windings and the
dimensions and material of the core of the ballast. From
this it follows that the higher the frequency, the smaller
the ballast can be.With the electromagnetic ballast for
50 or 60 cycles we need a 'big' copper/iron ballast, while
in the HF ballasts with much higher operating frequencies
(see Section 3.4) a small ballast with ferromagnetic
material can be employed.

3.3 Ignition and run-up

In most cases a cold tubular fluorescent lamp will not
start when the mains voltage is applied.This is because
the ignition voltage is usually higher than the mains
voltage. Some sort of starting aid is therefore needed to
ignite the lamp. In practice, this involves one or more of
the following solutions:
- Preheating the electrodes to facilitate electron emission.
- Providing an external conductor on or near the lamp
tube, which is either floating, earthed or connected to
one of the electrodes (‘TL’M lamps).The electric field
so created facilitates the initial discharge. An alternative
solution, which serves the same purpose, is the
provision of an internal conductive coating on the tube
wall.
- Providing an internal auxiliary electrode in the form of
one or two metallic strips along the inside of the tube.
- Providing a voltage peak sufficiently high to initiate the
discharge.

The voltage level at which a fluorescent lamp will ignite is

called its ignition voltage. In most lamp types special
measures have been taken in the construction of the
lamp to keep this ignition voltage as low as possible: the
use of a starting gas as a Penning mixture (see Fig. 22)
and the application of a starting aid to trigger the initial
ionisation of the gas ('TL'M) are examples of this.
Vst
0
5
0

1.
0.

argon in neon (%)

Fig. 22 Starting voltage (Vst) as a function of percentage

(%) of argon to neon (Penning effect).

There are three principal ways of igniting the lamp:

1. The cold start: ignition is obtained by applying a high
initial voltage to the lamp electrodes. Immediate
ignition is obtained without any preheating.
This method of ignition needs rigid/robust lamp
electrodes (as with the 'TL'D lamps), a rather high
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3.

ignition voltage (> 800 V r.m.s.) and enough energy to

pass from the initial ignition to the stable burning
situation.This procedure is used in the HF-Basic
ballasts and is the reason that the switching lifetime of
the lamps is less than in the next two systems.
2. The warm start: by preheating the lamp electrodes
and – once they are at emission temperature –
applying a peak voltage just high enough to initiate the
dis-charge.The electrodes can be thinner and the
applied starting voltage lower (see Fig. 23).
The preheat time must be long enough. For the warm
start with an HF ballast a preheat time of approx.
1 second is needed with the correct current, whilst
the open-circuit voltage of the lamps is low enough to
prevent ignition at this stage. At the end of this time a
higher open-circuit voltage will ignite the lamp reliably.
Thanks to this procedure, the switching lifetime of the
lamps is nearly independent of the switching cycle
(HF-P, HF-R).
ignition voltage

cold start
preheated start

20

40

60
0

0
-2

ambient temp. (˚C)

Fig. 23 Influence of ambient temperature on the required

ignition voltage, both with cold and with prehea-ted (warm)
start.

3. The rapid start: here a certain ignition voltage and

preheat current are supplied simultaneously to the
lamp. As long as the cathodes are not hot enough, the
lamp will not ignite.When, after a certain time, the
cathodes are hot enough, the lamp will ignite at the
applied ignition voltage (see Fig. 24 point P of the so-
called Z-curve).
Vst (V)
cold
0
30
0
25

rapid
P
0
20

. e
warm
0
15

0
0

50

70

90
30

temp. (˚C)

Fig. 24 Starting voltage (Vst) as a function of electrode

temperature. Point e represents the emission temperature,
viz. the point at which the electrode emits sufficient electrons.

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3.

Glow-switch starters do function in combination with

these ignition systems: as the closing time of the
bimetallic contact is not well defined (see Section 5.2:
Starters), it is not certain that the lamp electrodes are at
emission temperature when the glow-switch starter
opens. Also, the height of the ignition peak can vary
rather a lot.This can be noticed in practice when the
glow-switch starter works several times before the lamp
ignites.This flickering gets worse at low ambient
temperatures, at low mains voltages, or with aged lamps.
The starting of amalgam lamps, such as the SL and PL-T
lamps, requires a higher ignition voltage than that of the
standard fluorescent lamps, especially below 10 ˚C.

The initial ignition (first break-down) results in a low

electric current between the two main electrodes.
The excitation potential and ionisation potential are very
close together, and consequently after a short time many
free electrons are present in the discharge, resulting
more or less in the nominal lamp current.

After ignition, the lamp will heat up and the temperature

of the coldest spot will rise, causing a rise in the mercury
vapour pressure, which determines the arc voltage of a
given lamp. In what time thermal equilibrium is reached
depends on the lamp type and its surroundings (ambient
temperature, open/closed luminaire). Normal 'TL' lamps
in normal applications have a run-up time of 2-3 minutes
to reach stable lamp voltage and a level of 90 per cent of
the maximum light output.
ignition time (s) Φ (%)
0
0

10
10
80

80

Vnom (base up)

Vnom (base down)

60

60
40

40
20

20
0

0
-5

10
0

20
0

0
25

5
5

25
15
-1

ambient temp. (˚C) t (min)

Fig. 25 Typical ignition time and run-up behaviour of an

SL lamp operated on an electromagnetic ballast.

ignition time (s) Φ (%)

0

0
2.

10
5

80
1.

210-240 V
mains voltage
60
0
1.

40
5
0.

20
0
0

20
0

10
0

10

20
0

25
25
-1
-2

ambient temp. (˚C) t (min.)

Fig. 26 Typical ignition time and run-up behaviour of a

PL*E/C lamp.
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3.

The run-up phase for SL and QL lamps is longer, due to

the amalgam filling. It takes more time for the mercury to
evaporate from the amalgam, so it takes longer to reach
the stable lamp voltage. But a lighting level of 80 per cent
is attained within one minute also with these lamps (see
Figs 25 and 26).

3.4 Lamp behaviour as a function of the

frequency
Supplied by a mains voltage of 230 V/ 50 Hz and stabilised
with an electromagnetic ballast, the lamp voltage and
lamp current of a fluorescent lamp are not pure sine
waves (see Fig. 27).
V

0
50
Vm
Il
Vl

0
10
-5
00

Fig. 27 Waveform of mains voltage (Vm), lamp voltage (Vl)

and lamp current (Il).

Every time the current passes through zero, the lamp is

'out' and needs a certain re-ignition voltage peak to
re-ignite.The electrical energy supplied to the lamp in the
form of Vla and Ila is transformed into the lamp power
Wla with a certain lamp factor, called α la, according to
the equation:

Wla = α la .Vla . Ila

Typical values for an electromagnetically stabilised 50 Hz

'TL'D 36W lamp are:
Vla = 103 volt
Ila = 0.44 ampere
Wla = 36 watt
so α la = 0.79

The period of time that a lamp is 'out' will decrease by

raising the frequency of the lamp current, resulting in a
lower re-ignition peak. At increasing frequency both lamp
current and lamp voltage will become more sinusoidal,
resulting in a higher lamp factor α la (see Fig. 28).
Typical values for a 36 W 'TL'D lamp stabilised by
HF gear are:
Vla = 103 volt
Ila = 0.32 ampere
Wla = 32 watt
so α la = 0.99

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3.

50 Hz

100 Hz

200 Hz

800 Hz

8000 Hz
Fig. 28 Lamp voltage as a function of frequency for a
'TL'D 36 W lamp.

As a result of the improved lamp factor, the lamp current

can be lower for a given wattage in the discharge.
This reduces the losses in the electrodes even further,
giving an extra improvement in lamp efficacy (see Fig. 29).

Φ (%)
0
11
0
10

0
0
0

00

00
00
10

30
20

f (Hz)
Fig. 29 Luminous flux (Φ ) of a fluorescent lamp as a function
of supply frequency (f) at constant lamp factor.

For low-pressure mercury vapour lamps at a fixed lamp

power, a 10 per cent higher efficiency can be achieved at
frequencies of more than 10 kHz.To avoid audible
disturbance, the working frequency must be more than
20 kHz. But while much higher frequencies will result in a
smaller stabilisation coil, they will also result in higher
losses in the electronic switching devices and more
radio-interference problems. Different operating
frequencies are therefore used, mainly depending on lamp
type.The practical working frequency is between 24 kHz
and 31 kHz for most HF-P ballasts, while the
HF-Matchbox operates with a frequency lower than
30 kHz. All HF-B and HF-R ballasts and also the HF-P for
TL5 C, PLL 18/24 and PLT/PLC lamps operate above
42 kHz.The QL system even operates at 2.65 MHz.
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3.

3.5 Lamp and system efficiency

The lamp efficiency is expressed in a figure called the
luminous efficacy. It indicates the efficiency of the lamp in
transforming electrical energy into light and is expressed
in lumen per watt (lm/W).The light or radiated power is
'weighed' according to the eye-sensitivity curve for visible
light.
The amount of light generated by a lamp is called the
luminous flux or lumen output. It is a variable figure,
depending on many factors including the phosphors
employed (colour), lamp tube dimensions, gas mixture
and pressure, and so forth (see Fig. 30 and Table).

η η

lamp length lamp diameter

a) b)

η (%)
η
0
10
98
96
94

Il
3
1

c) d)
p (torr)

Fig. 30 Lamp efficiency as a function of lamp length (a), lamp

diameter (b), argon pressure (c) and current (d).

Indicative comparison of 'TL' lamp generations

'TL' types from 1945 Diameter Power Luminous flux Luminous efficacy Luminous flux
(4 foot) at 100 hrs at 100 hrs at 10 000 hrs
mm W lm lm/W %
'TL' Standard 38 40 2850 72 73
'TL'D Standard 26 36 2850 79 73
'TL'D Super/80 26 36 3350 93 85
'TL'D Super/80 HF 26 32 3200 100 85
'TL'D Super/80 HF New Generation 26 32 3200 100 92
'TL'5 Super/80 HF 16 28 2900 104 92

Note 1: Luminous flux and efficacy are only applicable for

colours /827, /830, /835 and /840.
Note 2: HF means on HF gear

With regard to the gear employed, the working

frequency (see Section 3.4) and the lamp current are
important. A higher lamp current results in a lower
efficiency for certain lamp wattage.The luminous efficacy
of all fluorescent lamps increases with the lamp wattage.

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3.

This is due to the fact that the power needed to keep

the lamp electrodes at optimum temperature is relatively
lower for higher lamp wattages (longer lamps) than for
lower wattages (shorter lamps).

All manufacturers publish the Nominal Luminous Flux in

their documentation, which is the lamp luminous flux
under the following conditions:
- the lamp has burned for 100 hours prior to the
readings being taken (burning-in period),
- the lamp is burning in draught free air at a defined
ambient temperature (usually 25 ˚C) and in a specified
burning position,
- after switching on, the lamp has had sufficient time to
heat up and stabilise for thermal equilibrium,
- the lamp is running at its nominal voltage, nominal
current and stabilised nominal mains voltage,
- batches of lamps are read for the average value.
When one of these conditions changes, the nominal flux
changes with it.

For the total system efficiency, the losses in the gear are
important. Since HF ballasts normally have lower losses
than the electromagnetic ballasts, the total system
efficiency is higher with HF gear than with
electromagnetic gear.

3.6 Effects of temperature

For every fluorescent lamp there is an optimum for the
efficiency related to the pressure of the mercury in the
gas-discharge tube.The mercury gas pressure is directly
related to the coldest spot of the discharge tube, the so-
called 'cold spot'.With straight ‘TL’ and ‘TL’D lamps this
cold spot will normally be in the middle of the lamp on
the underside. For TL5 lamps the coldest spot is at the
marking side where the coldest spot is created by a
greater distance from the electrode to the lamp end.
With PL lamps the cold spot is situated at the lamp ends
near the bridge between the separate tubes, see Fig. 31.

cold spot

‘TL’D lamp

cold spot (lamp stamp side)

TL5 lamp

Fig. 31 Cold spots of ‘TL’D and TL5 lamps

Depending on the burning position of the lamp, the

temperature of the cold spot can vary and with it also
the light output and efficiency (see Fig. 32).The same
lamp mounted in a closed luminaire will reach a higher
temperature than in an open luminaire, so the lumen
output will differ. Graphs are available for all lamps,
showing the relative light output of the bare lamp as a
function of the ambient temperature.The influence of the
luminaire must be found separately by measurement
(see Figs 33-35).
In principle, the gear employed has no influence on the
temperature of the cold spot and consequently on the
light output.
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3.

pHg (mtorr)
η

20
(%)

50
10
0,

2
5
1
0
10
50
0

20

40

60

80
0
temp. (˚C)
Fig. 32 Lamp efficiency as a function of mercury pressure and
ambient temperature.
warmest region
of the housing

Fig. 33a Warmest region on the housing of a PL lamp.

cool spots bridge discharge tube electrodes

Fig. 33b Cold spot at the tube ends near the bridge of a
PL lamp.
Φ (%)
0
10
80
60
40
20
0

20

40

60
0

0
-2

ambient temp. (˚C)

Fig. 33c Relative luminous flux of PL lamps as a function of

the ambient temperature and burning position.

Only in closed luminaires will the inside temperature be

influenced by the watt losses of the gear. So HF ballasts
will have less influence than electromagnetic gear, due to
their lower losses.
The optimum mercury vapour pressure for tube
diameters of 26 and 38 mm is about 0.8 Pa, and this is
reached at a tube wall temperature of about 40 ˚C.
This is not much higher than the usual ambient
temperature of 20 to 25 ˚C, and the heat generated by
the discharge is sufficient to reach the required operating
temperature of 40 ˚C without special measures.

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3.

A
S

B 5 mm

warmest region
of the housing
W

B = ballast
A = amalgam
S = cold spot
W = wall
H = auxiliary amalgam
Fig. 34 Warmest region on the housing and cold spot inside
an SL lamp.

Φ (%) Φ (%)
0

0
10

10
90

90
80

80

a) b)
10

30

50

10

30

50
ambient temp. (˚C) ambient temp. (˚C)

Φ (%) Φ (%)
0
0

10
10

90
90

80
80

c) d)
10

30

50
10

30

50

ambient temp. (˚C) ambient temp. (˚C)

Fig. 35 Relative luminous flux of different SL lamps as a

function of lamp ambient temperature.
a) SL*9/13 base up, b) SL*9/13 base down, c) SL*18/25 base
up, d) SL*18/25 base down.

If the temperature is low (for example, outdoor lighting

in winter), it is desirable to operate the fluorescent lamp
in a well-closed luminaire.The new ‘TL’5 lamp is
optimised for an ambient temperature of 35 ˚C.
For the luminous flux as a function of the ambient
temperature, see Fig. 36 a/b.
If the wall temperature is above the ideal operating
temperature, artificial cooling of the lamps might be
useful, but this requires extra facilities.
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3.

Φ (%)

0
10
80
60
40
‘TL ’ D + electromagnetic ballast
‘TL ’ D + Philips electronic ballast

20
0

20

40
0
0

60
-2
ambient temp. (˚C)

Fig. 36a Luminous flux as a function of ambient temperature

for 'TL'D lamps operated on different control gear.
Φ (%)

0
10
80

‘TL ’ D
‘TL ’ 5
60
40
20
0

20
10

40
30

50
ambient temp. (˚C)

Fig. 36b Comparison of luminous flux as a function of

ambient temperature between 'TL'D and TL5 HE lamps.

pHg (mtorr)
Hg
50

90%
20
10

100%
5

90%
2

Φ
5 1
0.

amalgam
2
0.
0

0
50

10

15

20

temp. (˚C)

Fig. 37 The influence of amalgam on the mercury pressure

and on the luminous output of an SL lamp.

By adding amalgam to the mercury gas filling it is possible

to guarantee a light output of more than 90 per cent of
the maximum in the amalgam temperature region
between 550 and 120 ˚C (see Fig. 37).
This measure is taken in the SL, PL-T, PL*E-T and
QL lamps, where the minimum temperature inside the
glass tube is about 90 ˚C.

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3.

3.7 Optimum operation

As has been said in Section 3.1, there are many different
types of fluorescent lamps, each in different lamp
wattages, lamp voltages and lamp currents. Although the
differences in behaviour are not so wide as with high-
intensity gas-discharge lamps (SON-SOX-HPL-HPI-MHD),
each type has its own pros and cons.
What they have in common though, is that they need the
correct ballast and ignition system for optimum
performance. In fact, each type needs its own specific
gear. For this reason one should take care to use the
recommended gear in combination with the chosen lamp.
Especially when using electromagnetic ballasts, the
combination must be correct for the available mains
voltage (220, 230 or 240 V / 50 or 60 Hz). HF ballasts
cover a wider mains-voltage range, which can be found in
the product data sheets.
When the wrong components are chosen, one can
expect problems: for example, with:
- lifetime of lamps and gear
- temperatures
- starting/run-up
- stable burning
- radio interference
- light output

3.8 Lamp life and depreciation

The data published by lamp manufacturers for life
expectancy and lumen depreciation are obtained from
large representative groups of lamps in laboratory tests
under controlled conditions (see for example Figs. 38
and 39).These include, amongst others:
- nominal supply voltage and appropriate circuitry
- specified burning position
- specified switching cycle
- free-burning, mounted on test racks (not in a luminaire)
- no vibrations or shocks
- specified ambient temperature, mostly 25 ˚C.
Any change in these circumstances will affect a lamp's
lifetime.
life expectancy (%) life expectancy (%) life expectancy (%)
0

inductive
10

10

10

capacitive
90

90

90
80

80

80
70

70

70
60

60

60
50

50
50

0
0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

00
00

00

00
00
00

00

00
00

00

00
00

50
50

50

15
10
15

15

20
10

10

20
20

burning time (hrs) burning time (hrs) burning time (hrs)

Fig. 38a Life expectancy curve for

'TL'D Super/80 New Generation on HF gear; warm start.

Fig. 38b Life expectancy curve for

'TL'D Super/80 New Generation on HF gear; cold start.

Fig. 38c Life expectancy curve for

'TL'D Super/80 New Generation on conventional gear.
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3.

Φ (%)
Φ (%) Φ (%)

0
10
0

0
10

10

90
90

90

80
80

80

70
70

70

60
60

60

50
50

50

0
00

0
0

00

00
00
50
0
0

0
0

0
00

00
0

15

20
10
00
00

00

00
00

00
50

50

10
10

15

15
20

20
burning time (hrs)
burning time (hrs) burning time (hrs)
Fig. 39a Lumen maintenance in % for
'TL'D Super /80 New Generation and TL5.

Fig. 39b Lumen maintenance in % for

'TL'D standard colours on conventional gear.

Fig. 39c Lumen maintenance in % for

'TL'D /90 de Luxe colours.

The type of circuitry can also influence lamp life or lumen

maintenance. For example, due to the controlled starting
process the life expectancy of fluorescent lamps operated
on a warm-start HF ballast is higher than on
electromagnetic gear.

Lamp life on electromagnetic L and LC circuits

For conventional, electromagnetic operation, the
electrodes are preheated when the switch starter is
closed. At the moment the switch starter opens, the lamp
may or may not ignite.Whether or not the lamp will
ignite depends on the 'produced' ignition voltage.
This again depends on the mains voltage at the moment
the switch starter opens. If the lamp does not ignite,
more attempts will follow until the lamp does ignite.
Lamp life is also influenced by the type of starter used.
Generally, the use of electronic starters, such as the
Philips types S2-E or S10-E, has a positive effect on lamp
life.
For conventional operation, important differences exist
between L (inductive) and LC (with series capacitor)
operation. For LC operation the preheat current through
the electrodes is much lower than with L operation,
which results in a lower electrode temperature at
ignition. After the lamp is ignited, the lamp current is
higher than with L operation. As a consequence the
electrode temperature is then relatively high.
Because of these differences it is not possible to have the
optimum switching behaviour for both L and LC
operation. A compromise has to be chosen.The situation
is further complicated by the rather strong influence of
two different operation conditions:
a) Preheat current and lamp current increase with the
mains voltage. In general, lamp life will decrease with
increasing mains voltage.
b) The necessary ignition voltage is temperature
dependent.This means that results of switching tests
will be different for different ambient temperatures.

Lamp life on warm-ignition ballast (HF-P, HF-R)

With 'warm-ignition' HF ballasts, the electrode is
preheated in a well-defined way. After the preheat time,
the lamp is ignited with a sufficiently high voltage.

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3.

Due to the preheated ignition, the performance on faster

switching cycles is very good. Lamp life is also improved
for slow switching cycles.This is caused by the optimum
relation between lamp current and electrode heating
current.The presented lamp life values are the average
figures over the lamp and ballast range.
In comparison with conventional operation:
- performance on fast switching cycles is improved,
- lamp life will not depend on mains voltage (mains
independence!),
- lamp life will not depend on ambient temperature.

Lamp life on cold-ignition ballast (HF-Basic, e-Matchbox,

e-Kyoto)
When 'TL' lamps are operated without the appropriate
electrode preheat current, lamp life will be reduced with
more frequent lamp ignition. In the past, guidelines have
been developed to design the cold ignition in such a way
that the 'ignition damage' is limited. After lamp ignition,
the 'glow-to-arc transition' has to take place within
100 ms.This is reached when the ballast delivers the
appropriate amount of power during the glow phase
(defined by IEC).When this is the case, lamp life will be
comparable to operation on a conventional L circuit for
switching cycles greater than 5 hours.

Also important for lamp life is the electrode temperature

during operation. For electronic operation, the heat
balance of the electrode differs significantly from that
with conventional operation.Without extra electrode
heating, a certain minimum lamp current has to be
maintained to obtain the appropriate lamp life. For this
reason the so-called α-control has been developed:
the electrode current is maintained at the optimum value
during both the ignition phase and the normal running,
and at all dimming levels and temperatures for all
IEC-compliant lamp types (see also Section 3.11).

Another factor influencing the life of fluorescent lamps is

the type of phosphors used: the modern lamps with /80
and /90 colours have a con-siderably lower light
depreciation during their burning life than do the lamps
with other fluorescent materials, say, colour /33 or /25
(see Fig. 39).
Specific information on lamp life and light depreciation is
in most cases available from the local Philips organisation,
but not all parameters are measured on a regular basis.

3.9 Influence of switching cycle

Fluorescent lamps may be required to be switched on
and off more than only a few times per 24 hours,
especially when they are used in combination with
controls such as movement detectors or light cells.
The influence of the switching cycle on the lifetime of the
different types of fluorescent lamps is different in
different lamp circuits.
The 'average' lamp-life data presented are typical values.
They are the average of different tests. Batch deviations
occur due to deviations in the materials used and in lamp
processing, and to different types and batches of gear.
Differences in 'application parameters', such as mains
voltage, ambient temperature and starter, can also have a
negative influence on lamp life, especially for conventional
operation.These effects are almost absent for HF
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3.

operation.The standard deviation of the 'typical' lamp life

values is 10 to 20 per cent.The lamp lives quoted are
only valid for 'Philips' lamps and 'Philips' ballasts.
The 'Philips' combination is tuned to give the best result,
see Fig. 40 and tables.

time (hrs x 1000)

24
HF-P/HF-R

20
HF-B/e-Matchbox
electromagnetic

16
12
IEC reference line

8
4
0

ng
0

5
5

.3
.1
.0

.1

hi
/0
/0
/0

/0

itc
sw o
0
5
15

45

n
.3
.4
0.

0.

11
2.
hrs on/ hrs off
Fig. 40 Influence of switching cycle (in hours per start) on
lamp life for 'TL'D.

70 % Service life (x 1000 hrs)

HF warm start HF cold start Inductive Inductive/capacitive
TL5 18 x x x
'TL'D Super /80 NG 18 12 13 11
'TL'D /90 de Luxe 17 11 12.5 10
'TL'D Standard x x 10 8
'TL' Standard x x 9 7

80 % Service life (x 1000 hrs)

HF warm start HF cold start Inductive Inductive/capacitive
TL5 17 x x x
'TL'D Super /80 NG 17 10 12 10
'TL'D /90 de Luxe 12 9 11 8
'TL'D Standard x x 5 5
'TL' Standard x x 5 4

1Life expectancy of 'TL'D lamps (x 1000 hrs)

50 % survivors 90% survivors
Cycle Electromagnetic HF operation Cycle (hrs) Electromagnetic HF operation
LC L L/LC cold warm LC L L/LC cold warm
start start start start
11.30 hrs on 15 18 16 19 23 11.30 on 10 15 12 16 19
30 min off 0.30 off

2.45 hrs on 12 15 13 13 20 2.45 on 7 12 9 10 17

15 min off 0.15 off (IEC)

45 min on 9 12 10 7 16 0.45 on 6 9 7 5 14
15 min off 0.15 off

15 min on 6 9 7 2 13 0.15 on 4 7 5 1 12
5 min off 0.05 off

Page 52/53
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3.

Life expectancy of PL-L lamps (x 1000 hrs)

50% survivors 90% survivors
Cycle Electromagnetic HF operation Cycle (hrs) Electromagnetic HF operation
CLC L L/LC warm start LC LC L warm start
11.30 hrs on 15 17 16 20 11.30 on 10.5 13 11 15
30 min off 0.30 off

2.45 hrs on 8 12 10 16 2.45 on 5.5 9.5 6.5 12

15 min off 0.15 off

45 min on 4 8 6 13 0.45 on 3 6 4 9
15 min off 0.15 off

Life expectancy of PL-C/T/S lamps (x 1000 hrs)

50 % survivors 90% survivors
Cycle Electromagnetic HF operation Cycle (hrs) Electromagnetic HF operation
inductive L-circuit warm start inductive L-circuit warm start
11.30 hrs on 10 13 11.30 on 7 10
30 min off 0.30 off

2.45 hrs on 8 11 2.45 on 5.5 8

15 min off 0.15 off

45 min on 5 9 0.45 on 3.5 7

15 min off 0.15 off

3.10 Stroboscopic effect and striations

The stroboscopic effect is the apparent change of motion
of an object when illuminated by periodically varying light
of the appropriate frequency.

Flicker is the fluctuation of the lamp’s light output on

account of movement of the discharge arc on the
electrodes.

Striations are noticeable as a pattern of more or less

bright regions in the long discharge tube.This pattern can
move through the discharge tube. It can appear when the
lamp is cold or when the lamp is dimmed down to too
low a level.

One or more of these three phenomena may appear,

especially in combination with conventional gear
(see Section 5.3.17).

In the case of HF ballasts, the first two effects are not

notice-able, thanks to the inertia of the fluorescent
material, which cannot follow the high operating frequency
and also because the ballast limits the light modulation in
the 50 Hz mains to a large extent (see Fig. 41).
However, at low ambient temperatures and/or at low
dimming levels striations can also occur with HF ballasts.
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3.

Fig. 41a Lamp current at 50 Hz operation.

Fig. 41b Luminous flux at 50 Hz operation.

Fig. 41c Lamp current at HF operation.

Fig. 41d Luminous flux at HF operation.

3.11 Dimming
To what extent fluorescent lamps can be dimmed, very
much depends on the related gear and the dimming
circuit.The following general observations can be made:

1. Retrofit lamps such as the SL family and the

PL*Electronic/T and /C cannot be dimmed.
2.Two-pin versions of the PL family cannot be dimmed.
3. QL induction lamps cannot be dimmed.
4. When operated on conventional gear, all 'TL' lamps can
be dimmed without any great problems down to
approx. 50 per cent light output. Normally, the lifetime
of the lamps will scarcely increase, if at all, by doing
this. If, however, proper measures are taken to keep
the lamp electrodes heated, dimming can increase the
lifetime of lamps. Appropriate lamps are avail-able for
this purpose ('TL'M). See also Section 5.3.16.
5. In combination with the appropriate regulating HF
ballast, the 4-pin PL-S/T/C, the PL-L, and the 'TL'D
lamps can be properly dimmed and the lifetime of the
lamps will increase. See also Section 4.2.

Running and dimming conditions

In a burning lamp the electrode has to be kept at a

sufficiently high temperature for good lamp performance.
Above a certain limit value the discharge current itself
can take care of this. Below this limit value an additional
electrode current has to be applied, see Fig. 42.

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3.

ILH
ID

ILL
IHH = Lead-High ("total") current
ID = lamp (discharge) current
ILL = Lead-Low ("heating") current

Fig. 42 Diagram of a lamp electrode with additional electrode

current for dimming.
ID = discharge current, ILL = heating current, ILH = ID + ILL
(vector sum).

For a good performance, ID, ILL and ILH have to be kept

between limits.
Example: For 4-pin lamps the following table includes
these limits and their mutual relationships.

ID1 ILL2 ILH3

Nominal operation 160 - 240 mA < 200 mA 160 - 270 mA
Dimming operation 20 - 160 mA < 200 mA 175 - 270 mA

1
Discharge currents < 160 mA require additional electrode heating (ILL).
Discharge currents > 240 mA will have a negative effect on lamp life.
2
Heating currents > 200 mA will cause accelerated end-blackening.
3
ILH has a maximum value to avoid local overheating of the electrodes.
In the case of ID < 160 mA, when extra electrode heating is applied, the
minimum electrode heating is covered by the lower limit set to ILH.
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4.

El ectroni c l a m p
control g ea r

4.1 Electronic high-frequency system

4.1.1 Block diagram (see Fig. 43)

The main functions of a ballast have been described in

Section 2.1: Main ballast functions.
Although the electronic HF ballast system is integrated
into one single 'black box', its different functions can be
divided into a number of individual blocks. In broad
outline: after passing a low-pass (RFI) filter, the mains
voltage is rectified in an AC/DC converter.This converter
also contains the buffer capacitor, which is charged with
current via this DC voltage. In the DC/AC converter the
DC voltage is transformed into an HF voltage, which
provides the power for the lamp controller.The ballast
controller controls all these functions.

mains filter for converter converter lamp(s)

interference AC/DC DC/AC
suppression = =
preconditioner lamp controller

ballast controller

Fig. 43 Block diagram indicating the main functions of an

electronic HF ballast system.

4.1.2 Circuit diagram (see Fig. 44)

S1
L
L

control
electronics 1 2
L
N
+ +
- - S2
C

low-pass filter rectifier buffer HF power lamp stabilisation

capa- oscillator
citor

Fig. 44 Circuit diagram of an electronic control system (version

with two lamps in parallel).

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4.

The low-pass filter has four functions:

- Limitation of the harmonic distortion, so that its level
remains within international standards (see Fig. 45).
- Limitation of radio interference, which would otherwise
be injected from the HF ballast into the mains. Here
also international standards are to be adhered to.
- Protection of the electronic components against high
mains voltage peaks.
- Inrush current limitation.
Um Im Im Im
without filter with filter with filter

or
t t t t

Fig. 45 Mains voltage and mains current, the latter without

and with low-pass filter.

The low-pass filter is fully electronic (HF-P, HF-B, HF-R).

The different functions (low-pass filter, RFI suppression,
inrush limiter and transient limiter) are separated
(see Fig. 46).
The advantages of the fully electro-nic version compared
with the older ‘split’ version with a separate filter coil,
include: it is smaller, lighter, has a high power factor, the
light output is independent of mains-voltage fluctuations,
and there is no 50 Hz hum.

mains mains transient inrush up-converter buffer half bridge

filter limiter limiter capacitor lamp circuit
rectifier

start/stop
circuit

Fig. 46 Fully electronic and integrated low-pass filter.

The rectifier consists of a full diode bridge.The buffer

capacitor in principle determines the shape of the lamp
current and the mains current. It has to be chosen
carefully in order to minimise the modulation in the lamp
current (and thus the modulation in the light output).
With a 'high' capacitor value the modulation in the light
output is less than with a 'low' capacitor value, but the
mains current waveform is more distorted (less
sinusoidal), resulting in higher harmonic distortion
(see Fig. 47).
Furthermore, the level of the inrush current depends on
the value of this buffer capacitor.
The HF power oscillator is the heart of the electronic
ballast. Controlled by the ballast controller the
semiconductor switches S1 and S2 (Fig. 44) are switched
at a frequency ranging from 30 to 100 kHz, so creating an
HF square-wave voltage between the points 1 and 2.
The frequency is regulated by the ballast controller.
The controller contains all necessary sensors and
intelligence to manage the mains input and lamp output
functions of the electronic ballast, such as the preheating
process, lamp power, stop circuit or safety switch-off,
mains voltage fluctuations and mains frequency variations
and sometimes over-voltage detection.
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4.

Im UDC Il L

AC DC
Umains C lamp
DC AC

rectifier buffer capacitor HF generator

Im Ila

Celco high

t t

Im Ila

Celco low

t t

Fig. 47 Circuit with rectifier, energy buffer and HF generator.

The curves show the lamp and mains current at high and low
capacitance of the energy buffer for a typical CFL lamp.

The HF square-wave voltage is fed to the series

connection of the lamp and the HF choke coil L
(stabilisation coil). In the twin-lamp parallel version both
lamp branches are connected in parallel with a choke coil
for each lamp (Fig. 44). In the twin-lamp series version
and in the single-lamp version, there is only one branch
between the points 1 and 2 with one choke coil
(see Fig. 48).

C1
L
1
La La

C2

C1 < C2

Fig. 48 Twin-lamp series version with only one branch between

the points 1 and 2 with one choke coil.

Capacitors connected in parallel to the lamps are

necessary for, among other things, the preheating and
starting process: during preheating the current flows
through the lamp electrodes and through these parallel
capacitors.

4.1.3 Choice of frequency

As described in Section 3.4 the operating frequency
should be above 10 kHz for ‘TL’D lamps to obtain 10 per
cent more efficacy, compared with the 50 Hz operation,
and above 20 kHz to be above the human threshold of
audibility. On the other hand, it should be below
approximately 100 kHz to limit the losses in the ferrite
coils and transistors.

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4.

Apart from these considerations there is a third factor to

be considered: like all lamps, fluorescent lamps emit not
only visible light, but also have a variable amount of
infrared emission. Modulated in a high frequency, this can
disturb infrared remote controls as used for television
sets, audio, video, transmission systems and data
communication.The lowest practical frequency for these
systems is found in the RC5 system, working on 36 kHz.
So the operating frequency for HF fluorescent lamps
should not be 18 kHz or 36 kHz. Nowadays the
frequency range from 30 kHz to 40 kHz is more or less
reserved for IR systems. It is for this reason that various
operating frequencies have been chosen for the newer
generation of HF ballasts: an operating frequency of about
45 kHz was chosen for the HF-B types, for the PL*E/C
system because the distance between lamp and ballast is
normally short, and for the HF-R types to create a wide
frequency band for dimming purposes (42-90 kHz).
On the other hand, one of the reasons for using an
operating frequency of 24-31 kHz for HF-P ballasts is to
minimise influences on EMC and to achieve maximum
lamp cable capacities (see Sections 2.3 and 4.1.19).
The e-Matchbox operates at about 28 kHz.

4.1.4 Ignition and re-ignition

As described in Sections 3.3 and 3.4 a fluorescent lamp
with cold cathodes needs up to an ignition peak voltage
of more than 800 V r.m.s. depending on the lamp type,
which means 1500 V top value. Due to this cold starting
process emitter material will sputter away from the lamp
electrodes. Frequent switching will thus result in a
noticeably shorter lifetime. Another possibility is to bring
the lamp electrodes up to their emission temperature
before ignition by means of preheating.This is done by
applying a frequency different from the operating
frequency (normally higher) to the LC starting circuit for
about 1.4 second to ensure a low open circuit voltage
during the preheat phase (approx. 250 V) and a
sufficiently high preheat current (see Figs 49 and 50).
ignition voltage

cold start
preheated start
60
20

40
0
0
-2

ambient temp. (˚C)

Fig. 49 Required ignition voltage as a function of the ambient

temperature with preheated and non-preheated electrodes.

After the preheat time, a voltage of approx. 500 V

(depending on the lamp type) is applied, again by changing
the frequency, sufficient for reliable ignition during a
maximum of approx. 0.2 second.The lamp ignites at the
first ignition peaks and then the ignition voltage stops.
After the preheat and ignition phase, the lamp gets its
normal operating voltage (between approximately 50 V
and 200 V, depending on the lamp type).
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4.

Fig. 50 Open-circuit voltage of an HF ballast.

There are two ways of preheating:

- current preheating, with a more or less constant
current through the cathodes in the HF-P
- voltage preheating, with a voltage depending on the
actual working frequency (viz. dim level) for the HF-R
where the cathode current is higher at lower dimming
levels.
Due to this warm start, the lifetime of the lamps is not
so much dependent upon the switching cycle as
compared with the cold start method and conventional
gear.
At the moment of ignition, the energy in the LC circuit is
high enough to transfer the initial glow discharge into the
stable burning discharge. After ignition the electronic
ballast adopts its normal operating frequency.
No extra voltage is necessary for re-ignition at this
working frequency, as the plasma in the discharge remains
conductive at this high frequency.

L
P

L1 L2

C
HF

La La

Fig. 51 Ignition with a twin-lamp HF ballast.

Ignition of a twin lamp ballast works on the same

principle: in the preheat phase the voltage at point P
(Fig. 51) is 300 V. In the ignition phase, this voltage will be
500 V, giving the required ignition voltage for both lamps.
Once one lamp is ignited, the voltage at point P changes
to 300 V, which is divided into 100 V for the lamp and
200 V for the transformer coil L1.

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4.

As transformer coil L2 is wound in the opposite

direction, the open voltage for lamp 2 is still
300 + 200 = 500 V until the second lamp ignites as well.

The run-up time of fluorescent lamps is very short, as the

lamps get their nominal lamp voltage almost immediately.
But with the amalgam lamps (CFL, PL-T) it takes a few
minutes before the amalgam is warmed up sufficiently to
evaporate the amount of mercury necessary for the full
light output. It can also take a few minutes for the lamp
tube to reach its optimum temperature (see Section 3.6:
Effects of temperature).

All HF ballasts have an automatic stop circuit. Should a

lamp fail to ignite at the first attempt (for example at the
end of its lifetime), the electronics switch off the ballast
after about 5 s. In this way, the so-called anomalous
condition that can be found with starter circuits is
avoided, resulting in:
- after the switch-off, system losses of only 1 W
- no annoying flashes of the non-starting lamp or heating-
up of the lamp caps
- no unnecessary radio interference.

After having replaced the lamp, most ballasts (exception:

e-Kyoto) are immediately ready for operation again and
the lamp starts without having to reset the mains
(switching the mains supply off and on again).This means
that lamp replacement can be done while the mains
power remains on. Although not recommen-ded, this is
often done in practice.

Should the lamp extinguish as a result of an interruption

or dip in the mains voltage, instant re-ignition is
guaranteed as soon as the voltage returns.

With the twin-lamp ballasts, the stop circuit switches off

both lamps when one lamp fails or when either is not
connected to the ballast.This is because the ballast
control system is comparing both lamp currents and
must them make them equal in stable operation. If one of
the currents is zero after the ignition phase, the other
will become zero as well.
Sometimes so-called 'independent lamp operation' is
offered with twin-lamp ballasts.This feature suggests that
if, in a twin-lamp system, one of the lamps should fail, the
other one will continue to operate. However, with many
such twin-ballasts this is only true as long as the system
is not switched off. Once the mains is switched off, the
intact lamp will fail to ignite at subsequent switch on.
There are some special twin-ballasts available that do
offer such independent operation, but these are also
special as regards their (higher) price. In spite of this, this
independent operation will be the trend for the future.
The HF-P 418 TLD and HF-P 414 TL5 four-lamp ballast
contains two parallel circuits of two lamps. Should one
lamp fail, the other lamp of the same branch will be
switched, but the second branch will continue to work.
The HF-P 318 TLD and HF-P 314 TL5 three-lamp ballast
is built up from one single-lamp circuit and a twin-lamp
circuit. If the single lamp fails, the second branch is not
affected. If one of the two lamps in the twin-lamp circuit
fails, the single lamp is not affected.
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4.

4.1.5 Ballast types

The family of electronic ballasts can be divided up in
various ways:
1. One, two, three or four-lamp versions
2. Fully electronic or with separate filter coil (old)
3. Integrated with lamp (CFL) or stand-alone
4. Standard or regulating (see Section 4.2)
5.Warm start (HF-P, HF-R) or cold start
(HF-Basic, e-Matchbox, e-Kyoto).

The current Philips range consists of:

a) HF-Regulator with α-control for dimmable applications.
The energy savings are maximised when dimmed; the
lamps exhibit stable burning in every dimming position;
and the lamp life is unaffected by dimming position.
b) HF-Performer with a smart-power IC, which keeps the
lamp power constant over a wide range of mains
voltages.The HF-Performer Ultra is a multi-wattage
version (4 ballast types for 14 PL lamp types) for a
wide voltage range (120-277V /50-60Hz).
HF-Performer for TL5 lamps is equipped with an
electrode-heating cut-off circuit, ensuring optimal lamp
operation with respect to the lumen output curve of
lamp and reduction in system energy losses.
c) HF-Basic for the most economical solution with all
features for applications with infrequent switching.
d) e-Matchbox for minimal dimensions for 25 W
maximum.
e) e-Kyoto as a low-specification solution for 1 and
2-lamp ‘TL’D 36 or 58 W.

4.1.6 Cut-off principle

The cut-off principle minimises the current through the
lamp electrodes shortly after the lamp is ignited. Not
only does this save energy, it also lowers the temperature
at the lamp ends.The standard TL-D lamp is optimised
for a tube wall temperature of 40 ˚C, which is reached at
an ambient temperature in the luminaire of 200 to 25 ˚C.
The cold spot is in the middle of the lamp (see Fig. 52
and Section 3.6).The TL5, however, is developed to
function in smaller luminaires at an higher wall
temperature of 45 ˚C, which should be reached at an
ambient temperature in the luminaire of 35 ˚C.
The cold spot is at one end of the lamp.Without cut-off
(see Fig. 53), this cold spot would become too warm,
meaning that the lamp would function optimally at an
ambient temperature of 27 ˚C.
With cut-off (Fig. 53), the optimum is reached at an
ambient temperature of 35 ˚C (see Fig. 54).

cold spot

‘TL ’ D lamp

cold spot(lamp stamp side)

TL5 lamp

Fig. 52 Cold spot of ‘TL’D and TL5 lamp.

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4.

B
L Ilamp

Iheat C
Dependent on lamp voltage and lamp current

Iheat

Ilamp
L
B
Independent of lamp voltage, dependent on lamp current

Fig. 53 Cut-off principle

Φ (%)

0
10
80

phi rel. at 35˚C,

with cut-off
60

phi rel. at 27˚C,

without cut-off
40
20
0

40
10

20

50
30
0

t ambient (˚C)
Fig. 54 Luminous flux with TL5 and HF-P ballast with and
without cut-off.

4.1.7 Harmonic distortion

Due to the rectification that takes place and the presence
of a buffer capacitor, the mains current is temporarily
zero and has a peak waveform (see Fig. 55). According to
Fourier's law, the peak waveform can be split up in the
fundamental and its higher harmonic components.
The frequency spectrum can be measured by a spectrum
analyser (see Fig. 56). Assuming the fundamental to be
100 per cent, the higher harmonics can be expressed as a
percentage of the fundamental. International standards
such as IEC 555-2 and EN 61000-3-2 restrict the amount
of higher harmonics in the mains current for lamp circuits
of more than 25 W.
For the example of the PL*E/C lamp the following results
are obtained:

Harmonics In,eff In,eff / I1,eff IEC requirement

Number Frequency (Hz) ( mA ) (%) (%)
1 50 96 100 100
2 100 0 0 2
3 150 89 92 30 . λ
5 250 74 77 10
7 350 57 59 7
9 450 40 41 5
≥11 550 25 26 3

where λ = the power factor of the circuit.

Due to the circuitry, only the odd harmonics are present
in the mains current.
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4.

^ UDC= 285V
I= 0.7A

Vbuffer capacitor
Vm
Im

t1= 2ms

t (2ms/div)

Fig. 55 Voltage and current shapes with a double-sided

rectifier.
%
0
10
50 0
0

1
5
0. frequency (kHz)
Fig. 56 Frequency spectrum of the mains current for a
PL*E/C lamp

Comparing the results with the requirements, it can be

seen that the limits are exceeded.This is due to the
absence of the mains filter. For the PL*E/C lamp (and the
e-Matchbox), this is acceptable, as the total system power
is less than 25 W.

To adjust to the stated requirements for the maximum

amount of higher harmonics, the circuit current has to be
filtered.This can be achieved by a low-pass filter, which
may consist either of a copper-iron coil or a fully
electronic circuit.
All Philips HF ballasts (except for the PL*E/C and the
e-Matchbox versions) have such a low-pass filter and are
therefore designed in accordance with the regulations
laid down in the IEC standards.

The electronic ballast system gives the following

indicative values:
Harmonics In eff / I1 eff (%)
Number HF-P 128 TLD HF-P 258 TLD HF-R 258 TLD
1 100 100 100
3 7 6.5 10
5 2.5 2 2
7 2 2 2
9 1.5 1.5 1
≥ 11 1.5 1 1
THD (%) 8 7.5 12

In this case the harmonics are well within the limits.

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4.

The term THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) is defined as:

THD = √ n=∞Σ
2
( ln )
I1
2
=
√ 122+ 132+142+...
112

which means the root mean square of the sum of all the
higher harmonics divided by the fundamental. It can be
calculated from the values obtained by the spectrum
analyser, and for the PL*E/C lamp example this value is
1.44 (= 144 %). Nowadays, even with very simple hand-
held instruments, this value can be measured very
accurately.

For compliance with the standards the measurements of

the higher harmonics are made with a supply voltage with
a THD maximum of 2 %. In practice, however, the THD of
the supply voltage can be much higher. According to the
EN standard 50160 "Voltage characteristics of electricity
supplied by public distribution systems" of November
1999 the maximum permitted THD for the supply voltage
is 8 % for 95 % of the time with:

Odd harmonics Even harmonics

Not multiples of 3 Multiples of 3
Order Relative Order Relative Order Relative
h voltage (%) h voltage (%) h voltage (%)
5 6 3 5 2 2
7 5 9 1.5 4 1
11 3.5 15 0.5 6-24 0.5
13 3 21 0.5
17 2
19-25 1.5

This means that in practice the values for the harmonics

in the supply current can be higher than the published
values.The actual values then greatly depend on the
harmonics present in the supply voltage. No problem
should be expected when the THD of the supply voltage
complies with the mentioned IEC 50160.

4.1.8 Power factor

In present-day publications the term power factor λ or
P.F. is employed and 'cos ϕ' is no longer used.
The phase angle between the fundamental wave of the
mains voltage and the fundamental of the mains current is
called ϕ.This angle can be calculated or measured, and in
the case of HF ballast circuits is nearly zero degrees
(see Fig. 57), so extra compensation with compensating
capacitors, as is the case in the conventional circuits, is
not necessary.

voltage

current

Fig. 57 The near-zero phase angle in an HF ballast circuit.

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4.

In practice, most supply voltage waveforms approach the

sine wave shape rather well. In that case, the dissipated
power is:

P = Ueff . I1,eff. cos ϕ

with I1,eff = the fundamental component of the mains

current.

This means that the dissipated power is determined only

by the fundamental of the mains current.
Higher harmonics of the mains current do not play a role
for the lamp and ballast power, but they do contribute to
the power losses in the cabling and thus influence the
minimum diameter of the cable needed in the electrical
installation.
If the mains voltage is not a pure sine wave, additional
power will be dissipated in the lamp and the ballast.
In practice, the cosine of the angle ϕ is between 1 and
0.93 capacitive for HF lamp circuits.

The power factor of the circuit is the quotient of the

actual consumed power and the product of the values of
the mains voltage and mains current (r.m.s. values):

P.F. or λ = total wattage / mains voltage x mains current.

With RMS equipment these values can be measured very

well.

The power factor is determined by:

- the phase angle ϕ
- the distortion of mains voltage and mains current.

If the mains voltage has a good sine wave (little or no

distortion), the power factor will depend only on the
harmonics in the mains current, according to the
following formula:

P.F. = cos ϕ / √[1 + THD2]

where THD stands for Total Harmonic Distortion of the

mains current (see former section).
This means that circuits having a different cos j can have
the same power factor:
1. In a conventional circuit without parallel compensation
the mains current is virtually sinusoidal (THD = 0.1),
but the phase shift between mains voltage and mains
current is about 60 electrical degrees
(see Section 5.3.4), resulting in cos ϕ = 0.5 and a
power factor of 0.5.
2. In the electronic PL*E/C circuit the phase shift is nearly
zero (cos ϕ = 1), but there are a lot of
harmonics in the mains current, giving a THD value of
about 1.44 (or 144 per cent), which results in a power
factor of 0.57.

The energy suppliers have to deliver to the circuit an

apparent power of:

S = Vmains . Imains

but they only get paid for the average power

P = λ .Vmains . Imains.

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4.

The electrical distribution system (cabling, transformers)

must be capable of handling a current of Imains instead of
a current of Imains . P.F.
This calls for thicker cabling and heavier transformers and
introduces higher distribution losses.The supply
authorities therefore demand compensation of the phase
shift and limitation of the harmonic distortion by
requiring a power factor of 0.85 or more for lamp circuit
powers of 25 W and more.The power factor of
H.F. ballasts is >0.95 , but leading.

4.1.9 Inrush current

The current that flows during the very first few
milliseconds when switching on a luminaire or an entire
lighting installation is called the inrush current.
This current is very important when making the right
choice of switchgear and fusing, e.g. circuit breakers.
The inrush current is determined in part by the circuitry
in use and in part by the properties of the mains supply,
viz. the mains-supply impedance and the supply-cable
resistance.The moment of switching in relation to the
sine wave of the supply voltage also determines the value
of the inrush current.The highest inrush current is when
the ballast is connected to the mains at the peak of the
mains voltage.

I (%)

HF
ballast 0
10
L1

inrush (10 - 35Amp)

C1
mains La
50
.
m
no

AC/DC
0

converter
3
0.

ms

I (%)
conventional (3.5 - 12Amp)
ballast
L2
0
10

inrush

C2
mains La
50
.
m
no

cos ϕ
correction
0

ms

Fig. 58 The inrush current of an HF ballast compared with

that of a conventional ballast.

With the introduction of HF ballast systems the effect of

the inrush current became more important.There are
two reasons for this:
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4.

1. Due to the electronics employed, more HF ballasts will

switch on at the same instant, which adds to the value
of the individual inrush currents to be supplied by the
mains. Conventional ballasts switch on at random,
avoiding this phenomenon.
2. For the same lamp wattage, the inrush-current pulse of
an HF ballast is in principle higher and narrower than
that of a conventional ballast (see Fig. 58).With an
HF ballast, the inrush current loads the buffer capacitor
C1, while in the conventional case the parallel
compensating capacitor C2 is loaded.
The value of C2 is lower than that of C1, which
explains the trend of the currents. Compare, for
example, the values for a 36 W 'TL'D lamp:
conventional C2 = 3.6 µF, HF ballast C1 = 10 µF.
For the typical current/time curves of Fig. 58 we assume
that the inductance of L1 equals that of L2. As a result,
the I2t value of HF ballasts is higher than with
conventional ballasts.

The inrush current can trigger Mains Circuit Breakers

(MCBs), fuses or relays (as used in control systems) when
the inrush currents peak in the hatched part of Fig. 59.
According to the graphs, the maximum current of relay
contacts is lower than that of MCBs (where the inrush
current is sensed by a coil).When the coil of an MCB
trips because the inrush current exceeds a maximum
level, the main contacts (which are normally quite heavy,
since they are so constructed as to be capable of
switching off the current caused by short-circuiting)
switch off, which explains the different behaviour with
respect to normal relays.

M.C.B. out of spec.

16 A

mains
M.C.B.

I
switch or relay
out of spec.
16 A

slow
relay

16 A

slow
handswitch
t

Fig. 59 Inrush currents may trigger MCBs, fuses or relays

when they peak in the hatched part of the curves.

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4.

With the fully-electronic filter, the maximum inrush

current is reached when the mains voltage is at its
maximum value at the moment of switching on.The
maximum value can be as much as 200 times the nominal
mains current value, depending on the properties of the
mains and RFI filter (see next section). Details for the
various ballast types can be found in the product data
sheets or can be provided on request.

4.1.10 Circuit breakers and fusing

The main purpose of protection devices such as mains or
micro circuit breakers (MCBs) and fuses is to protect the
cabling and the distribution part of the lighting installation
from damage in the case of a failure or overload in the
system.The rating of the protection devices is therefore
primarily related to the cable core used in the
installation, following the various national and
international safety standards. In lighting installations, the
commonly used MCBs and fuses have a rating of 10 A or
16 A. It will be evident that a 16 A device can handle a
1.6 higher load than can a 10 A device.

To prevent undesirable tripping of the MCB or the fuse

from blowing, two criteria normally have to be taken into
account:
- the maximum current during switching on or off in the
part of the lighting installation that is protected by the
MCB or fuse,
- the total nominal operating current during stable
operation.
If the installation contains luminaires with electronic
ballasts, the prime criterion for determining the
maximum load for an MCB is the inrush current.
The switching characteristics of the various MCB types
are laid down in recommendations such as CEE-19-2nd
edition (see also Section 5.3.18).
An MCB consists of two over-current detectors, namely
a temperature-dependent device (very slow) and a
magnetic-current dependent device (very fast).
This magnetic part is sensitive to the inrush current.
The printed information on the MCB (e.g. B 16 A) gives
the trip information for overload during longer times.
The published graphs for trip current and time are
normally valid for waveforms from 50 to 200 Hz. But the
frequency of the inrush currents is more than 1000 Hz,
so the documentation of the MCB manufacturer is not
enough to determine the maximum permitted number of
HF ballasts.The exact numbers given in the datasheets
are verified by actual measurements.
The different types of MCBs can handle different loads
according to the table below:

Circuit breaker type Relative number of ballasts

compared with B - 16A (%)
B - 10 A 63
B - 16 A 100
C - 10 A 104
C - 16 A 170
L /I - 10 A 65
L/I - 16 A 108
G/U/II - 10 A 127
G/U/II - 16 A 212
K/III - 10 A 154
K/III - 16 A 254
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4.

The maximum number of ballasts that can be connected

to an MCB thus depends on the MCB type and on the
inrush current of the electronic ballast.
Details can be found on the ballast data sheets and can
be provided on request by the local Philips Lighting
organisation.

For example, on a C16A circuit breaker the maximum

permitted number of ballasts type HF-P 258 TLD is 20.
The mains current per ballast is only 0.48 A, so the MCB
C16A is loaded with 9.6 A and about 2220 W.
However, the 1/2 -value time of the total inrush current is
about 520 A, measured with the typical mains impedance
of 400 mΩ.This is equal to 15 m of 2.5 mm2 cable and
another 20 m to the middle of the power distribution
under worst-case conditions.With a mains impedance of
800 mΩ the number of ballasts can be increased by
10 per cent.
Note that the maximum number of ballasts is given when
these are all switched on at the same moment, e.g. by a
wall switch.
The figures given for the maximum number of ballasts are
for single-pole MCBs. For multi-pole MCBs it is advisable
to reduce the numbers by 20 per cent.
If it is necessary to connect more than the allowed
number of ballasts to one MCB, an inrush-current limiter
is recommended (e.g. Busch-Jaeger type 6515).
Alternatively, the TRIOS LRC1010 can be added (useful
for max. 5 A load). So three TRIOS LRC1010s are needed
for full loading of a 16A MCB. Another solution is to
make use of the time delay of one or more AC relays
(see Fig. 60).The natural activating time of approximately
10 ms (depends on relay type) ensures that the peak
currents do not occur simultaneously.

load 1 load 2 load 3

Fig. 60 The use of time relays to enlarge the capacity of an

MCB.

4.1.11 Earth leakage

The use of a mains RFI filter causes a small leakage
current through the neutral conductor of the mains
supply (see Fig. 61). According to IEC 598, the maximum
value of this leakage current should be 0.5 mA for Class
0 and II and 1 mA for Class I luminaires.
The operation of an installation containing a number of
luminaires with electronic ballasts can become critical
when this installation is connected to an earth-leakage
switch.The total current passing through the neutral can
reach a level that is too close to the tripping current of
such a switch, also called Residual Current Detector
(RCD) or Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB).
In general, an RCD has a rating of 30 mA in which case
the number of electronic ballasts is restricted to 30.

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4.

residual current detector

(earth leakage switch)

filter

N
C C

Fig. 61 The use of a mains filter to suppress mains-voltage

disturbances, causing a small leakage current through the
neutral conductor.

If it is desired to use more than 30 ballasts in

combination with an RCD, this should be of a less
sensitive type, having a higher trip current.
In all cases, and for a correct functioning of the RCD,
the line and neutral conductors must be connected as
indicated on the ballast and luminaire.
Practice has shown that the employment of so-called
surge-proof short-time delay types is recommended,
e.g. BBC types F360 S or F370.
Not all ballasts have an earth-leakage current.
Some ballasts having a plastics housing, for example, and
so do not have a leakage current as they lack an earth
connection.
When three or four HF-Performer ballasts are used in a
Class I luminaire, the maximum earth-leakage current
may surpass the maximum allowed of 1.0 mA.
Reversing the mains and neutral connections on one or
two of the ballasts will cause the current to fall below
the maximum of 1.0 mA.

4.1.12 Electrical connections

In order to guarantee the correct operation of a
lamp/ballast system, the electrical connections to be
made are marked with identifiable symbols. In some
cases, colours are used to identify the correct
connections.The wiring diagram has to be strictly
followed, especially in HF systems.The wiring
configuration can be rather complex, e.g. multiple lamps,
multiple ballasts, emergency luminaire, master-slave, etc.,
so that a wrong connection may lead to failure to
operate, malfunctioning, or even unsafe situations.
The data sheets of the ballasts specify the nominal mains
current to be employed, but also give information about
the minimum and maximum cross-sectional areas to be
employed for the connectors. In most cases connectors
are used to ensure easy insertion of solid wires. Also
sometimes female connectors are used so that incorrect
connection is not possible when proper polarity is
necessary.

4.1.13 Internal and external cabling

Apart from what has been written in the safety standards
for luminaires to guarantee a safe product (EN 60598
series), the cabling too may be of importance for the
correct operation of the lamp/ballast system.
With respect to radio interference (EMC), some remarks
are made in Section 2.3.4: Luminaire design. Some general
information on electric wiring can also be found in
Section 5.3.14: Electrical wiring.
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4.

The wires connected to the input side of the electronic

ballast may not be bundled together with the wires
connected to the output side.
When indicated in the ballast data sheet, also the
maximum length and the capacity of the cables to the
lamp should also be adhered to.
For economic reasons, it is sometimes desirable to
operate two single-lamp luminaires from one two-lamp
ballast (master-slave configuration, see Fig. 62).

HF ballast

Fig. 62 Master-slave configuration with one ballast operating

two luminaires.

Apart from the four cables for the lamp in the slave
luminaire, a good metal-to-metal connection between the
master and the slave luminaire is necessary. In order to
maintain the benefits of the HF system with regard to
ignition, radio interference and lumen output of both
lamps, it is recommended that the distance 'D' of the
cable length between the master and the slave luminaire
not be exceeded (see accompanying table and Fig. 63).
At this spot the internal wiring becomes external over a
certain length.The cable connecting the master luminaire
with the slave luminaire should not be of the shielded
type.

1
La La
2
3
HF 4
ballast
5
6
7

master luminaire D slave luminaire

Fig. 63 Limited cable length between master and slave.

HF and master-slave wiring length (see Fig. 63)

Max.capacity between:
Ballast type D L Lamp Lamp wires
wires and earth
HF-B TLD <1m <3m 120 pF 120 pF
HF-P TLD <1m <3m 200 pF 200 pF
HF-P TL5 < 0.1 m <2m 100 pF 200 pF
HF-R TLD/TL5 < 0.1 m <2m 60 pF 150 pF

Light regulating ballasts are equipped with control wires.

Due to the maximum current-carrying capacity of these
wires of only 0.15 mA, the length and the diameter of the
wires must be dimensioned so as to prevent a voltage
drop of more than 0.5 V.

Due to the internal circuitry of the ballasts, some lamp

connections are critical for the lamp performance and
EMC behaviour.These so-called hot points always
must have the shortest lamp wires and should be of
equal length.

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4.

Also, in multi-lamp luminaires, the hot wires should be of

equal length to avoid variation in lumen output between
the lamps.The hot points are not marked on the ballast
separately, but they can easily be found: on the ballast
connection diagram the hot points are those terminals
that have the shortest lamp wiring drawn. Correct wiring
is essential for correct functioning.
Installation rules in most countries do not permit the
routing of mains wiring and other wiring (e.g. control
wiring, telecommunication wiring) together in the same
cable ducts.The main reasons for this are the need to
obtain optimum safety and to prevent disturbances and
faulty connections.

4.1.14 Lifetime
The overall lifetime of an electronic ballast is determined
by the lifetime of each individual component employed in
the ballast and the effect of voltage, current and
temperature occurring.The lifetime of an individual
component is mainly dependent upon the quality of the
material employed in manufacture and the manufacturing
process. Usually, each component is checked not only for
proper functioning immediately after manufacture, but
also in use.Typical for electronic components is that if
they have defects, these will show up in the early hours
of operation. After this so-called burn-in period failures
will only very seldom occur.
Philips electronic ballasts undergo a burn-in period for a
specified period before leaving the factory.The purpose
of this is to reduce the chances of early failures in an
installation as much as possible.

In order to control the failure rate of a complete ballast,

the method of calculating the Mean Time Between
Failures (MTBF) is adopted.This takes into account the
MTBF of all the individual components.The failure rate is
1 divided by the MTBF.
Since the maximum temperature within a luminaire is
very important for the lifetime of a ballast, the
calculations are normally based on a temperature of
65 ˚C at a defined spot on the ballast enclosure.
The quality of the design and of the components must
result in a certain specified calculated failure rate.
For most electronic ballasts this is set to 1 per cent at
5000 hours.
According to the equation:

R t = e -λt or ln R t = -λt

where R t = remaining ballasts after the time t, and

λ = the failure rate 1 %/5000h = 0.20 .10-5 , it is found
that 36.7 per cent of the ballasts are still operational
after 500 000 h, or 50 per cent after 346 000 h.
The 10 per cent failure rate is reached after 52 680 h.
The temperature dependence of the failure rate can also
be calculated. For most electronic ballasts this gives the
following figures:

Test-point temperature (˚C) Failure rate (% per 1000h)

HF/B-P-R e-Kyoto e-Matchbox
55 0.15 0.20 0.30
65 0.20 0.28 0.40
75 0.30 0.43 0.60
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4.

surviving ballasts (%)

tc = 65˚C

0
10
tc = 75˚C

80
60
40
20
0
50 000 for HF-B/P/R 100 000 for HF-B/P/R
35 000 for e-Kyoto 70 000 for e-Kyoto
25 000 for e-Matchbox 50 000 for e-Matchbox

t (hrs)
Fig. 64 Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF).

These calculated figures are verified by lifetime tests for

the various ballasts (see Fig. 64).
One of the reasons for the increase in the failure rate at
higher temperatures is the temperature dependency of
capacitors employed, especially the electrolytic buffer
capacitor.
In order to verify the outcome of calculations, lifetime
tests are continuously carried out on batches of ballasts.
It is found that during a long period after the burn-in
period the lifetime of the ballasts is in accordance with
the calculated failure rate. But after this long period, the
failure rate then increases very rapidly, ultimately resulting
in the end of the lifetime of the batch of ballasts
(see Fig. 65).There are two major reasons for this
phenomenon: drying up of the liquid of the electrolytic
capacitors, and degradation of the soldered contacts.
The soldered contacts are specified to have a lifetime of
2500 to 3000 switches in the temperature-change test of
-20 ˚ to +100 ˚C.This wide temperature range of
120 degrees will not be found in practice; temperatures
between + 20 ˚ and + 60 ˚C (a range of 40 degrees) are
more likely.

surviving ballasts (%)

0
10

factory

average service life

50

constant failure rate

0

0
0

00
10

50

t (hrs)
Fig. 65 Lifetime curve of electronic ballasts, showing rapidly
increasing failure rate after a certain period.

The actual switching lifetime can be calculated from the

following equation:

Nswitch = 2500 x (120 / practical temperature range)2.

So in the example:
N = 2500 x (120/40)2 = 2500 . 9 = 22 500 times.

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4.

Supposing the average burning time of the fluorescent

lamps is 2 hours, this would result in a lifetime of the
complete ballast of 2 x 22500 = 45 000 hours.

surviving ballasts (%)

0
10
80
60
40
20
0
50 000 for HF-B/P/R 100 000 for HF-B/P/R
35 000 for e-Kyoto 70 000 for e-Kyoto
25 000 for e-Matchbox 50 000 for e-Matchbox

t (hrs)

Fig. 66 Total of failure mechanisms.

The time after which 50 per cent of the ballasts have

failed is called the average service lifetime. For most
ballasts in normal operation, this average lifetime is
approximately 50 000 h at a fixed specified case
temperature (65 ˚C). A temperature increase of 10
degrees halves this average service lifetime (thus, 75 ˚C
gives 25 000 h), while 10 degrees lower doubles this
figure (55 ˚C gives 100 000 h).Taking into account the
various tolerances and spreading results in Fig. 66.

4.1.15 Effects of mains voltage fluctuations

The mains voltage to which a luminaire is connected is
never constant; it is influenced, for example, by the
switching on and off of other loads.Therefore, the voltage
level can only be guaranteed between minimum and
maximum tolerances.
Moreover, the nominal voltage can differ from country to
country. In the UK, for example, the nominal voltage is
240 V compared with 230 V for the rest of Western
Europe.
The nominal operating voltage of a ballast can be found in
the product data sheets. It may be a fixed value, as is the
case with conventional ballasts.
The present range of Philips HF ballasts is suitable for
voltages between 220 V and 240 V 50/60Hz.

With respect to voltage fluctuations, there are two

requirements:
1. A general safety requirement. No unsafe situation
should occur within the range V nominal ± 10 % (in
this regard attention should, for example, be paid to
lifetime, temperatures, voltages).
2. A performance requirement.The circuit must perform
within specified limits within the range V nominal - 8 %
to + 6 % (in this regard attention should, for example,
be paid to lumen output, currents, (re-) ignition).
And, again with respect to voltage fluctuations, the
electronic ballasts can be divided in two groups:
1. A group in which the circuit power, lumen output,
lamp current, etc. vary noticeably with fluctuations in
the mains voltage (see Fig. 67). Examples are the old
types BHF, BPL and the new types e-Matchbox and
e-Kyoto.
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4.

0
0

0
%

20

24
22

26
0 5
11 11
Pl
Φ

5
10
Il

0
10
η

95
90
85

0
85
90

0
95

5
10

11
10

11
Vm (%)

Fig. 67 Considerable influence of mains-voltage fluctuations on

lamp power (Pl), luminous flux (Φ ), efficacy (η ) and lamp
current (Il) with PL*E ballast.

2. A group based on the independent mains principle,

where the lamp power and lumen output hardly
change with variations in the mains voltage
(see Fig. 68). Examples are the present ballasts HF-P,
HF-B and HF-R.
It must be kept in mind that with the independent mains
principle (sometimes also called constant-wattage) the
mains current will rise with decrease in mains voltage.

Φl (%)

102

101

200 210 100

220 230 240 Vm (V)
99

98

Fig. 68 Constant-wattage ballasts (e.g. HF-R). For a given

mains voltage variation between 200 V and 240 V, the light
output remains constant (tolerance ± 2 %).

All ballasts can withstand a certain over-voltage for a

specified time, for example 380 V for 5 minutes. See for
this point the product data sheets.
Moreover, some electronic ballasts have an over-voltage
detection.When the mains voltage rises above a certain
value (usually 280 V r.m.s.), perhaps, due to a fault in the
installation or a mistake in a testing procedure, the lamps
are switched off.This switch-off feature provides a clear
indication that the installation is not functioning properly
and that corrective action is necessary.The lamps remain
off until the unduly high mains voltage is corrected and
the ballast is reset. Resetting must be done by switching
off the mains supply to the ballast. After the ballast has
switched off the lamps (in case of over-voltage), the high
mains voltage is still connected to the input circuit. It is
therefore essential that corrective action be taken
immediately.
Additional information can be found in the specific
product data sheets.

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4.

spikes RFI

sags

short
interruptions
frequency
variations transients

Fig. 69 Different types of mains-voltage disturbances.

Transients and dips

The mains supply voltage can be disturbed in many ways,

see Figs 69 and 70.
Disturbances of short duration, especially, can cause an
interruption of the light output. Example, quoted from
IEC 1000-2-2:5:
'At present as an approximate guide, it can be stated that
an individual consumer in a town may suffer on average
one to four times a month from voltage dips which
exceed 10 % of the nominal supply voltage and which are
due to causes outside his premises.The duration of these
voltage dips is usually between 60 ms and 3 s, but
durations of around 10 ms are possible mainly when
faults are eliminated by fuses.’
In rural areas, generally supplied by overhead lines, the
voltage dips are much more frequent, but no useful
estimates of the rates of occurrence of such dips are
available.
V nom. (%)
0
30

transient

swell overvoltage
0
20

accepted
0
10

working range

notch sag undervoltage

0

1 µs 100 µs 10 ms 1s 100 s 3 hr

t
Fig. 70 Effects and duration of mains-voltage deviations.

Peaks or transients can also damage the electronic

ballast.There are several old, new or revised
recommendations and standards covering this subject.To
comply with the latest norms, Philips ballasts are, or will
be, designed according to the latest norm IEC 1547
(draft): Equipment for general lighting purposes - EMC
immunity requirements.
This ensures a very good immunity to the most common
mains-supply distortions.

4.1.16 Ambient and operating temperatures

The temperature dependence of the various lamps has
been described in Section 3.6.The behaviour of the total
lighting system (viz. lamp, ballast, luminaire, wiring,
mounting and supply voltage) with change in temperature
is mainly based on the temperature of the lamp in the
actual situation.
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4.

In general, the specifications of electrical components are

not valid under -15 ˚C/ -25 ˚C, so below these
temperatures there is no guarantee for proper
functioning of the ballasts.

The ambient temperature range for the HF ballasts in the

compact PL*E lamps is from -20 ˚ to +55 ˚C. Mounted in
a luminaire, the hottest spot should be below 100 ˚C
(see Section 3.6 and relevant product information).
The ambient temperature range of 'TL' and PL-L HF
ballasts is indicated on the ballast with the letter ta and
ranges from -15 ˚/200 to + 50 ˚/70 ˚C. Due to the low
watt losses in the HF ballasts, the temperature rise ∆t of
the ballast itself is limited to a maximum of approximately
15 degrees. Exceptions are, however, possible.

An electronic ballast is usually built into a luminaire,

so the ambient temperature around the ballast cannot be
predicted exactly. A test point, tc , is therefore defined on
the outside of the ballast enclosure, for which a
maximum permitted temperature is specified for.
This is normally 75 ˚C.The test point will reach this
temperature when the ambient temperature around the
ballast is 50 ˚-60 ˚C, depending on the type of ballast.
As long as the temperature of the test point remains
below the specified maximum, the components will not
be subjected to temperature overload.

The tc value is built up as follows:

Room temperature (e.g. 25 ˚C) plus temperature rise in
the luminaire (e.g. 25 ˚C) equals ambient temperature for
the ballast (50 ˚C in this case). Ambient temperature plus
temperature rise of the ballast itself (e.g. 15 ˚C) gives
tc = 50 ˚ + 15 ˚ = 65 ˚C.
From this it follows that the room temperature directly
influences the test-point temperature.The temperature
rise of the air in the luminaire has to be measured.
Variations of 15 ˚C between a completely closed plastics
luminaire and an open (bare lamp) metal luminaire are
possible.
Also, the distance from the ceiling influences the cooling
properties of a luminaire, for example:

Distance to ceiling (cm) 0 1.25 2.5 5 10 15

Temperature drop (K) 0 1.5 6 14 20 22.5

As the enclosures of the electronic devices are often

made of thin metal or some type of plastics, the
measurement of the temperature at the test point must
be done very carefully.The use of a rather large test
finger, as supplied with some multimeters, will
undoubtedly indicate temperatures that are too low.
Measurements must be made by means of
thermocouples, which must be firmly glued to the surface
(and not, for instance, with adhesive tape).

The most common application of fluorescent ballasts is in

indoor installations.When employed in outdoor
installations, the luminaire must be of the closed type,
minimum classification IP54. In cold situations, especially,
striation may occur.
In order to avoid the negative influence of humidity on
ballast components and metal connections, special
lacquered ballasts are available.

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4.

4.1.17 Earthing
According to the basic wiring diagrams there are two
points that should be connected to earth:
the ballast enclosure and a 'strip' along the lamp.

1.The ballast enclosure

The ballast enclosure has to be connected to earth

potential with a view to safety aspects. Due to the high
operating frequency and the high starting voltage, the
metal housing can get statically loaded.The static charge
is in itself not dangerous, but contact with the charged
metal of the housing (for example while carrying out
lamp replacement) can cause an unpleasant jolt to the
senses, with possibly undesirable consequences.
The second reason for earthing the ballast housing is to
fulfil the RFI recommendations. A part of the mains
voltage is connected to the ballast housing through a
capacitor of the RFI filter (see Fig. 71).The RFI filter also
has the function of protecting the components of the
electronic ballast from, amongst other things, transients
(voltage peaks) in the mains voltage. Earthing is therefore
essential.
The final reason for earthing the ballast enclosure is to
obtain optimum safety at the end of the lifetime of the
ballast.

Fig. 71 Part of the mains voltage is connected to the ballast

housing via a capacitor of the RFI filter.

Earthing of the HF ballast is effected via the fixing screws

to the grounded mounting plate.Tooth-lock washers
should be used to ensure a good earth contact through
the paint or lacquer.

2. A 'strip' along the lamp

To ensure reliable ignition, especially at low temperatures,

and proper operation, especially with the dimming
ballasts, the lamps should be mounted at a certain
maximum distance from an earthed surface: 20 mm with
normal 'TL'D lamps, 6 mm with ‘TL’5 lamps and 12 mm
for PL-L lamps. In the case of a metal luminaire, the
earthed luminaire itself can serve this purpose. In the
case of a plastics luminaire, an additional metal strip with
a width of at least 1.5 times the lamp diameter covering
the entire length of the lamp, has to be incorporated.

In most applications the luminaires are of the electrical

safety class I variety, meaning they are provided with an
earth point (see Section 2.2). In that case there are no
problems.
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4.

Although not yet laid down internationally, the Philips

philosophy is not to use class 0 luminaires in combination
with HF ballasts.
When HF ballasts are built into class II luminaires, there
are two possibilities:

1.There is no earth terminal or earth connection.

In this case, connect the ballast housing (see point 1)
to the metal ignition strip (see point 2).

2.There is an earth contact, for the starting aid only, but

it is not connected to exposed metal parts. In this case,
do not earth the ballast housing.

To test the earthing and the electrical strength there are

two tests:

1.Testing the electrical strength of the ballast:

Connect all ballast inputs and outputs together and
connect 1500 V AC for 1 minute between this point
and earth (=ballast housing).

2.Testing the insulation of the wiring:

Connect 500 V DC (megger) between earth and
(one by one) the supply cables phase and neutral.

These tests can be done without any danger for the

electronic ballasts. But keep in mind that in the low-pass
filter, capacitors are connected between phase/neutral
and the earth point.This means that in the tests a small
current will flow (see also Fig. 71 and Section 4.1.2).
These tests must not be carried out on the dimming
inputs ‘+’ and ‘-’ of dimming ballasts, as such ballasts will
be harmed.

4.1.18 Fault finding

Often when a luminaire becomes inoperative, the cause is
not attributable to the ballast. It is therefore important to
examine all its components before removing the ballast
for replacement.The following procedure is
recommended:

1. First check that lamp type, ballast type and nominal

mains voltage are in accordance with the ballast
marking.
Then check the lamp-burning position.
Finally, look for evidence of moisture or excessive
heat.

2. Check the lamps and replace in case of:

- Blackening of the lamp ends,
- Broken lamp pins,
- Damaged lamp electrodes - these can be measured
with a standard ohmmeter: the resistance between
the two lamp pins at one lamp cap should be
between 1 and 50 Ω, depending on the lamp type.

3. Examine all lamp sockets for proper and positive

contact with the lamp pins. Possible defects:
- Improper seating of the lamp within the socket,
- Too great a socket spacing,
- Broken sockets.

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4.

4. Examine all connections within the luminaire for

conformance with the wiring instructions appearing on
the ballast.With the twin-lamp version in particular,
wiring faults can easily occur. Check that the wires are
properly stripped and that they are in accordance with
the specifications laid down in the ballast
documentation so that they make contact in the insert
connector.

5. Check the supply terminals and the earthing:

- Phase and neutral must be connected in the proper
way,
- The ballast housing and starting strip must be
connected to the earth terminal,
- The luminaire must be connected to the earth
terminal,
- Check the mains fuse (slow-acting type) or MCB,
- Check the mains supply for voltage and frequency.

When, in a multi-lamp luminaire, one lamp is switched off,

the other lamp(s) may be switched off too
(see Section 4.1.4). It is advisable to replace all the lamps
at the same time in a multi-lamp luminaire.
The HF ballast cannot be repaired. And in the interests of
safety it should not be opened. If, after observing the test
procedure described above, the luminaire is still not
functioning properly, the ballast will have to be replaced.
Due to the high operating frequency and high starting
currents, it is not possible to make electrical
measurements at the lamp side of the ballast with a
normal multi-meter.
Philips HF ballasts are equipped with a fuse at the input.
This fuse protects the power supply from a possible
short-circuit in the ballast and the ballast itself from over
heating. A blown fuse invariably indicates a defect in the
ballast.There is therefore no reason and no possibility to
replace this fuse. If it blows, the whole HF ballast will
have to be replaced.
Flow-charts for trouble-shooting are given below.
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4.

All HF ballasts
START
Mains supply is on

Remark: with 2-lamp ballast both lamps

stop when one lamp fails; with 3- or
Lamp(s) do not burn 4-lamp ballast one or two lamps continue
to burn when one lamp fails

Remove and re-insert

the lamp(s)

Lamp(s) burn Yes Possible cause:

poor contact

No

Exchange lamp(s)

Lamp(s) burn Yes Cause: defective

lamp(s)

No

Check mains voltage

at the ballast

Mains voltage No Check mains Lamp(s) burn Yes

OK wiring and fusing

Yes
No
Check ballast/lamp
wiring
and ballast/lamp type

Wiring/type No Change ballast Lamp(s) burn Yes

OK and/or wiring

Yes
No

Exchange ballast

Lamp(s) burn No Call local

support office

Yes

STOP

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4.

Extension for regulating ballasts

START START

Lamp(s) cannot be Lamp(s) always

dimmed dims

Short circuit dimming wiring Disconnect

between ballast and control dimming wiring at control
device at the control device device

Yes Lamp still dims Re-connect wiring

Lamp dims No with +/- reversed

No Change + and - of the Yes

control wires at the
control device
Short circuit Loosen dimming Dimming function Yes
dimming input on ballast wiring on ballast OK

Lamp dims Yes

Lamp dims Lamp still dims Yes

No

Exchange control No
device
No
No Yes Exchange ballast

Check and modify Check dimming wiring from

Exchange ballast Exchange control
wiring between ballast to control device on device
ballast and control correct +/- 10V DC voltage

Dimming function Yes Dimming function No Call local support

OK OK office

No
Yes

Call local support

office

STOP STOP
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4.

4.1.19 Installation aspects

Lamp wiring for 'TL'5 and PL-T circuits in luminaires

Introduction
Historically, lamp voltages (under normal conditions) for
'TL'D, PL-L and PL-C lamps have always been below
200 V. Lamp components and lamp wiring could have the
same voltage rating as normal mains voltage (< 250 V).
New, more efficient types of lamp such as 'TL'5 and PL-T
have lower lamp currents, but higher lamp voltages.
As a result, the 250 V rating for lamp wiring and
components is sometimes inadequate.
The impact of the step from 250 V-rated
components/wiring to higher voltage-rated (e.g. 500 V)
components/wiring is described below.

European harmonised wires

The European harmonized wiring is specified in the

Cenelec standard (HD 21.3.S2).
Commonly used wires are classified as H05 or H07,
which means:
H05: voltages up to 300V(330V*) rms; core cross-section
0.5 mm2 ... 1.0 mm2.
H07: voltages up to 450V(495V*) rms; core cross-section
1.5 mm2 ... 400 mm2.
* Maximum permissible permanent voltages are 10 per
cent above nominal value

'TL'5 and PL-T lamp voltages

1. Non-dimming systems
For all existing 'TL'5 and PL-T lamps the maximum
voltages from any lamp wire to earth do not exceed
250 Vrms.Therefore H05 classified wiring can be used.

2. Dimming systems**
With the following PL-T and 'TL'5 lamps the maximum
wire-to-earth voltages exceed the maximum voltage of
H05 classified wires.
1. PL-T systems: 32 W & 42 W
2. 'TL'5 HE systems: 28 W & 35 W
3. 'TL'5 HO systems: 49 W & 54 W
Depending on lamp type, the maximum voltages can
increase up to 430 Vrms.
Therefore the use of H07 (450 Vrms) wiring is
necessary.
HF-Regulator ballasts can handle a conductor cross-
section of 1.5mm2, but lampholders or other
components are often not suitable for handling a cross-
section larger than 1.0 mm2. Using special wiring (not
harmonised) rated at 450Vrms. with a conductor
thickness of 0.5-1.0 mm2 can be the solution, but since
this is not a standard wire, it may be difficult to obtain.
Cable suppliers/manufacturers have to be consulted.
** Lamp to earth voltages higher then 330 V only occur
at lower temperatures (< 20 ºC) and at lower dimming
levels (< 40 %).

Note the following:

- The live and neutral terminals of the mains must be
connected to the correct terminals of the ballast. Both
connections are important because ballast and lamp
construction relies on this convention for maximum
creepage path and correct ignition.

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4.

- Crossed-over phase and neutral terminals can cause

increased radio interference, higher earth leakage
currents and/or ignition problems.
- It is recommended that the bottom plate of the ballast,
the starting-aid strip and the luminaire be connected to
earth.The electronic ballasts must be well earthed in
the luminaire.This can be done via the fixing screw to
the grounded mounting plate.Tooth-lock washers
should be used to ensure a good earth contact through
the paint or lacquer of the ballast bottom plate.
- HF ballasts are short-circuit proof: a short-circuit on
the secondary side (lamp side) will not damage the
ballast.The internal fuse will not ‘blow’ in the case of
short-circuits in the luminaire wiring.
- The lamps should be mounted at a maximum distance
of 20 mm from a metal surface. In the case of a metal
luminaire, the earthed luminaire itself can serve this
purpose. In the case of a plastics luminaire, an additional
metal strip, well connected to the housing of the ballast
and covering the entire length of the lamps, has to be
incorporated.The metal strip must be approximately
30 mm wide.The ignition aid helps to ignite the lamps,
especially at colder temperatures.

- For master-slave arrangements, see Section 4.1.13.

Lamp performance and radio-frequency interference

- The following advice is important for achieving optimum
lamp performance and to reduce radio-frequency
signals:
- Keep wires as short as possible,
- Never bring together mains and lamp wiring
(spacing > 1 cm),
- Do not fix lamp wires tight to earthed surfaces,
- Use loose wires for lamp wiring. If bandcable is used,
ensure that cable length is as short as possible,
- Ensure that the length of the wires is in accordance
with the advice given for each ballast type,
- Use 4 mm diameter screws to mount the ballast in the
luminaire,
- Avoid loops in the wiring.

General advice
- The mounting position of the ballast can influence the
lamp temperature and thus the light output.
- In two- or three-phase networks with a neutral
conductor, this neutral must have the same cross-
section as the phases.
- Use stranded wire in places that are subjected to
vibrations or where the wire must be able to bend in
use.
- Most ballasts and lampholders are equipped with either
single or double-insert contacts, suited for solid core
wire of 0.5 -1.0 mm2 (maximum diameter of insulation
2.6 mm), which should be stripped over a specified
length.
- At ambient temperatures below 100C, closed
luminaires should be used to avoid reducing the lighting
levels.
- Most electrical energy in a lighting system is
transformed into heat. Saving 4 watt (lighting) input
power will save approximately 1 watt on the air-
conditioning system when in use - and cooling costs are
three times higher than heating costs!
- 'Hot' terminals (see Section 4.1.13) must have the
shortest lamp wires. In multi-lamp luminaires this hot
wiring must be of equal length for each lamp
(see Fig. 72).
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4.

L1
1
La
2
3
-
+
L3
200-240 V HF 4
L
N ballast 5
6
7
La
8
L2
L1 & L2 << L3 | L1 - L2 | = < 6%

Fig. 72 Make wiring as short as possible.

- In some ballast documentation, restrictions are

mentioned for the maximum capacity between the
output terminals and between output terminals and the
ballast housing (viz. earth).
There are three reasons for this:
1. These capacitances influence the ignition
characteristics, especially in conditions of extreme
cold.
2. These capacitances influence the degree of EMC.
3. With regulating ballasts at low settings, the
performance will be out of specification when the
capacitances are too large.The light output can drop
below the specified minimum, unstable burning may
take place and/or differences in light output between
the various lamps can occur.
The capacitances, which in practice depend on the length
and the sort of lamp wires and the way they are
attached, should therefore be kept to a minimum.
It is recommended that the lamp connections be made
with separate wires and not with flat cable or 4-core
cables. Screened cables should also be avoided.
Commonly-used single-installation wire of 0.5 to 1 mm2
has an average capacitance of 30-80 pF/m, while mains
cable of 3x1.5 mm2 has a value of 120 pF/m.
For a ballast mounted directly on an earthed mounting
plate or metal luminaire housing, these figures can be a
factor 2.5 higher. Mounted on spacers providing a 3 mm
distance to the earth, they can be approximately a factor
1.8 higher. In normal practice, the values for a
2 x `TL`D 58 W luminaire, constructed according to the
basic rules as stated in Section 2.3.4, will be between
35 and 60 pF/m.To verify the capacitances in a luminaire,
they have to be measured with special capacitance-
measuring equipment, at a testing frequency of 1 kHz or
more.

- High-voltage test:
All primary connections must be short-circuited before
carrying out a high-voltage test.To avoid voltage surges,
the test voltage should only be applied after the
connections to the test instruments have been made.
Initially, no more than half the prescribed voltage should
be applied before raising it gradually to the full value.
Test voltage maximum: 2U + 1000 V AC, 50/60 Hz for
maximum of 1 minute between short-circuit and
housing.
For the HFR ballasts:
1. Short circuit the ‘+’ and ‘–’ of the dim input with the
L & N at the mains input and apply the High Voltage
from these to earth
2. Short circuit the ‘+’ and ‘–’ of the dim input with the
earth and apply the High Voltage from these to the
short-circuit L & N.

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4.

three-point switch
1 2

mains
lamp

Fig. 73 Three-point switch suited for PL*Electronic lamp.

- Insulation resistance test:

When the insulation of the wiring in an installation is
tested by meggering, voltages of maximum 500 V DC
with limited currents (< 2 mA) between line and earth
or neutral and earth are followed. After testing, ensure
that the neutral is reconnected.
- PL*E lamps can be used in circuits having dusk switches
or movement detectors if the circuit has a 3-point
switch. In this type of circuit the supply voltage for the
switch is independent of the lamp current (Fig. 73).
Problems such as flickering and premature failure may
arise if the lamp is used in circuits having a 2-point
switch (Fig. 74).

two-point switch
1 2

mains
lamp

Fig. 74 Two-point switch not suited for PL*Electronic lamp.

- Interference with infrared

Video/audio apparatus, computers and lighting
installations are increasingly being operated with
infrared remote control.The infrared signals of these
devices have a frequency of about 36 kHz.To avoid
interference with this kind of equipment, the working
frequency of HF electronic ballasts is chosen
accordingly. Interference can only be expected when the
distance between the lamp and the infrared receiver is
small and the lamp shines directly into the receiver.
The frequencies of interpreter/congress systems are 55
kHz, 95 kHz, 135 kHz, 175 kHz, 215 kHz, 255 kHz,
295 kHz, 335 kHz and 375 kHz.
1. It is not advisable to use HF regulating ballasts in the
vicinity of the above-mentioned interpreter systems.
When the ballasts are regulated, the frequency signals
might interfere with such a system.
2. Use only HF electronic ballasts working on a
frequency range below 30 kHz.
3. Do not use the lower frequency bands between
55 kHz and 175 kHz of the interpreter system.
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4.

fuse filter coil

L
300 nF

N
3.3 nF

low-pass filter rectifier

Fig. 75 The low-pass filter.

- Electric shocks with luminaires with HF-P ballasts and

without Earth.
In the HF-P ballasts, a low-pass filter is connected
between Phase, Neutral and Earth (see Fig.75).This is to
suppress the Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)-level
to comply with European norms such as EN 55015.
In most cases, the ballast housing is connected to earth
via the luminaire.When the circuit is connected
completely and correctly, there will be scarcely any
current through the small 3.3 nF capacitor. However,
when Phase and Neutral are interchanged, there will be
a small current of no more than 0.5 mA, flowing from
Phase via 3.3 nF to Earth.
As long as the ballast is connected to the earth, nothing
will happen and a normal earth-leakage switch will not
function (as long as there are not too many ballasts
involved).

However, if the earth is not connected and the Phase and

Neutral are interchanged, then the ballast housing and
the luminaire is connected to the Phase via the capacitor
3.3 nF. A well-earthed person can then feel an electric
shock when touching the metal luminaire.
In principle, this shock is harmless, because the maximum
current via the capacitor and the person is only 0.5 mA,
which is well below the danger limit. However, as a result
of panic reactions, secondary effects can result in harmful
situations.

HF-P 228 TL5 2

HF-P 235 TL5 3 V1: 5.5 Vac V1: 6 Vac
4
5 V2: 5.5 Vac V2: 5 Vac
6
7

Fig. 76 Correct ballast-lamp connections.

- During manufacture of the luminaire, mistakes can be

made when inserting the wires in the lamp connector
of 2-lamps ballasts.The lamp seems to function
normally, but after 700 to 1000 h, early failures and
early blackening of one lamp end do occur.
Example correct connections: Fig. 76

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4.

HF-P 228 TL5 2

HF-P 235 TL5 3 V1: 4 Vac V1: 5.5 Vac
4
5 V2: 11 Vac V2: 5.5 Vac
6
7

HF-P 228 TL5 2

HF-P 235 TL5 3 V1: 4 Vac V1: 5.5 Vac
4
5 V2: 11 Vac V2: 5.5 Vac
6
7

HF-P 228 TL5 2

HF-P 235 TL5 3 V1: 11 Vac V1: 5.5 Vac
4
5 V2: 4 Vac V2: 5.5 Vac
6
7

Fig. 77 Incorrect ballast-lamp connections.

Possible faulty connections, Fig. 77

During starting, the "high voltage" lamp electrode is

clearly lighted up for approximately 1 second before the
lamp ignites.
The measured electrode voltages will vary, according to
when measurements are taken and the tolerances and
types of ballasts and lamps involved.
A mistake in the wiring has been made when one side of
a lamp has an electrode voltage of about twice the other
voltages.

4.2 Light regulation with HF ballasts

4.2.1 General: block and circuit diagrams

Besides the standard range of HF ballasts, Philips offers a
range of dimmable fluorescent ballasts that allow for the
adjustment of lighting levels to suit personal preferences
whilst at the same time providing the opportunity for
additional savings on energy.
Compared with the standard HF ballast, an additional
light regulation circuit is incorporated, that varies the
operation frequency for the lamps, according to the
regulating input voltage (see Fig. 78).The control voltage
is supplied to the connections ‘+’ and ‘–’ at the HF-R
ballast and to the connections ‘DA’ for the HF-R DALI
(Digital Addressable Lighting Interface) version.
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4.

mains filter for converter converter lamp(s)

interference AC/DC DC/AC
suppression = =
preconditioner lamp controller

regulating input ballast controller

Fig. 78 Block diagram for an HF regulation ballast.

Operating switches S1 and S2 (see Fig. 79) at a higher

frequency results in a lower lamp current, and so the light
output decreases.

- L
light C C
regulating regulation
input circuit
+ S1

L
L
control
La La
electronics

N
+ C
- S2
C C
C C

low-pass filter rectifier buffer HF power lamp stabilisation

capa- oscillator
i
Fig. 79 General circuit diagram of an HF ballast for light
regulation.

There are nowadays two ways to supply the control

voltage to the regulating ballast, namely analogue and
digital.The most common is analogue in which the input
voltage for the light regulation circuit may vary from 0 V
to 10 V DC: 1 V results in a minimum lighting level and
10 V in a maximum lighting level.
In addition to the analogue dim input, a digital dim input
is used in the DALI ballast.
The major European ballast and controls manufacturers
support both of these systems, which guarantees
compatibility between the various controls and ballasts.

4.2.2 The dimming process

The nominal operating frequency of the Philips ballasts is
around 48 kHz. At this frequency the lamp reaches its
nominal 100 % operating values.The ballast controller
can, activated by the light regulation circuit, vary the
operating frequency between 48 kHz and 90 kHz.
Basically, the regulating process can be understood as
follows: At higher operating frequencies the impedance of
the lamp current stabilisation coil L increases, resulting in
a lower current (see Fig. 80). At the same time, the
impedance of the capacitor C across the lamp decreases
(capacitor impedance = 1/ωC, with ω = 2πf).
The electrode current is a prerequisite for stable regulation
of the lamps. Operating switches S1 and S2 (see Fig. 79)
at a higher frequency results in a lower lamp current, and
so the light output decreases.

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4.

The electronic regulating ballasts contain more

complicated circuits to optimise these currents within
the operating area, with the lowest possible power.

4.2.3 Ignition and re-ignition

The Philips dimming ballasts are always of the warm-start
type with a defined preheating time (see Section 3.3). If an
installation with a ballast for light regulation is switched on
at a low setting, the normal preheating current will flow
for about a second, so that a warm start is guaranteed
under all circumstances. Once the lamps have started,
they will dim down or up to the previously set position.
This is done automatically within about 0.1 second.
The minimum lamp power for 'TL'D and PL-L lamps is
3 %. It is expected that these limits will decrease to
lower levels (1 % for 'TL'D) with the next generation of
regulating ballasts.

4.2.4 Ballast types

All dimming ballasts are of the preheated and stand-alone
version, fully electronic and of the constant-wattage type
(see also Section 4.1.5).

4.2.5 Harmonic distortion

The absolute value of the harmonics of the mains current
is independent of the regulation setting with all dimming
ballasts.This means that the harmonics in the mains
current, expressed in mA, are approximately constant.
When the power is regulated, the fundamental
(50 Hz component) of the mains current will decrease to
a lower level.The harmonic currents, expressed in
percentages of the fundamental, will therefore increase.
This results in a THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) value
at the minimum setting that can be 2 to 4 times higher
than when in full operation. Normally this causes no
problems for the lighting installation, as the effective
current through the cabling and switchgear is lower when
regulating than when in full operation.

4.2.6 4.2.6 Power factor

The lamp power decreases during dimming, so the power
consumption from the mains drops. However, the losses
in the ballast and the electrode preheating (necessary for
stable regulation) are maintained.The mains power and
mains current of all dimming ballasts vary more or less
according to Fig. 80.This results in a shift of the power
factor from >0.95 leading to lower values (0.7 leading for
HF-R at minimum setting). Again, this normally causes no
problems (see former section). However, where the
power is supplied by a generator or a similar device, care
should be taken to ensure that the power supply can
properly handle the lower capacitive power factor and
the higher harmonic distortion.

4.2.7 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

Basically, Section 2.3 applies.This means that over the
entire dimming range the interference levels will meet all
relevant international standards when the ballast and the
luminaire are properly installed (see also Section 2.3.4).
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4.

Pl (%)

0
10
Plamp

75
Imains

50
25
0
0
10
20

80
30
40
50
60
70

90
0
10
Pm(%), Im(%)

Fig. 80 Mains power and mains current as a function of the

lamp power.

The interference conducted through the mains will never

cause problems in practical situations.The radiated
interference, however, cannot be totally neglected and it
is still possible that some electronic device will pick up
the radiated stray field of the HF lighting system.
Whether or not interference will actually happen will
depend, of course, on factors such as:
- the sensitivity of the receiving system
- the frequency band to which the receiver is tuned
- the distance and direction with respect to the HF
luminaire
- the presence or absence of a screening on the HF
luminaire.

In 'full light' operation the higher harmonics of the

operating frequency are fixed at certain values. However,
when the light is regulated up or down, these higher
harmonics become frequency bands and may coincide
with a radio or TV transmitter frequency. In most cases,
TV and FM radio signals are not affected, but AM radio
signals can be. Should be this the case, a practical solution
has to be found to the interference problem e.g. by extra
screening or creating more distance. Also, some
low-frequency paging systems operate in the frequency
range from 48 kHz to 90 kHz, used for the dimming
ballasts. See also Section 4.1.19 Installation aspects.

4.2.8 Starting and operating temperature

Unlike HF ballasts without light regulation, the starting
temperature for the most regulating ballasts is from +10
to 50 ºC.
At low lamp tube temperatures, the light output of the
fluorescent lamps is low (see Section 3.7), in which case
dimming of the lamps is not effective. Moreover, striations
and flicker may occur. For optimum regulation, the tube
wall should reach a temperature of approximately 40 ºC
(45 ºC for ‘TL’5). In cold or outdoor applications,
fully-enclosed luminaires should be used, and before
regulation can start the lamp must have operated on full
power long enough to warm up the air in the luminaire.
Additional measures, such as an extra plastic tube around
the lamp or extra heating by resistance wire, may be
necessary.

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4.

4.2.9 Input voltage versus light output

with analogue ballasts
With the analogue versions of HF ballasts, the control-
input circuit is a current source mode circuit.This means
that the control voltage is generated in the input circuit
of the HF-R regulating ballast itself, see Fig. 81.

ballast

HF current source
I = approx. 150 µA +

VR1 R1 dim input control

voltage
-

Fig. 81 Current source dim input of analogue ballast.

If the control input is not connected, the unit is in the

100 per cent light position (open circuit for the control
wiring, resulting in 10 V on the control input terminals).
If the control input is short-circuited (0 V on the input
terminals), the setting is at minimum lighting level.
An external control voltage is not necessary. By inserting
a potentiometer, continuous regulation can be achieved in
a simple way.The control current that can be delivered
by the regulating ballast is 0.14 mA for the HF-R type.
To cover the control voltage range from 1 to 10 V the
potentiometer must vary its resistance between certain
values, (see accompanying table), depending on how many
ballasts are connected:

Number of ballasts For HF-Regulator ballast

Imax Rmin < Rmax >
1 0.15 mA 6.7 kΩ 100 kΩ
5 0.75 mA 1.5 kΩ 20 kΩ
200 30 mA 40 Ω 0.5 kΩ

The relationship between the lamp power and the

control voltage is shown in Fig. 82.

Prel (%)
0
10
80
60
40
20
0
0

10
8
4

Vcontr. (V DC)

Fig. 82 Relationship between lamp power and control voltage

of analogue ballast.
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4.

The regulation curve can be obtained with a simple

potentiometer. Philips developed the LPS range of
potentiometers (LPS = Light Potentiometer Switch), which
feature regulation curves between 3 and 100 per cent
light level irrespective of the number of ballasts connected.

When the complete regulating range is not required the

maximum and/or minimum levels can be set with the use
of Zener diodes. At least seven ballasts are necessary to
deliver the bias current of 1 mA (see Fig. 83).

The maximum number of ballast is limited by the power

dissipation of the Zener diode employed.
To set a fixed minimum level the zener should be placed
in series with the control voltage, see Fig. 84.

For example, a Zener of 3.9 V giving a minimum light level

of approximately 20 per cent.

I diode

zener voltage
set point

V zener V diode
minimum acceptable
Zener current

I zener

Fig 83 Zener voltage characteristic.

BZX55C3V9 + -

+
-
LPS to N + 7 ballasts
+
-

Fig. 84 Minimum dimming level setting with Zener.

+
variable resistor
BZX55C6V8 -
(resistor depends
of the number to N + 7 ballasts
of ballasts)
+
-

Fig. 85 Maximum dimming level setting with Zener.

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4.

By placing the Zener in parallel to the control voltage,

the maximum light level is limited. For example, a Zener
of 6.8 V will give 70 per cent light output, see Fig. 85.

An external control voltage can also generate the control

voltage, in which case the ‘+’ should be connected to the
‘+’ of the ballast. Care should be taken that the external
control circuit has an output that is of the 'current sink'
type.
Also, an AC-ripple on the control voltage should be
avoided, as this may adversely affect the performance of
the system.

The power rating of the potentiometer or the external

control voltage source must be in accordance with the
number of ballasts and the maximum control current
(1.5 mW per HF-R ballast).
The length and the diameter of the control cabling must
be dimensioned such that the voltage drop over this
cabling is less than 0.5 volt.

4.2.10 The digital DALI (Digital Addressable

Lighting Interface) ballast
The main differences with the standard HF-R ballast are:
1.The control input has no polarity and is protected
against accidental mains power voltage.
2.The ballast contains a smart chip for communication
via the DALI protocol.
3.The ballast itself incorporates the switch-off function,
so no external switches are necessary.
DALI ballasts must be connected to a DALI controller.

Introduction

For regulating ballasts (HF dimming), the analogue

1-10V DC dimming interface is the most common on the
market. Although sufficient in many applications, this
system does have some drawbacks:
- power setting only, switching must be done by a second
separate control circuit
- control circuits must be hard-wired because ballasts
cannot be addressed
- ballast feedback is not possible
- signal degradation on long lines
- poor definition of minimum light level (different ballasts
can give different light levels at the same control voltage
level).

In order to establish a widely accepted alternative for this

interface, in 1996 a group of European lighting companies
started working on a digital interface in a COMEX
workgroup comprising members from Helvar, Hüco,
Luxmate, Osram, Philips,Tridonic,Trilux,Vossloh-Schwabe.
Also ECS, Fagerhult, MagneTek, Insta, Eckerle,
Niko Altenburger and Hadler. A key feature had to be the
possibility to make each ballast addressable while
connecting them in parallel on the two control lines.

Because the digital interface was intended for the lighting

business only and should be able to address the ballast
individually, DALI (Digital Addressable Lighting Interface)
was born. DALI should lead to a standardised digital
interface.This will give the benefit to get one common
specification for control manufacturers and installers.
For the customer it gives the possibility to connect
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4.

different makes of ballasts to one control system, and for

the manufactures it will lead to a joint effort of platform
development.
Like the 1-10 V DC interface, the DALI also works with
two wires.The installation is thus much the same as for
the analogue interface, e.g. similar wire types and
connectors can be used.The major difference is the
control signal regulates and switches the circuits.
With ballasts addressing, this allows the control circuits
to be independent of the power circuits. Besides sending
commands to a ballast, it is also possible to get
information from a ballast (two-way communication).

The DALI protocol supports a variety of commands, the

most important of which are:
- setting the light level
- remote switching on and off
- storing and recalling pre-set levels.
Commands can be addressed to a single ballast, to a
group of ballasts, or to all ballasts connected to the
control lines.

Beside commands, there also are queries modes such as:

- query status
- query lamp failure.
The information received from the ballast can be used to
diagnose problems occurring in an installation.
A third category of commands was defined to set up the
installation.This includes assigning addresses and group
numbers.
Finally there is a category of reserved codes for future
extensions to the command set.

Light control

When defining the standard, a firm decision was taken

not to develop a complex building-control system with
maximised functional capabilities, but to create instead a
simple system with clearly-defined structures. DALI is not
designed to be a complex BUS system, but rather for
intelligent, high-performance light management in a local
zone.These functions can of course be integrated into a
building management system by means of suitable
interfaces.
Since the DALI protocol has been designed for rooms
requiring professional light management, the following
functions have been defined:

Switching on / off
Maximum 64 individual DALI electronic ballasts in a single
system (= with one master controller) can be switched
on / off as there are a maximum of 64 different addresses.
The actual maximum will depend on the controller used.
For the TRIOS DALI controller this number is 20.

Dimming
The dimmable electronic DALI ballast is equipped with a
technical facility for dimming the lamp current
logarithmically from 100 % to 0.1 % in 254 dimming steps
(in practice, the lower dimming level is set in the ballast.
It is currently set at 3 % so as to ensure that the lamp
service life is not compromised.Therefore, in practice,
about 125 steps are used). See Figs 86 and 87.

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4.

Light scenes
Up to 16 light scenes can be programmed and retrieved
in a single DALI system. Again, the practical number
depends on the controller used. For the TRIOS DALI
controller this number is 5.

Status display
The DALI protocol can also be used to display and / or
retrieve statuses of the electronic ballast or lamp.
Φ (%)

0
10
80
60
40
20
0
1
12

56

2
0
2

6
78

4
8
34

4
10

23
21
12

16

25
18
14
8-bit control level
Fig. 86 Logarithmic dimming curve with minimum dim level
0.1 % in 256 steps.

Φ (%)
0
10
10 3
1
0

50

0
0
5
0

4
20
10
12
15

25

Fig. 87 Logarithmic dimming curve DALI ballast.

The DALI protocol control power is supplied by the

control system.
A DALI interface can be roughly split into two main parts:
- DALI hardware
- DALI software
The DALI hardware forms the interface between the
control lines (sometimes erroneously called "buslines")
and the intelligent (e.g. microcontroller) module of the
ballast.The DALI software, which "runs" in the intelligent
module, takes care of the execution of the commands
that lead to actions in the ballast e.g. increase of lamp
power, switch-off of the lamp, answer to a query from the
DALI master, etc.

DALI Hardware

The signals on the DALI control lines are single pole.This

means that the DALI control voltage is polarity sensitive.
The connection of the DALI control lines to the interface
terminals is marked with "DA" for data, because the input
is made polarity insensitive (see Fig. 88).
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4.

polarity insensitivity mains protection

da

da

Fig. 88 Mains protection and polarity insensivity DALI ballast.

Because the DALI terminals look the same as the mains

terminals, caution must be exercised when the installation
is being connected.To prevent damage caused by
interchanging the DALI control lines and the mains, the
DALI system is equipped with extra hardware in the
interface that can withstand the mains voltage (see again
Fig. 88). Because a number of ballasts, connected to
different mains phases, can be connected to each other
by means of the DALI input, all DALI inputs are isolated
from their HF inverter inside the ballast.This isolation is
done in the ballast by means of an optical isolator
(opto-coupler).The ballast backward channel switch, which
is controlled by the intelligent module (microcontroller)
of the ballast, short-circuits the DALI control lines.
The short-circuit current of the DALI control lines, which
is generated by the DALI master, is therefore limited.The
current is limited to 250 mA.The maximum voltage drop
is limited to 2 volt for the DALI line.

digital '1' digital '0'

Fig. 89 Bi-phase encoding.

Digital control

The electronic ballasts are connected to the controller

via two wires. Data packets consisting of 19 bits enable
the controller to communicate with the electronic
ballasts at an effective rate of 1200 bauds per second. A
message is built up by 1 start bit, 16 data bits and 2 stop
bits (see Figs 89 and 90).

sta address byte data byte stop

1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 x x
forward message frame

sta data byte stop

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 x x
backward message frame

Fig. 90 DALI message frames.

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4.

16V (9.5 to 22.5V)

0V (-6.5 to 6.5V)
T 10<T<100µs
2Te=833µs
0 Te 2Te

t (µs)
Fig. 91 Tolerances of DALI line voltage.

The DALI line has a voltage of 16 V, with the tolerances

shown in Fig. 91.

The current in a DALI controller is limited to a maximum

of 250 mA in accordance with IEC 929.The current
consumption per electronic ballast is set at 2 mA.

The DALI Ballast

The architecture of digital ballast is shown in Fig. 92.

The solid lines depict power signals, the dashed lines
depict control and sensor signals.The microcontroller is
the central unit in the digital ballast. It receives
commands from the DALI control lines via a transceiver
unit, which is essentially no more than a voltage scaling
and protection unit.

UP converter lamp power

mains

La

electrode power

DALI

transceiver microcontroller

EEPROM

Fig. 92 Architecture of Digital Ballast.

The ballast has three power converter units.

An up-converter acts as a mains preconditioner, and two
half-bridge converter modules drive the lamp.The first
one generates the arc current, the second one drives the
electrodes or filaments. Both half-bridges receive their
drive signals directly from the microcontroller.The
microcontroller receives lamp current and voltage signals
from sensors in the power circuit.The microcontroller
can store data that are not to be lost when the ballast is
disconnected from the mains in a non-volatile memory
such as an EEPROM.
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4.

With this architecture many advantages are obtained:

- arc and filament current are uncoupled and can be
controlled separately: improved lamp life.
- operating points for different lamp types can be stored:
multi-lamp ballast.
- all control loops and signal processing is moved into the
microcontroller: reduced component count, higher
reliability, better accuracy, miniaturisation.
- high design flexibility: changes often require only
software adjustments because hardware is replaced by
software.
- DALI interface is integrated in the ballast rather than
being added to it: optimal use of functionality.
- ballasts can report problems such as lamp failure.

This type of HFR ballast can be called "digital" both

internally end externally: internally, because the power
conversion processes are controlled digitally, externally
because of the DALI interface.

Switching in the electronic ballast

The lamp is switched on/off in the electronic ballast.This

means that there is no longer any need to use power
switches to interrupt the circuit.The 230 V supply voltage
is always available at the electronic ballast (also in the
OFF situation), and light can be switched or dimmed by
means of a command via the DALI line.
All ballasts are always connected to the mains, but can be
divided over the three phases.

Addressability

Up to 64 addresses can be assigned in a DALI system.

This means that 64 different electronic ballasts can be
controlled independently of each other. Addressing must
be performed after the system has been installed.The
addressing procedure is dependent on the controller. A
second system is necessary if more than 64 luminaires
must be switched or regulated.The maximum number of
ballasts is 125 if they do not all require different
addresses.

Light groups

The addressed ballasts or luminaires can be combined

into light groups. A group is a number of ballasts with the
same switching/dimming behaviour (like a hard-wired
circuit). Up to 16 groups are possible for each DALI line.
With the analogue HF-R ballasts there should be 16
different control-signal cables, but DALI can do with one
control-signal cable.

Simple installation

No special wiring such as twisted pairs or special cables

is required for installing a DALI line.Twin control wires in
existing installations can also be used as DALI lines.
It is important to ensure that the maximum voltage drop
does not exceed 2 V.

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4.

4.2.11 Installation aspects

The following aspects regarding installation should be
considered:
- The regulating ballasts can be distributed arbitrarily
over the individual phase conductors of a multi-phase
network, regardless of the regulating element used.
- The control circuit leads should be separated from
mains and lamp cabling.They should not be bundled.
- All connection leads between the control inputs of the
electronic ballast on the one hand and between
amplifiers, light sensors, electronic potentiometers and
control buttons on the other hand should be laid out as
for nominal mains voltage. Extra low-voltage control
wiring is not allowed.
- External cabling for mains, control signals and possible
telecommunication systems should be so installed that
no mutual interference can take place. Please refer to
IEC 364 Chapter 522.
- Master-slave is only allowed for a continuous row of
luminaires, where the distance 'D' is no more than a
few centimetres, see also Section 4.1.13.
- If, in the case of an external control voltage source, the
polarity is reversed (‘+’ connected to ‘-’) with the
analogue dimming ballasts, no damage will result, but full
regulation will not possible.The lower lighting levels will
not be reached.
- For two reasons, the minimum cross-section of the
control wire is 0.5 mm2:This is the minimum allowed
for the conductor, and thinner wires are not strong
enough to be pulled through the conducts.
- The control input of analogue ballasts is protected
against accidental mains voltage connection by means of
a PTC (see Fig. 93) and with the DALI ballasts by a
diode bridge (see Fig. 88).
- Although it is not required by international standards, it
is recommended that the optics (mirror) in a luminaire
become connected to the earth.This will minimise the
EMC levels and can improve the behaviour at minimum
dim level.

Icontrol
+

+
-

Fig. 93 Dim input protection with a PTC for analogue ballasts.

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4.

4.3 Control possibilities

Most ballasts are built into luminaires, many of which are
controlled by a more or less sophisticated control system
in order to achieve optimum performance in respect of
energy saving, adequate task lighting and/or visual
comfort.This means that messages for switching and/or
dimming of the lamps have to be transmitted to the
ballasts in the luminaires.
Messages can be generated manually via:
- switches, push-buttons or potentiometers
- infrared transmitters
- a keyboard connected to a computer with an appropriate
program
Or automatically via:
- timers/clocks
- movement detectors
- light sensors
- digital input/output interfaces
- computer programs.
The most simple system of control is by a switch
connected to the lamp-circuit supply voltage and a
potentiometer to the ballast's dimming input. It is possible
to regulate up to more than 100 HF-R ballasts for light
control simultaneously with a single Philips potentiometer
LPS 100 – see also Section 4.2.9.The integrated switch of
the LPS 100 can switch only a few luminaires. Although
the maximum load is 10 A, the number of ballasts is
limited by the inrush current of the ballasts. If more than
the allowed number of luminaires have to be switched, an
additional contactor (preferably with a spark suppressor
circuit) has to be installed (see Fig. 94).

L1
L2
L3
N

C HFR luminaire

-
+
C HFR
ballast to lamps
N
L
LPS 100
4
3
2 HFR luminaire
1

-
+
HFR
ballast to lamps
N
L

- + L1 L2 L3 N

to other
HFR luminaires

Fig. 94 Manual HF regulation.

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4.

In many cases, however, manual operation is not sufficient

to meet present-day requirements.The lights often have
to be switched according to the presence or otherwise
of people (using movement detectors), or in response to
momentary daylight contribution (using a light sensor).
With infrared remote control, a great deal of flexibility is
achieved, while installation costs are reduced, as vertical
(mains) wiring is made redundant.
Using these versatile system components, Philips Lighting
can offer optimum, custom-designed control solutions.

The control systems and products can be divided into

four main categories:
- Luminaire-based solutions: stand-alone control, for
(a part of) a single room
- Room-based solutions:TRIOS for active control of
stand-alone offices, Scenio for effect-oriented solutions,
TRIOS DALI.
- Lighting Management Systems, such as Helio, LM 100
(Lightmaster) and WM 8000 (Wiremaster), for complete
buildings
- General purpose products, such as dimmers,
transmitters, receivers, sensors, push-button interface,
manual potentiometers, movement detectors.

For all products and systems there are product data

sheets, installation instructions, specification guides and/or
handbooks available.These should be studied carefully
before designing and installing any of the various control
systems.There are also special application courses, which
can be followed on request.

This section is not intended to cover all aspects of

controls. Consequently, only a brief description of the
various products and systems is given below.

4.3.1 TRIOS luminaire-based controllers

The switching and/or dimming signals for the ballast are
generated by a simple sensor or by a controller, which,
together with the sensors employed, is built into the
luminaire.The luminaire is connected to the mains supply
only.The Philips programme comprises four solutions:
TRIOS Luxsense for HF-R;TRIOS Multisense for HF-R;
Chronosense Controller; and TRIOS Infrasense for HF-R.

1. TRIOS Luxsense for HF-R

The most simple system for a downlight luminaire: just

one component!
The Luxsense (see Fig. 95) is a very discreet light sensor
that reduces (in combination with a HF-Regulator
ballast) the light output when the illuminance level of the
workplace increases above a pre-defined level.There is
no switching function.
Two clips are available for easy mounting of the component
on ‘TL’D or ‘TL’5/PL-L lamps. (Note: the Luxsense cannot
be used in combination with ‘TL’5HO – too hot!) In the
case of ‘TL’D, the Luxsense must be mounted at the
electrical "cold" side of the lamp, and with ‘TL’5 at the
labelled end of the lamp, at least 5 cm. from the end cap
of the lamp.The "cold" side corresponds to the side of
the ballast that allows the longest leads (Fig. 95). It also
can be clicked to the lamella of the luminaire optic, using
a special bracket (provided by the customer). It is
connected to the 1-10 Vdc control input of Philips HF-R
ballast and can regulate up to 20 luminaires.
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4.

ballast

N L

ballast

white -
+

white/ L
> 70 mm
grey N

N L

ballast

ballast

max. 20 Philips HF-R

Fig. 95 Light control with TRIOS Luxsense.

The sensor is optimised for use in applications where

600 lux is installed and 500 lux is required, with an
assumed reflection factor of the room of 30 per cent.
However, actual circumstances may differ, so to
compensate for this, the sensitivity of the sensor can be
adjusted manually over a range from 1/3 to 3.Therefore
the minimum required reflection factor of the room must
be 10 per cent, which is met by most practical
conditions.

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4.

Proper control operation is based on the condition that

Luxsense controls at least 80 per cent of the artificial
light it ‘sees’.This can be critical in applications including a
large amount of indirect light from other luminaires.
The Luxsense does not provide a constant lux level, but
it does compensate for excess daylight by reducing the
artificial light level by approximately 50 per cent of the
excess.

2.TRIOS Multisense for HF-R

The luminaire-based controller and multi-sensor are

intended for integration in luminaires, thus adding control
functions to the luminaire without consequences for the
electrical installation.
The multi-sensor is designed to fit on various types of
mirror using a special bracket.The controller can be
mounted inside a luminaire.
The multi-sensor LRI 1110/10 contains a movement
detector for maximum energy saving, a light sensor for
ambient light linking, and an infrared receiver for manual
remote override control from a wall-mounted
transmitter or a hand-held unit (Fig. 96).The infrared
receiver can also be used for commissioning or remote
programming of lighting levels.

mains

LN NL +-

A
LLC 1130

C A
B

A Philips (regulating) electronic ballasts

(>42 kHz) for fluorescent lamps
D B Switched output max. 180 VA
C Regulating output max. 60x ballasts
D 6-core sensor cable (750 mm)
LRI 1110 with modular plug

Fig. 96 Light control with TRIOS Multisense.

The controller LLC 1130/20 is designed to switch

conventional or electronic ballasts up to a load of 180
VA.The output terminal provides the 1-10 Vdc for the
control of a maximum of 60 regulating electronic ballasts.
These types of luminaires, containing all three sensors,
combine maximum energy saving and comfort with
minimum installation time.
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4.

The LLC 1130 controller must be used in combination

with the luminaire-based multi-sensor LRI 1110.Where
the information on presence and light level is not
required, the controller can be used in combination with
the infrared receivers IRR 8125 or IRR 1224.

The IR remote control facility is also used for

programming the group address and channel address of
the controller, as well as the mode of operation. For this
purpose the IRT 1090 programming transmitter is
required. Alternatively, the two-key transmitter IRT 8050
in "teach mode" can be used.
The multi-sensor is fitted with a cable and a modular plug
for connection to the modular input socket of the
controller.

The combination of LLC 1130 and LRI 1110 delivers

maximum energy savings by daylight compensation and
presence detection with the manual overrule feature with
the IR remote control.
The combination of LCC 1130 and IRR1224/8125 gives
flexibility to the installation (no vertical wiring for
switches) with the manual control via IR remote control.

Modes of operations, selectable with the programming

transmitter, determine the switching and regulating
behaviour of the luminaire.The modes (5 in total)
correspond with typical applications: a test mode, a mode
for constant-lux applications, a mode for security lights, a
daylight-link mode, and a mode for maximum energy saving.

Related equipment

IR transmitter
• Two-key transmitter IRT 8050
• Four-preset hand-held transmitter IRC 2130
• Programming transmitter IRT 1090
• Infrared receiver IRR 1224

3. Chronosense Controller

The Chronosense is a device intended for integration in

an outdoor-type luminaire (street lighting, floodlighting,
etc. or for fitting onto a gear tray that is mounted at the
bottom of a pole. It contains a relay to switch a
conventional extra "dim" ballast or a ballast type with
"tab" for SON-T lamps 70 W to 400 W (see Fig. 97) in
order to obtain 50 per cent light level during night-time
periods of relatively-low traffic density.This saves energy
while maintaining a homogeneous spread of light over the
complete application.
By means of dip switches, the device must be programmed
for the time intervals for 100 % and 50 % operation
(see Fig. 98), and it contains a test mode to check the
functionality.

The housing is IP20 with extra precautions against the

ingress of dust and insects. Additional measures have to
be taken against dripping water when mounted in a
lamp-post.

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4.

L Phigh Plow
230 V
L

series
ignitor

BSD BSN
230 V
L

series
ignitor

BSD BSN
230 V
L

semi-
parallel
ignitor
C

Fig. 97 Connection diagrams: Chronosense.

dip switch 1,2,3 dip switch 4,5

100%
dim power level
long night

100%
dim power level
short night

dim down dim up

:00

:00

:00

0
0

6:0

8:0
0:0

2:0

4:0
18

20

22

t (hrs)

Fig. 98 Example switching and dimming programme:

Chronosense.
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4.

4.TRIOS Infrasense for HF-R

The system contains three components (see Fig. 99):

1.The infrared receiver IRR 1224, which, like the Luxsense,
can be mounted in a luminaire. It is connected to:
2.The Infrasense controller LLC 1120, which has two
switched outputs for 400 VA (any type of lighting load).
There is no dimming function.
3.The two-key wall transmitter IRT 8050

B C

LN LN NL

A
LLC 1120

A Philips ballasts for fluorescent lighting

B Switched output
C Switched output
D Sensor cable with modular plug

Fig. 99 Light control with TRIOS Infrasense.

The controller can also be connected to a movement

detector for automatic on/off switching.
The controller has the capability for simple control of
curtains and projection screens.The infrared codes for
this application are implemented in the LLC 1120 and the
IRT 8050. It can switch two channels of conventional or
electronic ballasts with a total lighting load of 400 VA.
The behaviour of the controller can be programmed
using the TRIOS programming transmitter IRT 1090 or
the two-key transmitter IRT 8050 in the "teach-mode".

Applications

Infrasense offers basic energy savings solutions in three

different ways:
1.Two (50 % - 100 %) and three (33 % - 66 % - 100 %)
different light levels can be realised by switching on the
first, the second or both channels, whereby the
channels represent one and two lamps (in the case of
three-lamp luminaires) or two lamps each (in the case
of four-lamp luminaires).
2. Central switch-off commands by power interrupts.

Infrasense offers office flexibility by eliminating the need

for vertical wiring (but using infrared remote control
instead). Rearrangements of the offices can easily be
realised by re-addressing the Infrasense controller using
the programming transmitter. Infrasense is based on the
standard TRIOS group and channel address scheme.

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4.

4.3.2. Room-based solutions

1. Occuswitch

The Occuswitch operates entirely stand-alone and does

not have an interface to other building systems.The
Occuswitch is available with screw and Wieland contacts.
The type 1050/1051 contains a movement detector with
a built-in light switch.The types 1060/61/ (presence) and
1064 and 65 (absence) also contain an infrared receiver.
For details, see the product leaflets.
The LRM 1050 is designed for the automatic switching of
any light load for maximum 10 A rms (2300 VA), in indoor
applications only.
The detector has dip switches that enable the end-user
or installer to alter its functionality even after installation.
The sensor has a built-in "daylight override" function.This
function will prevent the unit from switching on the light
when sufficient daylight is present, regardless of the
detection of movement.The override function can be
enabled/disabled by a dip switch and adjusted by turning
the potentiometer or pushing the button.
The sensor has built-in intelligence that adjusts the
sensitivity according to the needs of the moment.When
the unit detects that somebody is present, it increases its
sensitivity, preventing it from switching so long as that
presence continues.When the unit detects that nobody is
present (longer period of time), it decreases the
sensitivity, preventing the lights from switching on without
reason (preventing false triggers).
The sensor is optimised for recessed ceiling mounting.
The sensor has a clearly-defined circular detection
pattern with a footprint diameter of seven metres at a
mounting height of 2.7 metres (see Fig. 100).
The light sensor used has a dynamic range of between 10
and 1000 lux.
Two Occuswitches can be connected in parallel; as, for
example, in a long corridor (see Fig. 101).

Presence detection means:

- Automatically ‘in’ when movement is detected and light
level is too low
- Automatically ‘out’ when after a certain time no
movement is detected (or light level is increased above
the set limit)

Absence detection means:

- No automatic IN, but must be done by infrared or switch
- Automatically OUT when after a certain time no
movement is detected (or light level is increased above
the set limit)
2.7m

7m

Fig. 100 Working area: Occuswitch.

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4.

L
N
PE

L' L'
L L
N N
N N
PE PE
PE PE
ML ML
ML ML

L' L'
N N
PE PE
junction box

Fig. 101 Connection diagram: two Occuswitches in parallel.

2.TRIOS and Scenio

TRIOS
The switching and dimming signals for one set of luminaires
are provided by one addressable TRIOS controller LRC
1020/1025, while type LRC 1010/1015 only provides
switching signals.The luminaires are connected to the
switched mains supply for 5 A maximum and to the
dimming control signal of 1-10 Vdc of the HF-R ballasts.
Several sensors can be connected to one controller.
TRIOS controllers can function independently of each
other with their own set of sensors (Fig. 102).The set of
sensors can be shared by a maximum of five controllers
in order to control five different sets of luminaires
(channels). Channel address setting is obtained with an
infrared-programming transmitter. A channel is a group of
luminaires that identically switch and dim together.
Looking at the end result, a channel looks like a hard-wired
circuit.
mains
LN switched mains

LN
dim voltage
+- +-
LN
TRIOS
+-

IR IR

Fig. 102 Wiring diagram:TRIOS controller with sensors.

Four pre-defined lighting situations (presets) are possible,

while the lights can be switched from multiple points, and
levels can be adjusted, stored and recalled with the four-
preset transmitter.This system is mainly used in single or
open-plan offices, reception areas, corridors and
staircases.

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4.

The controller is available in two versions: the installer

box version, which can be placed above a ceiling, and a
DIN-rail version, for mounting in an installation cabinet.

Scenio
Scenio is a modular lighting control system that can
readily be tailored to suit a particular lighting
requirement.The light controller LRC 1555/1505 can be
looped through with a number of extension modules to
control up to 32 sets of different luminaires with
incandescent, halogen and fluorescent lamps. Non-lighting
equipment can also be switched directly via the output
relays. Potential-free contacts are provided enabling AC
and DC switching.
Up to 16 preset lighting scenes can be stored in a
memory and recalled by the user. One or more infrared
receivers can be connected to the light controller for
infrared remote control from any position in the room.
A movement detector can be connected for automatic
switch-off and on (Fig. 103). Parameter setting is done
with a special infrared-programming transmitter.
Programming and selection of presets is done with the
normal remote control transmitter.The system is very
suitable for applications requiring a frequent change of
lighting scenes, as in conference rooms, auditoriums, bars
and restaurants, hotel lobbies and galleries.
The controller is in a DIN-rail housing, for building into
cabinets.

push-button
IR interface unit
SCENIO
movement IR receiver programming tool
detector
IR transmitter
(8 presets or 16 presets)
sensor input SCENIO bus-line

bus sensor bus bus bus bus bus bus

DIN-rail
channel 1 channel 2 channel 3 channel 32

mains mains mains mains

load load load load
HF-R HF-R dimmer HF-P
HF-R HF-R HF-P
HF-R HF-R HF-P

1-10 V DC 1-10 V DC 1-10 V DC

pc

Fig. 103 Scenio modular lighting control system.

3.TRIOS DALI

TRIOS DALI LRC 1620 is a room-lighting controller for

daylight-controlled light regulation, movement-controlled
switching, and manual dimming via switches or IR remote
control. A maximum of three movement detectors, three
infrared receivers and one light cell can be connected. A
push-button unit can be connected too, instead of an IR
receiver.
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4.

The functions can be set by means of the IRT 1090

remote-programming transmitter, used in conjunction
with an appropriate sensor. Up to five independent light
groups (channels) can be programmed.The TRIOS DALI
controller is accommodated in a surface-mounted
housing, to which up to 20 electronic DALI ballasts can
be connected (see Fig. 104).
L
N

DALI ballasts 1
LN DA

DALI ballasts 2
LRC 1620/00
DALI ballasts 3

DALI ballasts 20

IR IR RC5

Fig. 104 Wiring diagram:TRIOS DALI.

Although DALI is designed for light management in a single

room, its functions can be integrated into a building-
management system by means of suitable interfaces.
See also Section 4.2.10

4.3.3 Lighting Management Systems

(for complete buildings)
HELIO is a sophisticated lighting-management system. It
is a control system for local and building-wide control, an
integral part of the building management concept using
one network; often integrated with other building
services such as heating, ventilation, window blinds,
access, etc.
HELIO consists of a network of intelligent components
that communicate with each other over a bus.This
‘distributed intelligence’ eliminates the need for a central
controller, thus enhancing system availability.Thanks to its
open system architecture, open communications protocol
and standardised technology, HELIO can easily be
integrated with systems supplied by different vendors.
The whole wide range of devices to generate messages
can be used in this system.They send the information to
the intelligent controllers via the HELIO bus cable.The
controllers deliver the switched mains supply and the DC
dimming control signal to the (set of) luminaires.
HELIO controllers can be placed on the ceiling.

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4.

HELIO devices fall into three categories: sensor devices

(infrared receivers, movement detectors, light sensors,
and system clock to transmit status messages onto the
bus); actuator devices (light controllers that translate
status messages into outputs); and generic network
devices (routers, repeaters, bus-power supply units,
PC-bus interface cards, and bus cables to manage and
transport the bus messages).

Several application software packages are available for a

wide range of lighting functions, including:
- Manual light control
Manual and central light control based on inputs from
infrared remote control, intelligent wall switches and
graphical user interface commands given by the
operator.
- Energy saving and/or energy management
Automatic light control based on inputs of movement
detectors, light sensors and system clocks with
programmable control schedules. Monitoring the actual
energy consumption is also an option.
- Facility management
Monitoring the buildings' current lighting status,
interfacing with other building services such as heating,
ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) and sun blinds,
and reconfiguring the lighting installation when working
conditions or office layouts change.

The LM 100 system is mainly used for lighting only, so

not for integration into a Building Management System.
It is based on the controller LCM for a maximum of nine
luminaires or groups, but 100 LCM controllers can be
linked to the so-called Area Controller Unit (ACU) – for
example, one per floor. More Area Controllers can be
linked to the Central Supervisor.

The WM 8000 system is based on the Lighting

Connection Unit (LCU) with six outputs for six luminaires.
The LCU has two addressable relays and a switch to
control the six luminaires as 3+3 or 2+4.
With the Area Controllers, a virtually unlimited number
of luminaires can be controlled via the Central Supervisor.
The maximum number of different channels is 256.

For an extensive description of the various systems,

please refer to the Lighting Controls Systems information
from the Business Group Luminaires of Philips Lighting.

4.3.4 General-purpose products

There is a wide range of general-purpose products such
as dimmers, transmitters, receivers, sensors, push-button
interfaces, manual potentiometers, movement detectors,
clocks and related cabling for interlinking. It should be
noted that not all combinations are always possible, and
the correct devices should be employed in the various
control systems.
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4.

4.3.5 Abbreviations
LPS light potentiometer
LRD light regulator (dimmer)
LRI multi sensor
LRL light sensor
LRM movement detector
LLC luminaire-based controller
LRC light controller
LRH Luxsense clip
LCN Helio router/repeater / PC card
LCU push-button interface / Helio clock / Helio digital
I/O unit
LCS Helio software
LCC sensor cable (interlink /extension) / bus cable /
connection block
IRC infrared transmitter
IRT infrared transmitter
IRR infrared receiver
SLS sensor luminaire (Helio)

4.3.6 Installation aspects

1. Study product data sheets, installation instructions,
and specification guides and/or handbooks carefully
before designing and applying one of the various
control systems.
2. Check carefully the needs, wishes and expectations
of the customers and users with the possibilities of
the preferred or applied control system.
3. Ensure that sufficient knowledge of the control
system is available on the side of the contractor.
Education possibilities should be available.
4. Mark cabling at beginning and end. Use the correct
cabling within the maximum lengths.
5. Avoid humidity and temperature shocks for the
electronic components during installation.
6. Connect dimlines according polarity: plus to plus and
minus to minus.
7. Treat dimline wiring like mains voltage wiring.
8. Check that the working of the lighting installation is
100 per cent correct before connecting or
commissioning the control system. Let the
installation run for 24 hours before commissioning.
9. Be careful during the insulation tests (when using
megohmmeter).
10. Carefully check the wiring and connections of the
control part before starting with the configuration /
commissioning.
11. Avoid excessive airflow and temperature changes in
the neighbourhood of movement detectors
(air-conditioning, fax machines, copiers).
12. Make proper earth connections for the metal optics.

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4.

4.4 Electronic ballasts for DC supply

voltages

4.4.1 Introduction
DC supply voltages for lighting purposes are restricted to
very specific application fields.They can be found in:
- emergency lighting systems, where in the case of a
mains supply failure the supply is taken over by stored
batteries
- public transport vehicles, such as on board ships, trains,
trams, buses, aircraft
- small (portable) domestic items, including torches and
inspection lights

Electronic ballasts for these applications have different

specifications to fulfil the different requirements. Also,
there is a wide spread in the nominal voltage levels: some
practical values are: 12, 24, 72 and 110 V and higher. For
this reason there are many different types of electronic
ballasts for DC supply voltages for fluorescent lamps.
This Application Guide will only deal with the two product
families that are currently described in the product data
sheets.

1. The standard and regulating HF ballast, which can

also function on DC for emergency lighting with ‘TL’
or PL lamps.
2a. The emergency control gear EM-M for use with
electromagnetic ballasts.
2b. The emergency control gear EM-E for use with
electronic ballasts.
2c. The emergency control gear HF-RiEM/DALI for ‘TL’5
lamps.

4.4.2 Special lamps

The combination of fluorescent lamps and DC supplies
was already in use before the introduction of the
electronic DC ballasts.
Fluorescent lamps of special construction and using
special gear can be operated on DC supplies of approx.
70 V and above.The main difference between AC and DC
operation is that with the latter an ohmic resistor instead
of a choke has to be used as a ballast, although a choke is
sometimes added to the circuit to provide a starting
pulse when the lamp is switched on (see Fig. 105).
Tungsten filament lamps (either conventional or specially
designed types), with their strong positive temperature
coefficient of resistance, are almost universally used as
current-limiting devices for fluorescent lamps operated
on DC.

For supply voltages not exceeding 100 V the electrodes

are sometimes preheated. Generally speaking, however,
DC lamps are of the cold-start type.To facilitate ignition,
auxiliary electrodes in the form of internal conductive
strips are normally employed.Two strips are always
needed, one connected to each main electrode, for the
strip can only serve as the anode. If the supply voltage is
higher than 200 V, two or more lamps are often
connected in series and started one after the other using
an electric relay (see Fig.106).
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4.

‘TL’
C

-
Fig. 105 Schematic diagram for operation of a fluorescent
lamp with heated electrodes on 70 V - 100 V DC.The choke
provides the starting pulse.

‘TL’ ‘TL’
R R

-
Fig. 106 Twin-lamp sequence-start circuit for operation on
220 V DC.

A typical problem, which only arises with DC operation,

is that of electro-phoresis. During operation, the
mercury in the discharge migrates from the positive to
the negative electrode.The result is that a dark zone
spreads from the positive electrode, which produces a
rapid fall-off in light output.To prevent this from
happening, the polarity of the lamp must be reversed at
regular periods, e.g. every four hours.

After the introduction of the HF ballasts for DC supplies,

the systems described above became less popular.

4.4.3 Emergency lighting: definitions and

standards
Emergency lighting is lighting that is designed to come
into operation when the normal lighting fails. It is split up
into the segments shown:

EMERGENCY LIGHTING

EMERGENCY ESCAPE LIGHTING STANDBY LIGHTING

ESCAPE ROUTE ANTI-PANIC HIGH RISK TASK

LIGHTING (OPEN) AREA AREA LIGHTING
LIGHTING

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4.

Standby lighting is defined as that part of the emergency

lighting system that enables normal activities to continue
or to be terminated safely, e.g. lighting in the control
room of a petrochemical factory to enable the operator
to shut down the process safely. It depends very much on
what normal activities are taking place as to the
requirements that have to be set for good standby
lighting, so there are no general standards for this segment.
Emergency escape lighting is defined as that part of
the emergency lighting that provides illumination for the
safety of people leaving an area or attempting to
terminate a dangerous process before vacating an area.
Harmonised European standards have been developed, or
are in development, for the three parts:
- Escape-route lighting is defined as that part of the
emergency escape lighting that is provided to ensure
that the means of escape can be effectively and safely
used when the building is occupied.
- Anti-panic (open) area lighting is defined as that part
of the emergency escape lighting that is provided to
avoid panic and provide illumination to allow people to
reach a place where an escape route can be identified.
- High-risk task-area lighting is defined as that part of
the emergency escape lighting that provides illumination
for the safety of people involved in a potentially
dangerous process or situation, and that enables proper
shut-down procedures to be completed for the safety
of the operator and other occupants of the premises.
Standby lighting can also function as high-risk task area
lighting.

The European standards and recommendations cover the

following aspects: minimum illuminance, uniformity
(min/max), response time, duration, colour rendering,
luminous intensity, and siting of luminaires and safety signs.

Standards in emergengy lighting

Requirements Escape route lighting Anti-panic (open) area lighting High-risk task area lighting
Illuminance > 0.5 lux (unobstructed route) > 0.5 lux 10 % of normal
> 1.0 lux (obstructed route) and > 15 lux
Response time (50 %) < 5 sec. < 5 sec.
Response time (100 %) < 15 sec. < 15 sec. < 0.25 sec.
Duration > 1 hour > 1 hour duration of risk
Colour rendering index Ra > 40 Ra > 40 Ra > 40
Uniformity (min./max.) > 0.025 > 0.025 > 0.1

There are basically two types of emergency lighting

systems:
1) Maintained emergency lighting, in which all
emergency lamps are in operation at all times when
normal or emergency lighting is required.
2) Non-maintained emergency lighting, in which all the
emergency lighting lamps are in operation only when
the supply to the normal lighting fails.

Luminaires can be divided into:

- Centrally supplied emergency luminaires for
maintained or non-maintained operation.These are
energised from a central emergency power system not
contained within the luminaire.
- Self-contained emergency luminaires for maintained
or non-maintained operation. Here all the elements,
such as battery, lamp, control unit and test and
monitoring facilities, where provided, are contained
inside the luminaire or at a distance of not more than
1 m from it (decentralised).
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4.

- Combined emergency luminaires, which contain at

least two lamps, at least one of which is energised from
the emergency lighting supply and the other from the
normal lighting supply. A combined emergency luminaire
is either maintained or non-maintained.

Recommendations and standards for decentralised

emergency lighting state minimum lighting levels and
minimum burning times, but no voltage restrictions. For
central emergency lighting, however, there are various
regulations, which differ from country to country.
Commonly used are the EN 60598-2-22 and VDE 0108.
- stable burning must be realised for a mains voltage
range from 0.80 Vnom to 1.15 Vnom.
- ignition and re-ignition must be possible between
0.90 Vnom and 1.15 Vnom.

A second requirement for emergency lighting is that the

switch-over time from normal to emergency operation
or back is limited, depending on the nature of the space
(room) and the activities in that room. For high-risk task
area lighting a maximum response time of 0.25 seconds is
prescribed in the harmonised European standards.
For escape-route lighting and anti-panic area lighting the
response time must be less than 5 seconds.

The decentralised system is the most reliable, as the

individual lamps can go on functioning even during a fire
or when the mains cable is destroyed.

4.4.4 Emergency lighting systems

Central

1. See Fig. 107a. Here the normal and emergency supplies

and circuitry are separated and the lamp connections
are switched by the change-over switch in the
luminaire.The normal circuit can contain conventional
or HF ballasts; the emergency circuit can have special
ballasts.There is no special Philips solution.

2. See Fig. 107b. Here there is a central change-over

switch and the luminaire contains only the normal HF
ballast circuit.This circuit is the least safe of all circuits,
but also the cheapest one.

Decentralised

3. See Fig. 107c. Here the lamp is continuously being

powered by an HF converter, which receives energy via
the normal mains supply or from the continuously-
loaded battery pack. Should the mains power fail, the
battery can supply the energy necessary for the
required time of operation.The HF converter can be a
special DC low-voltage ballast.
In normal operation the lamp usually has to deliver 100
per cent light output all the time.Therefore the
transformer in the charge unit becomes rather large
for higher wattage lamps.This is the reason that this
circuit is not widely used for permanent (maintained)
lighting.
But this system can be used for non-maintained
operation: the lamp only functions for the specified
time when the mains supply fails.This is possible with
the EM-M and EM-E emergency control unit
(see Fig. 108).

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4.

Fig. 107 Principles of various systems of decentralised and

central emergency lighting provisions.
normal 230V ballast,
AC supply conventional or HF
B

lamp

T
DC emergency supply 107a
transistor ballast

AC supply

HF
ballast lamp

DC emergency supply
107b

DC HF AC
AC supply HF
AC lamp
DC converter

battery
107c

AC supply
lamp

AC HF
DC converter 107d
battery

AC supply
HF lamp
ballast

AC 280V DC
DC 107e
transformer battery

Fig. 107a Normal and emergency supplies and circuitry are

separated; change-over switch in the luminaire.

Fig.107b With central change-over switch and one HF ballast.

Fig. 107c Lamp powered by an HF converter, receiving energy

from a battery pack.

Fig. 107d Emergency circuit parallel to the mains circuit.

Fig. 107e Standard HF ballast used in combination with a

transformer, charger and battery.
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4.

30-65W
6
+ 5
battery
-
4

3
La
2
L
N 1

18-28W

Fig. 108 Wiring diagram: emergency control non-maintained.

4. See Fig. 107d. Here the emergency circuit is connected

in parallel to the normal mains voltage circuit.This is
the most widely used system. By means of a change-
over switch in the luminaire the lamp is powered
either by the emergency circuit or by the mains supply
circuit (maintained), see Fig. 109.
In the emergency situation the lamp can be powered
by less energy than in the normal situation, indicated by
the so-called ballast lumen factor.The ballast lumen
factor is the ratio of the luminous flux from the lamp
when operated on the emergency ballast to that
produced on the reference ballast.The percentage
depends greatly on the type of lamp and batteries used.
For example, see table below for the EM-M controllers,
suitable with electromagnetic gear.

30-65W
6
+
battery 5
-
4 B
3
La
2
L
N 1 S

18-28W N

Fig. 109 Wiring diagram: emergency control maintained.

Ballast Lumen Factors * (Indicative)

Lamp type Luminous flux: Luminous flux:
1-hour supply EM-M 065-01/04 3-hour supply EM-M 065-03/05
‘TL’D 18 W 35 % 30 %
‘TL’D 36 W 20 % 15 %
‘TL’D 38 W 25 % 20 %
‘TL’D 58 W 15 % 10 %
‘TL’ 20 W 40 % 35 %
‘TL’ 40 W 20 % 20 %
‘TL’ 65 W 10 % 10 %
PL-L 18 W 40 % 30 %
PL-L 24 W 30 % 20 %
PL-L 36 W 20 % 15 %
PL-C 18 W 40 % 30 %
PL-C 26 W 30 % 20 %
PL-T 18 W 40 % 30 %
PL-T 26 W 25 % 20 %

* Ballast Lumen Factor: ratio between luminous flux from lamp when operated on emergengy ballast and reference ballast.

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4.

The EM-E controller can also be used in this system

in combination with HF ballasts (see Fig. 110 for EM-M
and Fig. 111 for EM-E). In both EM-E and EM-M
controllers the functions AC/DC, battery, HF converter
and change-over switch are integrated.

6
+
battery 5
- electromagnetic
4 ballast

S1 3
La
2

1 S
L
N
UL

6
+
battery 5
- electromagnetic
4 ballast

S1 3
La
2

1 S
L
N
UL
S
La

Fig. 110 Wiring diagram: emergency control unit EM-M, 1 and

2 lamps.

5. See Fig. 107e. Here the standard HF ballast is used in

combination with a transformer, charger and battery.
Due to the high DC voltage, necessary for the
HF ballast (typically 280 V), this system is rarely used.
The RiEM-DALI controller is more or less like this
system, as it contains all functions (transformer,
AC/DC, battery, HF ballast and change-over switch).

Restrictions for switching

Switching over from the normal situation to the

emergency situation normally causes no problems.When
switching back from emergency to normal operation, care
should be taken for the proper ignition of the lamp. In
the case of conventional ballast circuits it is not allowed
to employ glow-switch starters (see IEC 60598-2-22.6-1),
so electronic starters are to be used.These starters have,
like the HF ballasts, predefined ignition characteristics. In
order to ensure reliable ignition, the change-over switch
has to fulfil certain restrictions.

From Figs 107a to 107e we can distinguish three different

types of switching:

- Switching the input voltage of the HF ballast from AC to

DC or vice versa (Figs 107b and 107e).
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4.

EM-E
emergency unit

+ 1
battery
-
2

3
S1
4 La
HF ballast
L1
5
L2
6
L
7
N
8

L
N
UL

EM-E
emergency unit

+ 1
battery
-
2

3
S1
4 La
HF ballast
L1
5
L2
6
L
7
N
8
La

L
N
UL

Fig. 111 Wiring diagram: emergency control unit EM-E, 1 and

2 lamps.

If there is no input voltage for more than a few

milliseconds (10 to 35 ms, depending on the ballast type),
the ballasts are reset and the lamps extinguish.This
means that the lamps have to start again when the input
voltage is restored. If the change-over switch reacts
within these few milliseconds, the lamps continue
burning. But in most cases the switch-over time is
longer and then the warm start ballasts cannot fulfil the
requirement of the maximum switch-over time of 0.25 s
(if necessary).
As the contacts of the switch or relays have to be
suitable for a DC voltage of 300 V and for the inrush
currents, special switch gear is necessary.

- Restoring the mains supply after an emergency or after

the emergency test procedure (Figs 107a and 107d).
The lamps will only burn on the AC supply when the
switch-over switch is in the up position. If it is not in
that position, the HF ballast or electronic starter will
'see' no lamp and so the ignition process will stop after
a few seconds. It will restart again when the change-over
switch is put in the up position.To avoid possible ignition
problems, it is recommended to let the lamp function
on the emergency circuit for at least 3 seconds after
the restoration of the mains supply before switching to
the AC circuit.

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4.

- Lamp change-over from emergency to normal AC

circuit and vice versa.
Switching the lamp from one circuit to the other can be
done by switching all the lamp terminals with a 4-pole
relay.
The circuit diagram depends on the converter and ballast
used. Due to the great variation in converter and ballast
circuits, no general circuit diagram can be given. In case
a certain converter has to be combined with a Philips
ballast, the local Philips sales organisation can provide
the optimum circuit diagram on request.

4.4.5 The standard and regulating

HF ballast with standard lamps
The Philips HF ballast can be used on a DC voltage for
emergency lighting, although only for relatively short
periods.This is possible because it contains a diode
bridge circuit, which transforms the customary AC
voltage into a DC voltage.The buffer capacitor of the
ballast ensures that the rectified voltage is higher than
the r.m.s. value of the AC voltage from the mains (280 V
instead of 230 V).This means that the older types of HF
ballast must be operated with a 280 V DC voltage if the
lamp is to provide the same luminous flux as that obtained
with 230 V AC. However, if the ballast is operated on a
DC voltage of, for example, 220 V, the luminous flux will
be approx. 20 per cent lower.
The newer types of HF ballasts contain an up-converter
giving 100 per cent light output at 230 V DC.
The third-harmonic ripple in the supply voltage should be
limited to < 1.5 %.
As the lamp side of the ballast is functioning similar to
the normal AC operation, all lamp-related information of
Sections 4.1 and 4.2 is applicable, but the normal lifetime
and failure rate of the gear cannot be guaranteed by
continuous operation on DC. Especially low DC voltages
(<198V) can influence the lifetime of the ballast.
For a continuous DC application, an external fuse should
be used in the luminaire.

For the HF ballast a DC voltage range is specified.

From the table below it can be seen that for a nominal
emergency supply voltage of approx. 220 V the
requirements can be fulfilled.
For universal use, the lamps have to be (re-)ignited within
0.25 seconds of applying the restored mains voltage.This
is not possible with the warm-start versions HF-P and HF-R.

Various HF ballasts with their DC voltage range and re-ignition time

HF ballast Voltage range DC (V) Ignition < 0.25 sec
Guaranteed ignition Stable burning
HF-B 198-254 176-254 Yes
HF-R 198-254 176-254 No
Most HF-P 198-254 176-254 No
HF-P TL5C 196-276 176-276

One lamp:
HF-P PLL18/24 154-276 154-276 No
HF-P PL-T/PLC

All ballasts start within 2 seconds and can be employed in

less critical applications.
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4.

4.4.6 Products – Emergency control gear

The components EM-E and EM-M are designed for use in
decentralised systems only.They include a battery charge
and discharge control with LED signalling and mains-failure
detection.The wiring is simple: with a separate ballast the
products are suitable for maintained operation and
without a separate ballast for non-maintained operation.
In the ‘emergency’ mode (mains power off) the unit can
be switched off by means of the control input.
This can be realised by a switching contact or a DC
voltage of 3....15 V, see Fig. 112 (a pulse contact or voltage
with duration more than 0.1 second is sufficient). In this
way the battery will not be uncharged in cases where the
mains supply is off, but there is no emergency situation.
Switching-in can be done by restoring the mains supply.
The maximum cable length between unit and lamp is
restricted to 1.5 metres.

30-65W
6
+
battery 5
-
- 4

S1 3
+ La
2
L
N 1

18-28W

30-65W
6
+ 5
battery
-
4

3-15V DC 3
La
2
L
N 1

18-28W
Fig. 112 Saving battery by extra switch or DC voltage.

The HF-RiEM DALI converter is an intelligent micro-

processor-controlled emergency unit with integrated
ballast for one TL5 fluorescent lamp of 14, 28, 35 or 49 W,
see Fig. 113. By means of the DALI protocol these can be
dimmed down to give a minimum of 3 per cent of normal
light level.The converter includes the function of an
automatic emergency system check (programmable per
day, week or quarter) for ballast, lamp and battery
performance.The various system failures are displayed by
the blinking LED, with for each fault a different sequence.

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4.

28/35/49W
DALI
HF-R 1xx TL5 DALI
status emergency
indication
UL
LED'S L +
mains N -
communication
battery pack connector
(1 hour and 3 hours)

Fig. 113 The HF-RiEM DALI emergency unit.

4.4.7 Battery information

After four years of use, the battery capacitance has to be
sufficient to fulfil the requirements of 1 or 3 hours
running after a mains switch off.
Parameters that influence the capacity are:
- magnitude of the battery charge current
- magnitude of the battery discharge current
- total number of test/discharge cycles
- ambient temperature in charge and discharge mode

Batteries are supplied in the uncharged condition. Before

using the emergency mode, it is necessary to charge the
battery pack for at least 24 hours to fulfil the 1- or
3-hour requirement. Mark the date label on the battery
packs before using.
Store batteries in a dry location with low humidity, where
no corrosive gases are present, and at a temperature of
between -20 ºC and +45 ºC.
The battery packs have to be of a high temperature type,
see Fig. 114 which gives the capacity decrease of the
battery as function of the temperature.

capacity ratio (%)

0
11
0
10
90
80
70
60
50

20

30

60
10

40
0

50
-1

ambient temp. (˚C)

Fig. 114 Battery capacity ratio as function of the temperature.

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4.

4.5 The fluorescent induction lamp

system (QL)

4.5.1 Preface
The QL lamp system represents a totally new concept of
light generation based on the principles of induction and
gas discharge.This distinctive lamp system therefore has
to be classified in a separate family of sources, the so-called
QL induction lighting systems.
Although the light emission in the lamp is still based on
the gas-discharge principle, the ionisation itself occurs
without the use of electrodes.This provides the QL lamp
system with an extremely long life in the order of 60 000
hours. It offers possibilities in lighting systems for
applications that until now were impractical or
uneconomical because of excessive maintenance
requirements or in those applications where the lighting
is used intensively.
QL systems are primarily meant to be fully integrated
into luminaire/lighting systems.
Special information for luminaire manufacturers is available
from Philips Lighting sales organisations (publication no.
3222 635 21921, dated 12/99).

4.5.2 Introduction (see Fig. 115)

Induction lighting is based on the well-known principles

of induction and light generation by way of a gas
discharge. Induction is the transportation of energy using
an electromagnetic field. A practical example is a
transformer, which consists of an iron or ferrite core
with a primary and a secondary coil (or ring, see Fig. 115a).
An alternating current Ip through the primary coil
(Fig. 115b) induces an alternating electromagnetic field in
the ferrite core and the space around that core.This
alternating field in turn induces an alternating secondary
current in the secondary coil or ring (Is).
The higher the frequency of the alternating current, the
higher the efficiency of the system.
In an induction lamp system the (metal) vapour or gas can
be seen as forming the secondary coil or ring (Fig. 115c).
This means that the induced current (Is) circulates
through the metal vapour or gas, causing the acceleration
of free electrons, which collide with the vapour or gas
atoms and bring electrons to a higher level (energy
state). Electrons from excited atoms fall back from this
higher energy state to the lower stable level and
consequently emit ultraviolet photons.The UV photons
interact with the fluorescent powder on the wall of the
discharge vessel, whereby visible light is generated.

4.5.3 General construction and working

principle
The QL lamp system consists of three mutually
dependent main components (Fig. 116).
A:The lamp (discharge vessel)
B:The power coupler (construction base with antenna,
heat sink and electrical connection cable)
C:The HF generator (electronics including housing)

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4.

Fig. 115 Working principle of the fluorescent induction lamp.

ferrite
core
Hi

primary
coil Ip
Is

secondary
coil (or ring)

visible light
metal vapour atom

UV
fluorescent
powder

Is

Fig. 115a and Fig. 115b Induction principle.

Fig. 115c Discharge principle.

The QL discharge vessel is basically a glass bulb

containing a low-pressure mercury vapour (Fig. 117).The
walls are coated on the inside with a fluorescent powder
of any of the modern three-line phosphor types. At the
present time, the colours /827 (2700 K), /830 (3000 K)
and /840 (4000 K) are available.

Fig. 116 General view of the QL lamp system.

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4.

The discharge in the vessel is supplied by means of an

alternating electromagnetic field (induction) generated by
an antenna (induction coil) – thus without the help of
electrodes.The cylindrical antenna, which forms part of
the so-called power coupler, is located in a cavity inside
the discharge vessel.
A mercury amalgam mixture, housed in a reservoir
attached to the discharge vessel, helps maintain the light
output at a more or less constant level over a large
temperature range.To ensure a short run-up time, use is
made of a so-called auxiliary amalgam positioned close to
the discharge.
The glass bulb is fixed to the bottom part of the power
coupler by means of the plastics lamp base (Fig. 118).

fluorescent
coating

cavity

auxiliary amalgam

mercury amalgam mixture

lamp cap

Fig. 117 The discharge vessel.

Fig. 118 Mounting the discharge vessel on the power coupler.

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4.

These two parts need to be assembled only once during

the construction of the system and, due to their very
long life, need normally never be disassembled.
The power coupler (Fig. 119) is that part of the QL lamp
system that transfers the energy from the HF generator
to the discharge. It consists of a plastics support, housing
the antenna, a coaxial connecting cable, and a heat
conductor with mounting flange.
The antenna, which is located in a cavity in the centre of
the discharge vessel, includes a coil and a ferrite core,
which produce a high-frequency electromagnetic field
(2.65 MHz +/- 10 %).

ferrite core
(inside) antenna
coil

heat conduction rod

(inside)

coaxial cable

mounting flange

Fig. 119 Power coupler.

The alternating electromagnetic field provides the energy

to the gas discharge inside the discharge vessel.The
redundant heat produced by the coil and the discharge is
removed to the mounting flange by means of a
conducting rod, which is located inside the antenna.
The mounting flange also ensures the mechanical
connection between the lamp and the luminaire.The
fixation is by means of screws.
The electrical connection between the antenna and the
HF generator is formed by a shielded coaxial cable. It is
permanently fixed on the antenna side but can be (dis-)
connected on the side of the HF generator by means of a
screw connector to facilitate mounting of the lamp
system in the luminaire.The length of the cable is about
400 mm. Since the cable forms part of the oscillator
circuit, its length may not be changed.
The HF generator consists of an oscillator, which supplies
the high-frequency power to the antenna to initiate and
maintain a gas discharge in the glass vessel. It also acts as
a pre-conditioner, taking care of the oscillator power
supply and filtering in the direction of the mains. In
addition, it provides a very good power factor and a low
harmonic distortion of the mains.
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4.

All the electronics are housed in a metal box with a dual

function to ensure proper functioning of the electronics:
screening against Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) and
heat conduction.
If the metal housing and power coupler are properly
electrically connected to earth, the system will in
principle satisfy all (inter)national requirements regarding
electromagnetic compatibility.

4.5.4 Steady operation

The high-frequency power signal is generated by the
oscillator circuit at a frequency of 2.65 MHz.This
frequency not only guarantees the most efficient power
coupling to the discharge vessel, but also has the
advantage of not being occupied by normal broadcast
bands, which reduces the risk of radio interference.
For the same reason, meticulous care has been taken to
generate a pure sine wave, as this waveform contains no
harmonics, which would give rise to difficult-to-suppress
high-frequency interference signals.
The UV-radiation level of QL lamps is not higher than
that of any 80-series fluorescent lamp.
Apart from visible light, the QL lamp system emits a
certain amount of invisible infrared radiation.This
radiation is modulated with the frequency of the lamp
current (2.65 MHz).This means that IR interference is
extremely low – lower even than with other HF
fluorescent lamp systems.

4.5.5 Ignition and run-up

For fast and reliable starting, a high-voltage (>1500 V) and
short (100 ms) ignition pulse is sent through the antenna
coil.The ignition pulse is powerful enough to also ensure
reliable hot restrike of the lamp after a power
interruption.
The ignition pulse first initiates a capacitive glow discharge
near the wall of the power coupler cavity in a similar way
to that produced by the external conductive strip or
wire along the discharge tube that is used as a starting
aid in several other lamp types.The glow discharge
generates sufficient free electrons by ionisation to release
the main arc discharge, which is sustained by inductive
power coupling.
The discharge of the QL induction lamp system is of the
low-pressure type.This means that the luminous flux is
dependent on the density of the metal atoms in the gas
filling.This density is related to the vapour pressure,
which in turn is controlled by the temperature of the
coldest spot of the discharge vessel.
The run-up process from a completely cooled-down
system is characterised by a steady increase of the
temperature inside the discharge vessel. However, if
nothing were done to speed it up, the corresponding
increase of the light output would be a slow process.This
is because the main amalgam (the vapour pressure and
light output controller) is located at a remote cool spot
far from the centre of the discharge, in one of the exhaust
tubes at the bottom. An auxiliary amalgam is therefore
employed, which is found on the wall of the cavity that
houses the power coupler, a spot that most quickly gains
temperature during the run-up period, see Fig 120.

Page 130/131
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4.

fluorescent
coating

cavity

auxiliary amalgam

mercury amalgam mixture

lamp cap

Fig. 120 A capacitive glow discharge precedes the main arc

discharge.

After ignition, the auxiliary amalgam heats up very quickly

and starts releasing mercury. From this moment on,
during the following run-up period, the temperature of
the bulb wall determines the mercury vapour pressure,
just as in a normal fluorescent lamp. If a QL lamp system
is switched on after a complete cool-down, the light
output will very rapidly (within 10-15 seconds) increase
to about the stabilised level.
The increasing temperature in the discharge vessel heats
up the main amalgam, which slowly starts to control the
final mercury pressure.The complete run-up process –
although scarcely noticeable in terms of light output –
takes well over one hour (see Fig. 121).
The ignition time of the system is less than 0.1 second.
The hot-restrike time is also less than 0.1 second.
The minimum ambient temperature for ignition is -20 ºC.

Φ (%)
0
12
0
10
80
60
40
20
0
1

10

00
10

10

t (sec)
Fig. 121 Relative light output during run-up.

4.5.6 Luminous efficacy

At present, the system efficacy of QL fluorescent induction
lamps is 65, 70 or 73 lm/W at a power of 55, 85 or 165 W.
By comparison, the system efficacy of integrated compact
fluorescent lamp types (SL and PL*Electronic) varies
between 40 and 65 lm/W.
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4.

4.5.7 Energy balance and influence of

ambient temperature
Fig. 122 shows the energy balance of the 85 W QL lamp
system. It appears that 17 per cent of the input power is
converted into visible and (very little) UV radiation, the
rest being 'lost' in the form of heat. Part of the heat is
generated in the induction coil of the power coupler,
where the temperature can rise to as high as 250 ºC.
Lamp performance in terms of luminous flux, however, is
principally determined by the temperature of the main
amalgam, which is located in one of the exhaust tubes at
the bottom of the bulb. Adequate lamp performance, that
is to say a luminous flux of more than 85 per cent of the
nominal value, is obtained if the temperature of the main
amalgam is maintained within the range of 50 ºC to 105 ºC
(see Fig. 123).The amalgam temperature is influenced by
the outside ambient temperature, the burning position,
and the thermal insulation properties of the luminaire.

total system 85W

circuit antenna discharge vessel

9W 4W 72W

stem heat on bulb light

10W 48W 14W

circuit through heat-pipe through bulb wall light

9W 14W 48W 14W

Fig. 122 Energy balance of an 85 W QL lamp system.

Heat losses 9 + 14 + 48 W = 71 W, and 14 W light power.

Φ (lm) system power (W)

00

0
90 10
60

85%
00
54
00

80
48

P
0
0

70
42

Φ
00

60
36
00 00

50
24 30

40
60

70

0
30

40

50

80

90

0
12
10

11

13

amalgam temp. (˚C)

Fig. 123 Curves showing the relationship between amalgam

temperature and dissipated power and luminous flux,
respectively, for an 85 W QL system.

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4.

Though it is an efficient light source, still a lot of heat is

created at the bulb wall from where it is subsequently
removed by convection and radiation.The generated
power on the outer part of the bulb gives rise to a
temperature exceeding the ambient temperature by
nearly 100 ºC.The coolest spots of the discharge vessel
are the exhaust tubes located in the base. But even these
can reach a temperature of up to 100 ºC.
The temperature of the inner glass part of the bulb (stem)
is much higher than the temperature of both the exhaust
tube and the bulb wall.

4.5.8 Stray radiation and radio interference

Because the QL lamp system makes use of a relatively
high operating frequency compared to conventional light
sources, the electromagnetic radiation has been
investigated extensively with regard to interference with
the environment and hazardous radiation.
The system in itself will fulfil all standards relating to
Electro-Magnetic Compatibility (EMC Class A for the
165 W and Class A&B for the 55 and 85 W types).
To ensure that electrical or electronic systems will not
cause unacceptable interference with the environment,
regulations have been laid down that set limits to the
emitted interference (see Section 2.3).

4.5.9 Lamp life and depreciation

At present, the indicated life expectancy of a QL lamp
system is 60 000 hours, (or almost fifteen years of
continuous operation, based on 4000 burning hours per
year and 10 % failures). For practical reasons, this value is
not based purely upon tests carried out on a large
number of lamps under rated conditions, but also on
calculations on the basis of known data on the
depreciation rate of the phosphors used and the statistical
failure chance of the individual electronic components.
The assumption that a light output depreciation of 30 per
cent is the maximum acceptable value for economic
operation resulted in a lifetime of 60 000 operating hours.
The corresponding expected failure rate is less than
10 per cent.
Lifetime measurements on QL systems and their
performance in actual practice support these figures.
Moreover, the QL design is such that in the case of an
early failure, only the defective part needs to be replaced.

4.5.10 Electrical aspects

Like in the standard HF frequency system, the following
electrical functions can be found (see Fig. 124):
- radio interference filter,
- AC/DC converter,
- buffer capacitor,
- high-frequency oscillator,
- stabilisation coil L1.
The power coupler with its coaxial cable forms part of
the 2.65 MHz oscillator.Therefore, in order not to
disturb the resonance circuits, the length of the coaxial
cable should not be made any longer or shorter.The coil
L2 of the power coupler acts as the primary winding of a
transformer.The secondary winding is formed by the
discharge current in the vessel.
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4.

L1 C2

RFI AC C1
filter L2 lamp
DC
0

HF
energy generator power
preconditioner buffer 2.65 MHz coupler

Fig. 124 Electrical circuit diagram of the QL lamp system.

The nominal mains voltage is 230 V / 50 or 60 Hz with a

permissible voltage fluctuation from 190 to 255 V. Fig. 125
gives the lamp light output as a function of mains voltage.
The power factor is higher than 0.96 capacitive.
The inrush current is maximum 45 A peak with a half-value
time less than 350 µs for the 55/85 W version and
45A/500 µs for the 165 W, both 230 V versions
(see Fig. 126).With a simple solid-state relay the inrush
current can be limited to about 3 to 4 A.

%
0 5
12 12
5
11

Φ
Pm
0

η
11

Im
5
10
0
10
95

0
80

90
95

0
85

5
11
10

10

11

Vm (V)

Fig. 125 Influence of mains voltage fluctuations for a QL lamp

system.

Typical voltage and current values for QL system

Inrush current 1/2 value time at typical mains impedance
Vnom lmax / τ
QL 55W S/03 230V 45A / 350µs
QL 85W S/03 230V 45A / 350µs
QL 165W S/01 230V 45A / 500µs
QL 55W S/13 120V 25A / 550µs
QL 85W S/13 120V 25A / 550µs

inrush current (%)

0
10

S/03 S/01 S/13

55W 85W 165W 55W 85W
240mA 400mA 700mA 460mA 710mA
50

t
0
0

µs
Fig. 126 Inrush current of the QL systems.

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4.

The QL system can also operate directly on a DC mains

voltage of 220-240 V for nominal light output, and the
required battery voltage for guaranteed ignition is from
190 to 264 V.The plus-pole must be connected to the live
terminal and the minus-pole to the neutral.
When switching signals are transmitted via the mains,
filter coils are recommended (Cin HF generator: 660 nF).
Versions for a mains supply of 120 V 50/60 Hz are available
for the QL 55 and 85 W.

4.5.11 Installation aspects

- The coax cable between HF generator and the antenna
is carefully chosen to match EMC requirements and to
ensure proper functioning. It should never be made any
longer or shorter.
- The length of the supply cables close to the discharge
vessel and coaxial power coupler cable should be
minimised.They should be positioned as far as possible
from the discharge vessel. If the distance to the
discharge vessel is less than 1 m, an extra earth shielding
for the supply cables is advised.
- Never switch the lamp system on with the discharge
vessel removed.
- For safety reasons, it is recommended that the metal
case of the HF generator be connected to the earth
terminal (Class I).
- The HF generator should be mounted in such a way
that the maximum permissible case temperature tc at
the test point is less than 65 ºC in all circumstances.
- In the case of failure or damage to one of the three
main components, the component concerned can be
serviced separately.
- In the case of lamp failure or breakage of the bulb, the
system will automatically switch off.The situation can be
reset by switching off for about 15-30 seconds.
- Although the permissible burning position is universal,
there is a difference in the luminous flux between the
base-up and base-down position in combination with a
specific luminaire design (see Fig. 127).
- The system includes a flicker-free start.
- The system has an over-voltage protection, which can
handle a voltage of 320 AV for 48 hours and 350 V for
2 hours.
- See Fig. 128 for survivals and lumen maintenance as
function of the burning hours.
- The light output varies with the ambient temperature
and cooling properties of the luminaire (see Fig. 129).

luminous flux (%)

0
10
80

luminous flux
base-up
60

luminous flux
base-down
40
20
0

10
0
0

20

30
-2

-1
-3

ambient temp. (˚C)

Fig. 127 Influence of the burning position on the light output

of a QL lamp.
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4.

survivals (%) Φ (%)

0
10

10
90

90
80

80
70

70
60

60
50
50

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
00

00
0

0
00

00
00

00
00

00
00

00
00

00
80

80
60

60
20

20
40

40
10

10
burning time (hrs) burning time (hrs)

Fig. 128 Survivals and lumen maintenance as function of

burning hours.

Φ (%)
0
10
80

low heat dissipation

high heat dissipation
60
40
20
0

30
0

40
0

20

50
10
-3
-5

-4

-2

-1

ambient temp. (˚C)

Φ (%)
0
10
80
60
40

temperature dependence for a dosed street

luminaire with the recommended sirk
20
0

30
0

40
0

20

50
10
-3
-4

-2

-1

ambient temp. (˚C)

Fig. 129 Light output as function of the ambient temperature

and heat dissipation.

Page 136/137
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5.

El ectromag n et i c
l amp control g ea r

5.1 Ballasts

5.1.1 Main ballast functions

In Section 2.1 of this Guide, General aspects – Main
ballast functions, the main functions of ballasts have been
described.The term 'ballasts' is generally reserved for
current-limiting devices, including resistors, choke coils
and (autoleak) transformers. Other items of auxiliary
equipment are compensating capacitors, filter coils
and starters or ignitors. Some systems use an
additional series capacitor for stabilisation.With all these
components all the control functions that are necessary
for the operation of standard fluorescent lamps can be
carried out.
Special arrangements such sequence start, constant
wattage and dimming circuits will not be described in this
Guide. Such circuits are being replaced by the modern
high-frequency (HF) systems.

5.1.2 Stabilisation
In Section 3.2, Stabilisation, the need for current
stabilisation in fluorescent lamps has been described,
resulting in the following two formulae:

/
Ilamp = (Vmains - Vlamp) Zballast

and: Plamp = Vlamp . Ilamp . α lamp

where Ilamp = the current through the lamp

Vmains = the mains voltage
Vlamp = the voltage across the lamp
Zballast = the impedance of the ballast
Plamp = the power of the lamp
α lamp = a constant called lamp factor

From these formulae it can be concluded that the power

of the lamp (and therefore the light output) is influenced
by:
- the lamp voltage Vlamp, which in turn is highly dependent
on the operating temperature (see Section 5.3.12:
Ambient and operating temperatures) and on the lamp
current, according to the negative lamp characteristic
(see Section 3.2: Stabilisation).
- the lamp current Ilamp, which is dependent on the mains
voltage (see Section 5.3.13: Effects of mains voltage
fluctuations), the lamp voltage and the linearity of the
ballast impedance.
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5.

In order to avoid undesirable variations in light output as

a consequence of mains-voltage fluctuations, the lamp
voltage must be not more than approximately half the
value of the mains voltage (100 to 130 V), and the
impedance should be as linear as possible.

5.1.3 Ignition and re-ignition

In Section 3.3, Lamps, Ignition, the need for ignition of a
fluorescent lamp has been described.
In the case of electromagnetic control gear, a combination
of preheating and a high ignition peak is obtained by using
a normal choke ballast and a preheat starter or an
electronic ignitor.

Energy is supplied to the discharge in the form of

electrons.The lamp current, just like the mains voltage, is
sinusoidal, with a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz. If the energy
flow is zero (at lamp current reversal), the lamp stops
burning and in theory would have to be re-ignited.
This could be done by supplying additional energy to the
electrodes via a higher lamp voltage, the way it is done
when initially starting the lamp. But from the moment the
lamp has reached its stationary condition, the lamp
voltage is constant.
And yet, in practice, the lamp does not extinguish at
current reversal.Why not?
The phase shift introduced by the inductive element of
the ballast ensures that the mains voltage is not zero at
that moment. Because of the inductive properties of
choke coil ballasts a phase shift occurs between the
mains voltage and the lamp current (see Fig. 130). So, at
the moment of current reversal, the lamp voltage would
be equal to the mains voltage, since the voltage over the
ballast is zero.The difference (gap) between the mains
voltage and the average lamp voltage as a consequence of
the phase shift ensures proper re-ignition of the lamp at
the moment the current passes the point of reversal
(zero-point A in figure).

V, A
Vm
Il
gap

Vl
t
ϕ

Fig. 130 Phase shift between supply voltage and lamp current
(and lamp voltage) in a discharge lamp with an inductive
ballast. In the case shown, the supply voltage is sufficiently to
re-ignite the lamp after every current reversal.

5.1.4 Types of ballasts

1 Resistor ballasts

Current limitation by means of resistor ballasts is a very

uneconomic form of current limitation, because in the
resistor electrical energy is dissipated in the form of heat.
Nevertheless, until the advent of electronic circuitry, use
of a series resistor was the only way of stabilising

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5.

fluorescent lamps operated on DC, for example, the

'TL'R lamp (see Fig. 131). For stable operation on a
resistor ballast, it is necessary that the supply voltage be
at least twice the lamp voltage under operating
conditions.This means that the ballast will dissipate 50
per cent of the power. A considerable improvement in
efficiency can, however, be achieved by using a resistor with
a very pronounced positive temperature characteristic
(an ordinary or specially constructed incandescent lamp
serves well for this purpose). A temperature-dependent
resistor compensates for variations in the lamp current
resulting from variations in the mains voltage, which
means that the no-load voltage need be no more than 25
to 30 per cent higher than the lamp voltage.This is also
the proportion of the power dissipated by the ballast
compared to the total circuit power.

‘TL’ R
+

-
Fig. 131 Schematic diagram of a fluorescent lamp operated
on a resistor ballast in a DC circuit.

2 Capacitor ballasts

A capacitor used as a ballast causes only very little losses,

but cannot be used by itself, as this would give rise to
very high peaks in the lamp current wave-form at each
half cycle. Only at very high frequencies can a capacitor
serve satisfactorily as a ballast.

3 Inductive ballasts or chokes

Choke coils are frequently used as current limiting

devices in gas-discharge lamp circuits (see Fig. 132).They
cause somewhat higher losses than a capacitor, but
produce far less distortion in the lamp current at 50 Hz.
Moreover, in combination with a switch starter, they can
be made to produce the high voltage pulse needed to
ignite the lamp.

B
Ib + - + Vl -
La
+
Vm S
Il

0
-
Fig. 132 Schematic diagram of a fluorescent lamp operated
on a choke ballast in an AC starter circuit.

In practice, a choke ballast consists of a large number of

windings of copper wire on a laminated iron core. It
operates on the self-inductance principle.The impedance
of such a ballast must be chosen in accordance with the
mains supply voltage and frequency, the lamp type and the
voltage of the lamp, to ensure that the lamp current is at
the correct value. In other words, each type of lamp
requires for each supply voltage its own choke as a ballast
with a specific impedance setting.
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5.

Heat losses, occurring through the ohmic resistance of

the windings and hysteresis in the core, much depend
upon the mechanical construction of the ballast and the
diameter of the copper wire.
The right ballast for a given lamp and supply voltage
should be chosen by consulting documentation and/or
ballast markings.
The Philips standard range of ballasts is for supply
voltages of 220/230/240 V and for frequencies of 50/60 Hz.
The most important value for stabilisation is the ballast
impedance. It is expressed as the voltage-current ratio in
ohm (Ω) and is defined for a certain mains voltage, mains
frequency and calibration current (normally the nominal
lamp current).

Chokes can be used for virtually all discharge lamps,

provided that one condition is fulfilled: the mains voltage
should be about twice the arc voltage of the lamp. If the
mains voltage is too low, another type of circuit should
be used, such as the autoleak or constant-wattage circuits.

The advantages of a choke coil are:

- The wattage losses are low in comparison to those of a
resistor,
- It is a simple circuit: the ballast is connected in series
with the lamp.

Disadvantages of a choke coil are:

- The current in a lamp with choke circuit exhibits a
phase shift with respect to the applied voltage, the
current lagging behind the voltage, resulting in a power
factor of approx. 0.5 inductive (see also Section 5.3.4:
Power factor correction).
- A high starting current: in inductive circuits the starting
current is about 1.5 times the rated current.
- Sensitivity to mains voltage fluctuations: variations in the
mains voltage cause variations in the current through
the lamp.

5.1.5 Ballast specification and marking

There are two ways of selecting the right ballast for a
certain lamp or comparing various ballasts:
1.The ballast marking,
2.The manufacturer's documentation.
As all ballasts have to comply with the norm IEC 920/921,
some data has to be marked on the ballast and other
data can be mentioned in the documentation.

On the ballast can be found:

- Marks of origin, such as the manufacturer's name or
trade mark, model or reference number, country of
origin, production date code,
- Rated supply voltage and frequency, nominal ballast
current(s),
- Type(s) of lamp with rated wattage,
- Type(s) of ignitor with wiring diagram and peak voltage
if this exceeds 1500 V,
- tw and ∆t (see Section 5.1.6),
- Maximum cross-section of mains or lamp cable;
e.g. 4 means 4 mm2,
- Symbols of the officially recognised certification
institutes, such as VDE, SEMKO, SEV, KEMA, if applicable;
CE marking for safety,

Page 140/141
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5.

- in the case of an independent ballast: the symbol ; an

independent ballast is a ballast that is intended to be
mounted separately outside a luminaire and without any
additional enclosure,
- a symbol like TOP if there are mounting restrictions,
- F-marking if the ballast fulfils the IEC F-requirements;
that means it is suitable to be mounted directly on
normally flammable surfaces,
- TS, P-marking or if the ballast is thermally
protected (* = thermo-switch temperature in degrees
Celsius),
- indication of terminals: L for single phase, N for neutral,
for protective earth (PE), for functional earth,
- rated voltage, capacitance and tolerance of separate
series capacitor.

In the documentation can be found:

- weight,
- overall and mounting dimensions,
- power factor (λ, P.F. or cos ϕ),
- compensating capacitor value and voltage for λ = 0.85
or 0.9,
- mains current nominal and during running-up, both with
and without power factor correction,
- watt losses (normally in cold condition),
- description of version, e.g. open impregnated, 'plastic'
encapsulated, potted or compound filled.

This information suffices to find the right ballast for a

certain application. Additional information can be
obtained on request or can be found in special application
notes. Philips ballasts are designed for use with IEC
standardised fluorescent lamps and can be found on the
website catalogue.

5.1.6 Maximum coil temperature t w and ∆T

A ballast, like most electrical components, generates heat
due to its ohmic resistance and magnetic losses. Each
component has a maximum temperature that may not be
exceeded. For ballasts it is the temperature of the choke
coil during operation that is important.The maximum
permissible coil temperature tw is marked on the ballast.
Coil insulating material, in combination with lacquer,
encapsulation material, etc., is so chosen that below that
temperature the life specified for the ballast is achieved.
A tw value of 130 ºC is usual nowadays with a coil
insulating class F (150 ºC) or class H (180 ºC).
Under standard conditions, an average ballast life of ten
years may be expected in the case of continuous
operation at a coil temperature of tw ºC. As a rule of
thumb, a 10 ºC temperature rise above the tw value will
halve its expected life (see Fig. 133). If, for instance, the
operating temperature is 20 ºC above the tw value, one
may expect a ballast life of 2.5 years of continuous
operation. If no tw value is marked on the ballast, a
maximum of 105 ºC is assumed for the coil temperature.
As the ballast normally does not function continuously,
the actual life of the ballast can be very long. It also takes
some hours before the thermal equilibrium is reached in
the ballast, which again increases the practical ballast
lifetime.
To verify the tw marking, accelerated lifetime tests are done
at ballast temperatures above 200 ºC for 30 or 60 days.
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5.

temp. (°C)

0
25
0
20
(c)
(b)

0
15
(a)

0
10

0,1

1,0

10
t (years)

Fig. 133 The nominal life of choke coils in relation to the

permitted rated maximum operating temperatu-re of a ballast
winding tw, dependent on insulation material:
a) class A: tw 105 ºC,
b) class E: tw 120 ºC,
c) class F or H: tw 130 ºC.

Another value marked on the ballast is the coil

temperature rise ∆t.This is the difference between the
absolute coil temperature and the ambient temperature
in standard conditions, and is measured by a method
specified in IEC Publication 920 (EN 60920).
Common values for ∆t are from 50 to 70 degrees in
steps of 5 degrees.
The coil temperature rise is measured by measuring the
ohmic resistance of the cold and warm copper coil and
using the formula:

∆t = {(R2 - R1)/R1} . (234.5 + t1) - (t2 - t1)

or:
tc = R2/R1 . (t1 + 234.5) - 234.5 (IEC 598-1 Appendix E)

where:
R1 = initial cold coil resistance in ohm
R2 = warm coil resistance in ohm
t2 = ambient temperature at measuring R2 in Celsius
t1 = ambient temperature at measuring R1 in Celsius
tc = calculated warm coil temperature in Celsius
∆t = tc - t2 in Kelvin
The value 234.5 applies to copper wire; in case of
aluminium wire, the value 229 should be used.

So a ballast marked with tw 130 and ∆t 70, will have the

specified 10 years average life in continuous operation at
standard conditions at an ambient temperature of
130 º - 70 º = 60 ºC.When the ambient temperature
around the ballast is higher, a shorter ballast life has to be
accepted or sufficient air circulation or cooling has to be
applied.
The so-called ambient temperature mentioned in this
section is not the room or outside temperature, but the
temperature of the micro-environment of the ballast.
Built into a luminaire or ballast box, the air temperature
around the ballast is higher than the outside ambient
temperature.This higher temperature has to be added to
the coil temperature rise ∆t to find the absolute coil
temperature: tc = t2 + ∆t.

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5.

Additionally, a third temperature figure can be mentioned

on the ballast: the ballast temperature rise in abnormal
conditions, again measured according to specifications
such as EN 60920. In short: it is the winding temperature
rise at 110 per cent mains voltage when the glow-switch
starter, belonging to the system, is short-circuited.

The marking of the three temperature markings should be:

∆t ** / *** / t w *** with * = figure

Example: ∆t 70 / 140 / tw 130.

5.1.7 Watt losses

Ballast losses are normally published as 'cold' values,
meaning that the ballast is either not energised, or at
most only very shortly, and the ballast winding is at
ambient temperature (25 ºC). In practice the ballast will
more or less reach the marked ∆t value and then the
copper resistance is approx. 25 per cent higher than in the
'cold' situation.Therefore the 'warm' losses in practice
will be 10 - 30 per cent higher than the published values.
Since in some applications the power consumption is of
prime importance, there are low-loss ballasts for the
major lamp types 'TL'D 18, 36 and 58 W ( BTA**L31LW).
The 18 W and 36 W LW ballasts are bigger than the
standard types, resulting in lower ballast temperatures
and 25 to 30 per cent less ballast watt losses. Due to
practical restrictions, the BTA 58L31LW type could not
be made bigger.The 15 per cent lower ballast losses are
the result of a better iron lamination quality, while the
ballast temperatures are only slightly lower than those of
the standard types are.

5.2 Starters

5.2.1 Main starter functions

Fluorescent lamps do not ignite at mains voltage.To ignite
the lamps, a starter is employed to preheat the lamp
electrodes and to give a peak voltage high enough to
initiate the discharge.
So in fact there is only one basic function for a starter: to
deliver the ignition voltage to start the discharge in a
fluorescent lamp in a proper way. After ignition, the
starter has to stop producing ignition peaks.This can be
obtained by sensing the lamp voltage or lamp current
and/or by a timer function.

5.2.2 Starter types

There are two types of fluorescent lamp starters:

1. Glow-switch starters

The glow-switch starter consists of one or two bimetallic

electrodes enclosed in a glass container filled with a
noble gas.The starter is connected in parallel to the lamp
in such a way that the preheat current can run through
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5.

Fig. 134 Working principle of a glow-discharge starter circuit.

1.The heat from the discharge in the starter bulb causes the
bimetallic electrodes to bend together.

2.When the bimetallic electrodes make contact, a current

starts to flow through the circuit that is sufficient for
preheating the electrodes of the fluorescent lamp.

3.The bimetallic electrodes cool down and open again, causing

a voltage peak, which ignites the fluorescent lamp.

the lamp electrodes when the starter is closed (Fig. 134).

At the moment of switching on the mains voltage, the
total mains voltage is across the open glow-switch starter.
This results in a glow discharge starting between the
bimetallic electrodes of the starter.The glow discharge
causes a temperature increase in these bimetallic
electrodes, resulting in the closure of the electrodes of
the starter. During this closure, the lamp electrodes are
preheated by the short-circuit current of the ballast. After
closure, the temperature of the starter electrodes
decreases and the starter re-opens. At the moment of re-
opening, the current through the ballast is interrupted,
causing a peak voltage across the lamp electrodes high
enough for lamp ignition.This peak voltage depends on the
inductance of the choke, the level of the short- circuit
current and the speed of the opening of the glow-switch
electrodes. Expressed in an equation:

Peak voltage:Vpeak = L dI/dt

Page 144/145
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5.

The minimum specified peak voltage depends on the type

of glow-switch starter, and is between 800 and 900 V.
If the lamp electrodes are not hot enough or the peak
voltage is not high enough, the glow-switch starter will
resume the whole starting process again until the lamp
ignites. If the lamp will not ignite (end of life), the starter
will continue producing peaks (flickering) until the mains
voltage is switched off or until the electrodes of the glow-
switch starter stick together. In the latter case the short-
circuit current is continuously running through the lamp
electrodes, which can be seen at the glowing lamp ends.

Once the lamp is properly ignited, the lamp voltage is too

low for a glow discharge between the starter electrodes.
So these electrodes stay 'cool' and in the open position.
A capacitor across the starter electrodes prevents radio-
interference of the lamp.

There are five types of glow-switch starters, specified for

certain mains voltages and/or lamp wattages ( S2-10-11-
12-16).There are also resettable glow-switch starters:
SiS2, SiS3 and SiS10.These starters switch off after a
certain time should the lamps fail to ignite and have to be
reset manually by a push-button. Switching the mains
supply does not reactivate a switched-off resettable starter.

2. Electronic starters

In principle the electronic starter or ignitor works in the

same manner as the glow-switch starter.The difference is
that the switching does not come from bimetallic
electrodes, but from a triac.
The electronic circuit in the starter gives a well-defined
preheat time (1.7 sec) for the lamp electrodes and, after
the preheat, a well-defined peak voltage, which ensures
optimum lamp ignition.The heart of the electronic starter
is a customised integrated circuit, containing the
intelligence of the product. It makes the starter switch off
after seven unsuccessful ignition attempts, so it is called
‘flicker-free’.
The electronic starter also contains an over-heating
detection by means of a PTC resistor, to switch itself off
should it become too hot (e.g. with a short-circuited
ballast).This second stop function resets after
approximately 4 minutes.
The electronic starter extends the lamp lifetime by up to
25 per cent on account of the well-defined preheat time.
The exact digital timing makes the electronic starter
independent of mains voltage fluctuations.
In the Philips programme there are two types of
electronic starters, both supplied in the canister of the
glow-switch starters (two-pin types S2-E and S10-E
Perform version).

5.2.3 Lifetime
The lifetime of fluorescent lamp starters is expressed in
terms of the number of switching cycles.
At present, glow-switch starters have a lifetime of 10 000
cycles or more, while the electronic starters have a
lifetime of 100 000 cycles or more.
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5.

5.3 Systems

5.3.1 Components
A customer is primarily interested in finding a solution to
his lighting requirements. Basically, he needs two things,
both of which must completely meet his specifications: a
design and components.To make sure that the installation
works properly under all circumstances, the right
components must be chosen and selected in combination
with each other.
In principle the following components are required in a
lighting installation:
- lamps
- lampholders
- luminaires
- gear (ballasts, starters)
- compensating capacitors
- cabling
- fusing and switching devices
- filter coils (if necessary)
- dimming equipment (if possible and required)

Information about lamps can be found in the lamp

documentation, where also the type of lampholder or
lamp cap is mentioned. Be sure to use the appropriate
lampholder, as there are many different types.
Lamps with different wattages are in principle not
interchangeable in a given circuit, even though they may
have the same lamp cap and fit in the same lampholder.
In some lamp types the glow-switch starter is
incorporated in the lamp base (2-pin version PL). In the
SL family the total electric circuit is incorporated within
the outer shell of the lamp (see Fig. 135).
4
5 1
L

mains
supply 2 3

Fig. 135 The circuit of an SL lamp consists of the following

components:
1. Discharge tube
2. Starter
3. Capacitor
4. Ballast
5.Thermal protector

The luminaire documentation contains information as

to which lamp types can be used.When installing other
than specified types, electrical, thermal or lighting
problems may arise.The luminaire documentation will
also state whether or not the gear is incorporated in the
luminaire and what the cable entries and connections are.

The gear documentation contains information on the

electrical terminals and the electrical wiring diagrams.
The value and the voltage range of capacitors is also
mentioned here.

Page 146/147
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5.

The remaining system-related components and subjects

mentioned above will be described in the following
sections.

5.3.2 Capacitors
Two types of capacitors are found in fluorescent lamp
circuits. One type is the parallel compensating capacitor
for power factor improvement, connected across the
mains 230V / 50 or 60 Hz, between live and neutral. In
installations with fluorescent lamps of more than 25 W,
capacitors are necessary for power factor correction, as
the power factor of an inductively stabilised circuit is only
approximately 0.5.The parallel capacitor does not
influence the lamp behaviour. It normally has a capacitance
tolerance of +/- 10 %.
The second type of capacitor is the series capacitor,
which also determines the lamp current. Series capacitors
are used in capacitive or duo circuits, see Section 3.4:
Power factor correction. In these circuits the voltage
across the capacitor is higher than the mains voltage,
usually more than 400 V. So normally they should be
marked with 450 V, with a capacitance tolerance of +/- 4 %.

In the relevant ballast documentation figures can be found

for the capacitor value in microfarad (µF) and capacitor
voltage needed for a certain combination of lamp and
supply voltage to achieve a power factor of ≥ 0.9.
Every user can in fact create his own solution for obtaining
the necessary capacitance.

To do things well, certain design aspects have to be

considered:
- First of all, capacitors for discharge lamp circuits have to
fulfil the requirements as specified in IEC publications
1048 and 1049. Moreover, they have to fulfil the Philips
Standard ULN-D 1580 (Compensating Capacitors for
discharge lamps circuits) in which (among other aspects)
the use of PCB (chlorinated biphenyl) is forbidden.
- It is recommended that capacitors that have approval
marks such as VDE, KEMA, DEMKO, CE or ENEC, be used.
- Normally every lamp circuit is compensated by its own
capacitor. Only in some special cases can group or
central compensation for a number of lamp circuits
prove a better solution.
- In the case of failure of the parallel capacitor (open or
short-circuited), the lamp behaviour is not affected.
Regular control of the mains currents and/or power
factor (λ or cos ϕ) is advisable.
- In the case of failure of the series capacitor, the lamp
behaviour is immediately affected.This type of capacitor
must create an open circuit in case of failure, so that
the lamp will be extinguished.
- The lifetime of capacitors depends on the capacitor
voltage and capacitor case temperature.Therefore
capacitors with the correct voltage marking (parallel
250 V with a maximum tolerance on capacitance of
+/- 10 % or series 450 V with a maximum tolerance on
capacitance of +/- 4 %) and within the specified
temperature range (normally -25 ºC to +85 º or 100 ºC)
should be used.
Used within the specifications, capacitors with the VDE
marking will have a lifetime equal to that of ballasts:
30 000 hours or 10 years.
- If a specified parallel capacitance value is not available,
the next higher value can be used, provided that the
value is not more than 20 per cent above specification.
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5.

Two general types of capacitors are currently in use: the

wet and the dry type.
The Wet capacitors currently available contain a non-PCB
oil and are equipped with internal interrupters to prevent
can rupture and resultant oil leakage in the event of
failure. So a clearance of at least 15 mm above the
terminals has to be provided to allow for expansion of
the capacitor.
In the case of failure, these capacitors will result in an
apparent open circuit, which means that in the case of a
parallel capacitor the mains current drawn by the circuit
approximately doubles.This can cause a fuse to blow or a
circuit breaker to open, but will have no further
detrimental effect.
Used as a series capacitor, the open circuit of the failing
capacitor will extinguish the lamp.

Dry, metallised-film capacitors are relatively new to the

lighting industry and are not yet available in all ratings for
all applications. However, they are rapidly gaining
popularity because of their compact size and extreme
ease of installation and are, therefore, widely used
nowadays.There are basically two families of metallisation
material: pure aluminium and zinc. During its lifetime the
aluminium type of capacitor gradually loses its
capacitance.This type of capacitor is therefore not
allowed according to the Philips ULN-D norm.
Dry capacitors are more sensitive to voltage peaks than
are wet capacitors. In critical applications (mains supplies
containing peaks, frequent switching, high level of
humidity or condensation), the wet capacitor is advisable.

The material of the capacitor enclosure can be of metal

or plastics. In both cases a safety device must be included
that opens the electrical circuit at over-pressure inside
the capacitor. For metal can capacitors this requirement
is no problem (expansion rills), but with a plastics cap this
is more difficult to achieve. It can result in the enclosure
not being fully watertight. It is therefore advisable to
employ metal-can capacitors in humid or aggressive
environments.
There must be at least 2 cm free space for the expansion
rills to expand when built into a luminaire or cabinet.
Capacitors for lighting applications must have a discharge
resistor connected across the terminals to ensure that the
capacitor voltage is less than 50 V within 1 minute after
switching off the mains power. In special cases the voltage
level must be 35 V within 1 second, see IEC 598-8.2.7.

5.3.3 Filter coils

In some countries, including Belgium,The Netherlands
and France, the electricity distribution network is used
for transmitting messages.This falls under the
responsibility of the local energy supply authority.
Signals are sent over the electricity supply network for a
number of purposes: to switch road lighting, to call up fire
brigades and the police, to switch night-tariff kWh-meters,
and so on. It is important, therefore, that this signalling
system is not disturbed, which may occur when parallel
power factor correction capacitors for lamp circuits are
employed. Capacitors present a low reactance to the
200-1600 Hz signals employed for signalling, with the
result that these are in danger of being short-circuited in
a capacitive circuit.To avoid this, a coil must be connected
in series with the capacitor connected parallel to the mains.

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5.

This filter coil, as it is termed, presents a reactance that

increases with rising signal frequency.The coil reactance is
therefore so chosen as to balance out the reactance of
the capacitor at 200 Hz (the resonance frequency, see
Fig. 136), although types with a different resonance
frequency can be found on the market.
For currents with a frequency of 50 Hz, the circuit is
predominantly capacitive, which is necessary for power
factor correction. Above 200 Hz the circuit becomes
predominantly inductive, which is necessary for the
blocking of audio-frequency signals. At 200 Hz the
impedance is formed only by the ohmic resistance, mainly
of the filter coil.
As can be seen from the graph, the filter coil is effective
for audio signals of 300 Hz and higher, because then the
impedance of the coil/capacitor combination is higher
than the impedance of the capacitor on its own.
Filter coils should not be used when the audio signals are
300 Hz or lower.
When the audio-frequency is high (say >1200 Hz),
a physically smaller filter coil can be employed by fixing
the resonance frequency not at 200 Hz but at, say, 400 Hz.

impedance (Z)

impedance of filtercoil
Z = ωL
8 10 3
6

impedance of coil
and capacitor
4

Z = ωL ___
| -1
ωC |
2

impedance of capacitor
Z = ___
1
ωC
8 10 2
6
4
2

capacitive inductive
10 1

10 2

10 3

10 4
10 1

6
8

8
2

6
4
4
4

frequency(Hz)

Fig. 136 Impedance of a filter coil, a capacitor and a

coil/capacitor combination as a function of frequen-cy.

There are other advantages to be gained from employing

filter coils.The parallel capacitor can cause troublesome
switching phenomena to occur, which can give rise to
very large current surges. Although these surges are of
only very short duration (a few milliseconds), they are
nevertheless sufficient to cause switching relays to stick
or circuit breakers to switch off.The filter coil serves to
prevent this problem by damping the very short, high-
amplitude pulses in the current.
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5.

The type of filter coil needed depends on the capacitance

of the capacitor employed. So in fact every capacitor
needs its own filter coil. In some cases, however, it is
possible to group the capacitors and match them with
the corresponding filter coil. For example: two capacitors
of 4 µF connected in parallel can be placed in series with
one filter coil of 8 µF (see Fig. 137).
Although the voltage across the filter coils is rather low
(approx. 14 to 20 V), the filter coils have to be regarded
as ballasts, as they are directly connected to the mains.
They also cause some additional watt losses.
The voltage across the parallel compensating capacitor
will increase by between 5 and 7 per cent as a result of
adding a filter coil.
The amount of third and fifth harmonics in the mains
current will increase in cases where the mains supply
voltage is disturbed by these harmonics, when applying a
filter coil.The total impedance for the combination of
capacitor and filter coil is lower than the impedance of
the capacitor alone for these frequencies (see Section
5.3.9: Harmonic distortion, and Fig. 136).
Central filter coil systems also exist where a filter system
in the supply system blocks the applied signalling
frequencies.
L L

=
2 x 4 µF 4 x 4 µF
capacitors capacitors
2 x 4 µF 1 x 8 µF
coils filter coil

N N
Fig. 137 Different ways of grouping capacitors to match them
with the corresponding filter coil.

5.3.4 Power factor correction

Circuits with gas-discharge lamps are stabilised with
inductive ballasts and compensated for a good power
factor with a parallel compensating capacitor
(mono-compensation, Fig. 138).
Without the capacitor the inductive ballast causes a phase
shift of the current, which is lagging behind the applied
voltage.
B
L

C
La

Fig. 138 Power factor correction with a parallel compensating

capacitor.

Page 150/151
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5.

Vm
I

Vl

Fig. 139 Lamp current (Il), lamp voltage (Vl ) and mains
voltage (Vm ).

This can be seen in Fig. 139, which shows the lamp

current Il, the lamp voltage Vl (both in phase with each
other), and the sinusoidal form of the mains voltage Vm.
The power factor of the circuit can be calculated by
dividing the total wattage by the product of mains voltage
and current. Expressed in an equation:

P.F. = (W l + Wb)/(Vm . Im) (1)

Without the parallel compensating capacitor, the power

factor of a gas-discharge circuit is approximately 0.5.
For the fundamentals of the voltages and current a
so-called vector diagram can be made (see Fig. 140). Lamp
voltage and lamp current are in phase and the voltage
across the ballast is leading the current by 90 degrees.The
vectorial sum of lamp voltage and ballast voltage gives the
mains voltage. Now we see that cos ϕ = Vl/Vm, which is
less accurate than (1).
In any case, the energy supply authority has to deliver an
apparent power of Vm . Il to the system on which the
distribution network must be based (cabling, transformers).
The energy meter only records the in-phase component
Vm . Il cos ϕ, so the supply authority does not get paid
for the so-called 'blind' part:
Il sin ϕ .Vm (Fig. 141).

1.1 Vm Vb Vm
Vm
Vb
0.9 Vm

Il cos ϕ

ϕ
ϕ

Il Vl Il Vl
Il s
in
ϕ

Fig. 140 Example of a vector diagram showing lamp voltage

and lamp current in phase.

Fig. 141 Uncompensated circuit with lamp current and mains

voltage out of phase.
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5.

It is for this reason that the supply authority insists on

compensation of the phase shift.
Where in general the 'unadjusted' power factor is about
0.50, it has to be compensated to a minimum of 0.85, or
even 0.90.This is achieved by adding a capacitor across
the mains. In contrast to an inductive ballast, the
capacitor current is leading the capacitor voltage (which
is the mains voltage) by 90 degrees. So the capacitor
current has the opposite direction of I l sin ϕ (see Fig. 142).

Vb Vm

Il cos ϕ

Ic
ap ϕ

Il Vl
Il s
in
ϕ

Fig. 142 Compensated circuit.

Maximum compensation is achieved when the current

through the capacitor Ic = Il sin ϕ; the power factor is
then 1.This is purely theoretical, as the vector diagram is
only valid for the fundamentals of the currents. Due to
distortion in the lamp current (see Section 5.3.9:
Harmonic distortion), the maximum practical power
factor is between 0.95 and 0.98.This explains the
difference between power factor and cos ϕ.
The power factor is the result of the quotient of the
actual wattage and the product of mains voltage and mains
current, including the harmonics, and can be calculated as
follows:

Power factor (P.F.) = total wattage/mains voltage x mains current

The angle ϕ is the phase shift angle between mains voltage

and mains current and can be found and calculated by
means of the vector diagram.This is only valid for the
fundamentals and does not take into account the
harmonics.

The same analogy is valid for the lamp: there is practically

no phase shift between lamp voltage and lamp current:
both are zero at the same time. So the phase angle α is
zero and cos α = 1.
The product of lamp voltage and lamp current does not
equal the lamp wattage; the difference is called lamp
factor:

Lamp factor = lamp wattage / lamp voltage x lamp current

and has a value between 0.8 and 0.9. For the same lamp
type, the lamp factor is higher for higher wattages – which
is the same for the lamp efficacy.
Typical capacitor values for this parallel compensation
(also sometimes called mono-compensation) for a 50 Hz
mains are 4.5 µF for a 36 or 40 W fluorescent lamp and
6.5 µF for a 58 or 65 W lamp.

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5.

A second method of compensation is the so-called lead-

lag or duo-circuit.This is employed for pairs of lamps, as
for example in two-lamp luminaires. Here the capacitor is
placed in series with one of the ballasts (see Fig. 143).

L2 C

L1

‘TL’ ‘TL’
S S
1 2

Fig. 143 Duo-circuit with the capacitor placed in series with

one of the ballasts.

The series capacitor has an impedance that is twice the

normal ballast impedance, resulting in a power factor of
approximately 0.5 capacitive (leading) for one branch.
Together with the power factor of 0.5 inductive (lagging)
for the other branch, the total power factor of the two
branches is approximately 0.95.
In most cases the power factor is lagging, but in some
duo circuits the power factor is leading.
In that case sufficient additional inductive load should be
added to avoid problems in the installation.

With a normal 230 V supply, the voltage across the

capacitor is about 400 V.To fulfil all relevant requirements,
the tolerance on the value of the capacitor has to be
within +/- 4 %.The nominal value of the capacitance is
dependent upon the mains supply voltage, the applied
ballast impedance, and the lamp wattage.Typical values are
3.4 µF for a 36 W and 5.3 µF for a 58 W lamp.
Compared with the mono-compensation, the advantages
of this method of compensation are:
- Only one capacitor is required for two lamps, instead of
two
- The capacitive branch is less sensitive to supply-voltage
deviations, as it has a constant current characteristic
- In the case of actadis signals (see Section 5.3.3: Filter
coils), these signals are not influenced, so no filter coil
is needed

Disadvantages of duo-compensation are:

- Series capacitors are more expensive than parallel
capacitors
- The lamp power and so the light output from the
capacitive branch is slightly higher than
- That from the inductive branch

In some countries, practically all multi-lamp luminaires

have built-in duo-circuits for each pair of lamps (also called
a 'dual-lamp' or 'lead-lag' circuit). Mono-compensation, on
the other hand, is generally left to the installer, although
there are also single-lamp luminaires available with the
compensation built in.

The capacitive circuit has a so-called 'constant-current

characteristic'.This can be explained by the non-linearity
of the inductive ballast. Suppose that the impedance of
the ballast is 400 Ω, which varies say 10 per cent when
the ballast voltage changes 10 per cent (see Fig. 144).
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5.

V ballast (V)

0
18
1
165 = 360 Ω
Z1 = ____
0,458

0
16
2
150 = 400 Ω
Z1 = ____
0,375

0
3

14
135 = 440 Ω
Z1 = ____
0,307

0
12
0
10
80
60
40
20

000
0

0
180

1480
1280

1380

1580

1680

1780

1880

1980

1108
I ballast (mA)

Fig. 144 Voltage/current characteristic of an inductive ballast

(example).

With the inductive ballast, the resulting (lamp) current at

90 per cent mains voltage will be lower:
A: as result of the lower mains voltage
B: as result of the higher impedance

With the capacitive ballast combination, the resulting

impedance of inductive ballast and capacitor is reacting in
just the opposite way: at lower mains voltage the total
impedance is also lower.This results in a nearly constant
current.

Mains voltage 90 % 100 % 110 %

Circuit Ind. Cap. Ind. Cap. Ind. Cap.
Z ballast (Ω) 440 440 400 400 360 360
Z capacitor (Ω) 800 800 800
Z result (Ω) 440 360 400 400 360 440

The behaviour of the inductive and capacitive branch of a

duo-circuit is therefore different at mains voltage
deviations and deviations of the ambient temperature.
This can be seen rather well in a duo-luminaire.

5.3.5 Series connection of lamps

Under certain conditions it is possible to operate two
lamps in series on a common ballast (see Fig. 145).
A prerequisite for such operation is that the sum of the
operating voltages of the lamps is not higher than
approximately 60 per cent of the supply voltage.This
means that two lamps, each with an arc voltage of no
more than 65 volt, can be connected in series via a
common ballast to the 220/240 V mains.This restricts the
maximum lamp length to 600 mm (2 ft), or the lamp
power to 18/20 W (26 or 38 mm diameter lamps only).
The series circuit can be compensated in the normal way
by using a parallel or series capacitor.

Page 154/155
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5.

‘TL’1

0 ‘TL’2

S
Fig. 145 Tandem circuit with two lamps in series on a common
ballast.

Parallel connection of two lamps on a common ballast is

impossible because of the negative characteristic of the
fluorescent lamp. All the current would flow through the
lamp with the lower arc voltage. Moreover, once the first
lamp is ignited the lamp voltage is too low for the ignitor
of the second lamp to ignite this lamp.

5.3.6 Neutral interruption and resonance

Normally each lamp circuit has its own compensating
capacitor. In this way every luminaire can be switched
separately without influencing the power factor. For the
same reason, lamp circuits based on phase-neutral (230 V),
are compensated with capacitors connected between
each of the phases and neutral.
In the phase-neutral network, failure of one phase has no
other effect than to switch off the circuits on that phase.
But if the neutral is not connected, resonance will occur.
For example, the current from phase L1 via ballast and
lamp 3 (see Fig. 146) can pass via capacitor C1 to phase
L3. So lamp 3 is energised by 400 V and stabilised by a
ballast with a capacitor in series.This is bound to
destroy components. A good neutral is essential.
Moreover, when the neutral is interrupted and the loads
on the phases are not completely balanced (viz. the same
wattage), then the voltage across the smallest load will
increase and much more power will be consumed by that
load.This, too, is bound to damage lamps and/or ballasts
(see Fig. 147).

L1
B

L2
B

L3
B

1 2 3

La La La

C3 C2 C1

Fig. 146 Compensation in a phase/neutral network.

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5.

IR
L1 L1
Itotal IR
R1

1000 V1 230V 1000

400V N
IR
R2 R3 R4 R5
V2 230V 1000
250
each

L2 L2
4 IR

Fig. 147 The consequences of interrupted neutral in a

phase/neutral network.

Suppose there are five loads of 1000 Ω, one connected

between L1 and neutral and four connected between L2
and neutral.The current from L1 will be 230/1000 = 0.23
A and the power in the load will be 230. 0.23 = 53 W.
The current from L2 will be four times higher (0.92 A) as
will the power: 212 W. If the neutral is interrupted, the
phase-phase voltage of 400 V will result in a current,
which can be calculated from the resistances: 1000 Ω in
series with 4 times 1000 Ω parallel.
This makes 1000 + 250 = 1250 Ω. So the current will be
400 / 1250 = 0.32 A.
The voltage across R1 will be 0.32. 1000 = 320 V (V = I . R),
so the power in R1 will be 320. 0.32 = 102 W.The voltage
across the four parallel resistors is 0.32. 250 = 80 V, so
the power in each resistor is 80. 0.08 = 6.4 W.
Now it is seen that the smaller load (R1) is overloaded
by a higher voltage (320 instead of 230 V) and a higher
current (0.32 A instead of 0.23 A).The higher load
(R2 to R5) is greatly underloaded.

In practice, the circuits are not this simple, but the

essential aspect is that in the case of a floating neutral,
the smallest load will receive a higher voltage and a higher
current and so will be overloaded.

A second possibility of resonance has to do with the

employment of inductive and capacitive circuits in the
same installation. In the capacitive circuit, the impedance
of the capacitor is twice the impedance of the inductive
ballast. So when an inductive and a capacitive circuit
become in series, the total impedance will be zero,
resulting in an unlimited current (resonance).This can
happen in a delta-network when one phase is interrupted
(Fig. 148), or in a star-network with common neutral
when the neutral is interrupted (Fig. 149).
Resonance problems can be prevented with special
switchgear. If the neutral in a star-network or a phase in
the delta-network fails, such special gear switches off the
overall supply for the lighting installation.

Page 156/157
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5.

‘TL’D S

‘TL’D S
B
C

Fig. 148 Resonance in a delta network.

‘TL’D

B
C

‘TL’D

Fig. 149 Resonance in a star network.

5.3.7 Electrical diagrams

B
L

V
C
La

1) One lamp, inductive or compensated with electronic or

glow-switch starter
'TL', 'TL'D, 'TL'E, 'TL'U, PL-L, PL-T, PL-T(S)(C) 4-pins
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5.

B
L

V
C
La
V

La
N

2) Two lamps, inductive or compensated with electronic or

glow-switch starter
'TL', 'TL'D, PL-L

B
L

C
La

3) One lamp, inductive or compensated without starter

PL-S, PL-C, PL-T (starter incorporated)

B
L

C
La

N La

4) Two lamps, inductive or compensated without starter

PL-S, PL-C (starter incorporated)

Page 158/159
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5.

B B
L L

C C C*
La V La La V

N N

C B C B
L L

C*
La V La La V

N N

5) One or two lamps, inductive, capacitive or compensated

with electronic starter ES08
'TL', 'TL'D
The capacitor C* must be of the X2 type 100 nF/250 V

B
L
C B

V V
La La

6) Duo-circuit, two lamps, with electronic or glow-switch

starter
'TL'D, 'TL'E, 'TL'U, PL-L

B
L
B La

C
V
V V
La V La

La
N

7) Duo-circuit, four lamps, with electronic or glow-switch

starter
'TL'D, PL-L
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5.

5.3.8 Mains voltage interruptions and

short-circuiting
For various reasons, the supply voltage can be subject to
deviations; therefore a certain degree of deviation from
the rated value has been taken into account everywhere.
With gas-discharge lamps, deviations of up to +/- 10 per
cent of the rated supply voltage normally have no
detrimental effects.

Apart from such 'normal' variations, in practice three

possible uncontrolled effects can be distinguished:
1. Short-circuit of the mains voltage
2. A dip in the power supply voltage
3. Interruption in the power supply current
These phenomena can occur during a thunderstorm,
when switching from one power supply source to
another, or when connecting heavy loads to the mains,
and are usually of very short duration.This is a good
thing too, since a single dip of 10 milliseconds (half a
cycle), or even less, can have a significant influence: the
lamp will extinguish.
As the fluorescent lamp re-ignites in only a few seconds
or less, these phenomena are not really a problem in
practice (see also Section 4.1.15: Effects of mains voltage
fluctuations).

5.3.9 Harmonic distortion

All gas-discharge lamps stabilised by copper/iron ballasts
have harmonics in the lamp current.The first reason for
this is that the lamp voltage (= the voltage across the
discharge tube) is approximates a square wave of changing
polarity every half cycle (see Fig. 150).

Vm

Vl

Fig. 150 Square waveform of lamp voltage.

This is graphically represented as a square wave voltage,

made up by Fourier analysis as the fundamental sine wave
of the mains supply and a large number of odd harmonics
(see Fig. 151).
The voltage across the ballast is the vectorial difference
between the supply voltage and the lamp voltage, so the
harmonics of the lamp appear in the ballast voltage. As
the ballast determines the current, there will be only odd
harmonics in the lamp current. Even harmonics are not
present.

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5.

1
U

3
5
7
9
π 2π
0

Fig. 151 Lamp voltage waveform constructed by the odd

harmonics from one to nine, according to the formula:
f(t) = 4U/π(sinω t + 1/3sin3ω t + 1/5sin5ω t + ....).

The second reason for the presence of harmonics in the

lamp current is the hysteresis of the ballast coil.With the
aid of the relationship between ballast voltage and ballast
current (B-H curve of the ballast coil, see Fig. 152), the
resulting current can be found for any ballast voltage.
Even with a pure sine-wave ballast voltage there will be
some harmonics in the ballast current, but this effect is
small compared with the harmonics caused by the lamp.
The impedance of the coil becomes higher for higher
frequencies, so in practice only odd harmonics up to the
seventh are of any importance for the lamp current.

B,Φ,V
B,Φ,V

H,i

H,i
t

Fig. 152 Hysteresis curve of a typical copper-iron ballast.

Practical values as a percentage of the fundamental for

most inductively-stabilised discharge lamps are:
fundamental: 100 %
third harmonic: 10 %
fifth harmonic: 3%
seventh harmonic: 2%
ninth and higher harmonics: 1 % or lower
When the supply voltage contains harmonics, these
values can change somewhat, but the ballast coil prevents
dramatic increases.
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5.

International requirements have been laid down for the

proportion of the harmonics in supply mains currents.
According to IEC 61000-3-2, for lighting equipment
having an input power >25 W the maximum percentage
of harmonics for the input current are:
second harmonic: 2%
third harmonic: 30 . P.F. % , where P.F. = power
factor of the circuit
fifth harmonic: 10 %
seventh harmonic: 7%
ninth harmonic: 5%
11 ≤ n ≤ 39 3%

All Philips inductively-compensated lighting circuits

(P.F. = 0.5) comply with this standard.The capacitive branch
of a duo-circuit has higher values, but as a whole the
duo-circuit meets this standard.

To obtain a good power factor (0.9) of the system with

gas-discharge lamps, parallel capacitors are mostly used.
The effective mains current will then be nearly half, so
the percentage harmonics automatically will be doubled.
Again, there will be no problems in fulfilling the
requirements. A capacitor, however, has lower impedance
for higher frequencies and therefore the capacitor current
is very sensitive to harmonics in the supply voltage.

The quality of the supply source influences the amount of

higher harmonics in the mains voltage and consequently
in the mains current.The lamp is only responsible for
roughly 20 per cent third harmonics in the current of the
phase-conductor.When the amount of seventh or higher
harmonics is too high, a solution could be found in
connecting filter coils in series with the capacitors. But
adding the filter coils will result in higher third and fifth
harmonics, because the total impedance for the
combination of capacitor and filter coil is lower for these
frequencies than the impedance of only the capacitor
(see Fig. 136 in Section 5.3.3). So a filter coil does not
help to suppress third and fifth harmonics.

The presence of harmonics has consequences for the

mains wiring.
For the various wiring diagrams, calculations of the
currents and harmonics can be made. Lighting
installations connected to three-phase supplies having a
common neutral conductor, need particular attention.
The neutral conductor carries a current equal to the
vector sum of the currents through the three phase
conductors. In a well-balanced system (equal effective
phase-currents), the fundamental frequencies of these
currents add up to zero, but the third, ninth and fifteenth
harmonics are in phase and thus amplify each other
(see Fig. 153).The neutral will therefore carry at least
about 3. 20 = 60 per cent of the phase current. For this
reason the neutral conductor must have the same
cross-section as each of the phase conductors.
In the case of a poorly-designed system, the current in
the neutral can be higher than one of the phase currents.
In the case of a supply voltage containing some
distortion, the current through the neutral can also grow
rapidly due to higher capacitor currents.This can be of
great importance when the supply voltage is coming from
a separate generator.

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5.

R S T

(b)

(a)

0
0

0
0

60

36
12

24
18

30
Fig. 153 Fundamental and third harmonic in a three-phase
mains. R, S and T are the fundamentals in the three
conductors. Owing to the phase shift, this results in a zero
current in the neutral lead.
a) Third harmonic of a phase,
b) Third harmonic of all three phases in the neutral lead.The
individual currents reinforce each other.

5.3.10 Electromagnetic interference

Discharge lamps do not only emit visible radiation, they
also generate energy in the radio-frequency spectrum.
This can cause disturbance in the operation of electronic
equipment such as computer keyboards, television or
radio receivers, hence the name radio interference.
As the luminaires in which the lamps are used should fulfil
international requirements such as EN 55015 (CISPR 15),
the radio interference in practice is sufficiently low to
have no harmful effects on the surrounding. Products
with the mark conform to VDE 875 part 1.
The generation of radio-interference radiation is normally
caused by lamp electrode oscillations. Such radiation has
a broadband character, usually with frequencies of up to
1500 kHz, so FM radio receivers and television receivers
are not affected.
The electromagnetic waves, which can have effects on the
AM broadcast band, are propagated in two ways: either
directly through the mains into the receiver, or via
radiation picked up by the aerial.
The latter form of interference will seldom occur with
discharge lamps, as the ballast will suppress the
broadband signals.The radiation produced by the lamp will
nearly always remain below the threshold value at which
interference takes place, especially where the lamp is at
some distance from the aerial (more than, say, 1 metre).
The supply cables can emit interference radiation when
they are not buried in the ground or laid in earthed steel
piping, which is the best screening against interference.
However, it sometimes happens that an interference
signal reaches the receiver by way of its mains input.
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5.

The interference signal can consist of high-frequency

harmonics of the mains frequency or high-amplitude
pulses.The former are generally adequately suppressed in
the ballast. Experience has shown that interference may
be caused by fluorescent luminaires with external ballast
where the radiation from the supply wires is picked up by
telephone or other cables. If external ballasts are used,
the supply cables between ballast and luminaire should be
as short as possible. Ballast coils should be split into two
adjacent parts (split-windings type of ballast). In case of
Class I luminaires, the supply wires should be shielded
and this shielding should be properly connected to the
earth connection.
In practically all other cases it will be necessary to
connect a delta filter between the mains supply and the
input to the lamp circuit. Fig. 154 shows an example of a
delta filter used for suppressing radio interference.The
apex of the filter must be connected to the ground. More
complicated filters are used in three-phase networks.

Avoid earth looping (all earth terminals to one point),

and create the maximum possible distance between audio
and lighting cabling. If audio and lighting cables have to
cross each other, they should do so at right angles. In
sensitive applications, screening of cabling is necessary.

5 nF

0.2 mF

5 nF

Fig. 154 Delta filter used for suppressing radio interference.

5.3.11 Lifetime
When used within the specifications, the various circuit
components will last for many years with no more
failures than approximately 1 per cent per year (except
for lamps and glow-switch starters).
Most of the time, failures in the gear components are
caused by external circumstances, such as wrong wiring or
connections, short-circuiting, extreme heat or humidity,
mains voltage peaks, poor maintenance, and the like.
For example, capacitors for lighting installations with the
VDE approval according to VDE 0560 must achieve a
lifetime of 30 000 hours at their indicated voltage
(250 or 450 V) and their maximum case temperature
(85 º or 100 ºC). Higher voltages will shorten the
capacitor life as follows:

Voltage (times Vmark) 1.15 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50
Lifetime (h) 8500 4000 2900 2000 1500 1100 780

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5.

A failure rate of 5 per cent is then accepted and the

capacitance loss must be less than 10 per cent for parallel
and 5 per cent for series capacitors.
Temperatures above the indicated maximum capacitor-
case temperature will halve the lifetime of the capacitor
for every 8 degrees increase.Therefore, if there are too
many failures with capacitors, the capacitors may be too
hot or the applied voltage (momentarily) too high.

For glow-switch starters the number of switching cycles

is specified as 10 000 or more. Deviations are caused by
the different starting currents of the various lamp types.
For electronic starters, the most relevant factor is the
permitted ambient temperature or the maximum case
temperature tc.The specified temperature range is from
-40 ºC to + 80 ºC. Exceeding these temperature limits
will shorten their lifetime dramatically.

5.3.12 Ambient and operating temperatures

Temperature is of prime importance for the proper
functioning of discharge lamps (Fig. 155a/b). In general,
fluorescent lamps are very sensitive to changes in the
ambient temperature (see Section 3.3.6: Effects of
temperature).

For the total system, the ambient temperature is also of

great importance.This is due to the fact that certain
minimum and maximum operating temperatures are
specified for the various components.

% Φ (%)
0
10
0

Il
12
0

80
10

Pl
Φ
80

60

Vl
60

40
40

recommended
temperature range
20
20

0
0

20

40

60
20

30

40

50

60

70

0
-2

lamp head temp. (˚C) ambient temp. (˚C)

Fig. 155a Relative values of luminous flux (Φ), lamp voltage

(Vl ), lamp current (Il ) and lamp wattage (Pl ) as a function of
lamp head temperature, for a PL lamp.

Fig. 155b Relative values of luminous flux (Φ) as a function of

the ambient temperature and the burning position (PL lamp).

Minimum temperatures

1. Lamps

Supplied with the nominal voltage, fluorescent lamps will

start quite normally at temperatures down to
approximately -20 ºC.The minimum allowed temperature
depends on lamp type and starting system, which
determines the maximum ignition time (ranging from 2 to
20 seconds).The circuitry (leading or lagging) also
influences the ignition process.Two lamps in series normally
ignite less easily than does one lamp.
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5.

In the lamp data sheets, the minimum temperature and

the resulting ignition time can be found for the various
circuits. Below these specified temperatures, smooth
ignition cannot be guaranteed.
In the table below, the ignition time of a PL-L 24 W lamp
(in seconds) is given according to the type of circuitry
(lagging or leading), supply voltage (nominal or
sub-nominal), type of starter, and ambient temperature.

Ignition time (s)

Circuit Lagging Leading
Voltage Nominal Nominal -8 % Nominal Nominal -8 %
Starter S10 ES08 S10 ES08 S10 ES08 S10 ES08
Ambient temp. ºC
-30 10 2 * 2 * * * *
-25 7 2 * 2 20 2 * 2
-20 6 2 12 2 8 2 15 2
-15 6 2 12 2 8 2 15 2
-10 6 2 10 2 7 2 14 2
-5 6 2 10 2 7 2 11 2
0 6 2 10 2 7 2 11 2
+5 6 2 9 2 6 2 8 2
* Proper ignition not guaranteed.

Once ignited, the lamp warms up its surroundings and,

after run-up, the low ambient temperature has less
influence on the electrical performance. Still, the light
output varies with the actual tube wall temperature.
Capacitive circuits give less light at low temperatures than
do inductive circuits due to the constant-current
characteristic of the capacitive circuit.

2. Gear

The minimum operating temperature for some electronic

components and for compensating capacitors is -25 ºC.
The capacitance of capacitors, for instance, declines
steeply below this temperature. For this reason, gear
should be installed at places where the ambient
temperature will not fall below -25 ºC.

3. Luminaires

In general, the construction of the luminaires and optics is

not affected by low ambient temperatures down to -25 ºC.
Of course, plastics parts such as clips are more brittle at
low temperatures and should then be handled with care.

Maximum temperatures

1. Lamps

For fluorescent lamps the temperature of the glass tube

wall is of prime importance, especially with regard to the
phosphors employed. It will be clear that the actual lamp
temperature very much depends on the luminaire in
which the lamps are placed. Lamps must only be used in
luminaires that are designed for that particular type of
lamp. For some lamp types, absolute maximum
temperatures of a specified spot are given (see SL, Fig. 156).
With this in mind, also see maximum and ambient
temperatures under point 3) Luminaires.

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5.

5 mm

warmest region
of the housing

Fig. 156 The maximum recommended ambient temperature at

which an SL lamp can operate is 55 ºC.The part of the lamp
with the highest temperature is a 5-mm-wide section around
the circumference of the housing.The temperature measured
in this region, on the surface of the housing, is about 150 ºC.
Exceeding this temperature can result in reduction of lamp life.

2. Gear

a) Ballasts

The main ballast temperature parameters tw (maximum

permissible coil temperature) and ∆t (coil temperature
rise in standard test) are described in Section 5.1.6.
Ballasts are normally mounted directly inside a luminaire.
The actual ballast coil temperature will in practice
depend on the cooling properties of the ballast
surroundings, e.g. material of mounting surface, type of
fixing, standing air or ventilation. For this reason it is
impossible to predict the actual ballast coil temperature
without doing a temperature test in under actual
operating conditions. Of course, a ballast will normally be
cooler when it has lower losses and/or a lower ∆t value
and/or larger dimensions.
Connections to a ballast are in many cases made by
means of a terminal block.These terminal blocks have
their own temperature limits, usually 100 º to 120 ºC,
which should not be exceeded.

b) Starters

Since they incorporate semiconductors and capacitors,

electronic starters have a maximum permissible
temperature.This value is marked on the starter and is
usually 80 or 90 ºC. In most applications the case
temperature of the starter will not exceed this limit, as
the starters produce scarcely any heat by themselves.
But if the starter is incorporated in the luminaire or
placed near the hot ballast, its temperature can rise
considerably. It is advisable to mount the starter on the
coolest spot possible.

c) Capacitors

Capacitors have a maximum permissible temperature,

which is marked on the case and is usually 85 º or 100 ºC.
Above this temperature they can break down or lose
capacitance.They produce scarcely any heat by
themselves and must be placed away from the hot ballast.
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5.

Additional temperature measures are advisable when the

case temperature of the capacitor is unknown and can be
critical.

3. Luminaires

Professional luminaires are, like ballasts, designed and

constructed to have (under standard conditions) an
average lifetime of at least 10 years in continuous
operation with the appropriate (maximum) lamp type.
The volume of the luminaire, the choice of materials, the
cooling properties, etc., are chosen in such a way that, at
an ambient temperature of 25 ºC in indoor applications,
no part of the luminaire exceeds its maximum specified
temperature. In practice, this ambient temperature limit is
sufficient to cope with most applications and non-nominal
circumstances, as long as the latter are within the
specifications. In cases where the ambient temperature is
(momentarily) higher than 30 ºC, the most critical part of
the luminaire may exceed its maximum specified
temperature.This, of course, shortens lifetime, but to
what extent is in general hard to say. It depends on the
part in question (e.g. luminaire housing, mirror optics,
cabling, lamp tube, lamp base, etc.).
In outdoor applications, a natural air circulation around
the luminaire is assumed, which gives a cooling effect of
about 10 ºC.The same luminaire with an indoor ambient
temperature limit of 25 ºC will, in practice, have an
outdoor ambient temperature limit of 35 ºC.
If an ambient temperature ta is given for outdoor
luminaires, it refers to the outdoor situation.

Special lamps, luminaires and electrical circuits have been

developed for use in hot, cold, humid or potentially
explosive environments.
Amalgam lamps – and to a lesser extent also krypton-filled
('TL'D) lamps – are not susceptible to the drop in light
output at high ambient temperatures experienced by
normal fluorescents.When normal lamps are operated on
inductive ballasts, these may well overheat due to the
increase in the lamp current brought about by the higher
operating temperature (see Fig. 157).

%
0

Iind
12
0

Icap
10

Pind
Vind
80
60

Pcap
Vcap
40

Φind
20

Φcap
0
20

40

60

80

0
10

t (˚C)

Fig. 157 Influence of temperature increase on lamp current

(I), lamp voltage (V), lamp power (P) and luminous flux (Φ) for
a 40 W fluorescent lamp on inductive and capacitive ballasts.

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5.

However, where the decrease in light output and

luminous efficacy can be tolerated, and provided proper
measures are taken to prevent overheating of the
circuitry, tube wall temperatures of up to about 90 ºC
are acceptable.
The use of properly ventilated luminaires will, in most
environments, obviate any heat problems. An air stream
through the luminaire is an effective way of removing the
heat generated by the lamp and ballast.

5.3.13 Effects of mains voltage fluctuations

The lamp voltage of a fluorescent lamp depends mainly
on the lamp construction (length and diameter) and the
gas filling. It hardly changes as a consequence of voltage
variations in the mains, which means that the ballast must
compensate for fluctuations of the mains supply.
An increase in the mains voltage results in a higher ballast
current, as the impedance of the ballast is nearly constant
(see Section 5.1.2: Stabilisation). As the ballast current
equals the lamp current, the power in the lamp, and so
the light output of the lamp, will increase as the mains
voltage increases.
Large supply-voltage deviations will lead to considerable
deviations in luminous flux. Deviations of less than 5 per
cent in conjunction with the normal ballast will keep such
deviations within acceptable limits.The lumen level will
not show fluctuations of more than 10 per cent.When
the mains voltage constantly differs by more than 5 per
cent from the rated ballast voltage, the appropriate ballast
should be employed.
Due to the constant-current characteristic of the
capacitive circuit, the influence of mains voltage deviations
is less than with the inductive circuit (see Fig. 158).

% %
0

0
12 13

12 13

Il
0
0

Pl Il
Φ Pl
0

0
11

11

Φ
0
0

10
10

Vl Vl
90
90

80
80

70
70

90

90
0

0
10

11

12

10

11

12

a) relative supply voltage (%) b) relative supply voltage (%)

Fig. 158 Influence of variation of the supply voltage on a

PL-L 18 W or 24 W lamp operated in a lagging (inductive)
circuit (Fig. 130a) and in a leading (capacitive) circuit
(Fig. 130b). Relative values of lumi-nous flux (Φ), lamp current
(Il ), lamp wattage (Pl ) and lamp voltage (Vl ).
Ambient temperature: 25 ºC, burning position: base up.

5.3.14 Electrical wiring

The electrical wiring in a luminaire must be such as to
ensure its electrical safety.This necessitates great care
both in the choice of wire used and in its manner of
installation.
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5.

There are a great many different types of wire available,

in both single-core (solid) and multi-core (stranded)
versions (Fig. 159).There is a also wide variety in wire
materials and diameters, as well as in thickness and
quality of insulating cladding material.

Fig. 159 Types of wire used in luminaires. From left to right:

solid core (3), stranded (3), with heat-resistant insulation (3)
and high-voltage ignition cable (1).

Whether the wire is single-core or stranded makes no

difference as far as its electrical characteristics are
concerned. Mechanically, however, things are quite
different. Single-core wire is much stiffer than stranded
wire, which means that fewer cable fasteners are needed
to hold it in position. It is also easier to strip, after which
it can be pushed into self-clamping connector blocks
without further preparation. It is therefore more suitable
than stranded wire for the internal wiring in a luminaire
(Fig. 160). However, single-core wire is not suited for use
in luminaires that are subjected to vibrations and shock.
The vibrations can be transmitted along the wire, causing
fixing screws to be loosened or the wire to fracture and
break. Here, stranded wire must be used. Being more
flexible, it is able to absorb vibrations harmlessly.
Stranded wire is also necessary in those situations where
the wire must be able to bend in use – as in a spotlight,
for example (Fig. 161).

Fig. 160 Solid-core wire inside a luminaire for fluorescent lamps.

White wires are used where the wiring is visible from below.

The diameter (or rather the cross-sectional area) of the

wire must be matched to the strength of the current
flowing through it. A wire whose area is too small has a
resistance that is too high and it will become warm, the
resulting heat loss reducing the efficiency of the luminaire.
A minimum nominal cross-sectional area of 0.5 mm2 is
laid down in IEC 598, although this may be reduced to
0.4 mm2 in certain cases where space for internal wiring
is severely restricted (see IEC 598, Section 5.3.1).

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5.

Fig. 161 Flexible stranded wire inside the pivoting base of a

spotlight.

Of particular importance with regard to insulation material

and thickness is, of course, its temperature resistance.
Here it must be borne in mind that it is not only the
temperature of the air in the luminaire that matters, but
also that of components with which the insulation may
come in contact, such as ballast and lampholders.
The insulation of the wire used must be resistant to all
such temperatures, not only under normal conditions of
operation, but also in the presence of a fault condition.
Not all sorts of insulation are suitable for use in
luminaires. For example, simple PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
insulation is only heat resistant up to 90 ºC. It contains a
softener, which can vaporise, making the insulation brittle
and therefore prone to damage. Moreover, the evaporated
softening agent attacks a number of plastics used in the
manufacture of luminaire housings.There is, however, an
inexpensive PVC insulation that is heat-resistant up to a
temperature of 105 ºC, and which is safe in this respect.
Where temperatures in excess of 105 ºC can arise, yet
another kind of PVC insulation is usually employed, one
that is resistant up to 115 ºC.

Where still higher temperatures may be encountered, as in

floodlights for example, silicone rubber (170 ºC to 200 ºC)
and PTFE (polytetrafluorothene) (250 ºC) insulating
materials are available. Extra protection can be obtained
by covering the insulation with a glass-fibre sleeve.
In order to keep the chances of heat damage to the
insulation to a minimum, the wiring run is so chosen as
to avoid as far as possible any 'hot spots' in the luminaire,
such as ballast or lampholders.
The cable fasteners used to hold the wiring in place
should allow it some slight freedom of movement, for the
insulating covering of wire that is under mechanical strain
will have a lower heat resistance than that specified by
the manufacturer.

There is an internationally standardised colour coding for

electrical wiring, namely that specified by the IEC: brown
for live, blue for neutral and yellow/green for earth.
The only time when a departure from this colour coding
is permissible, is in the case where luminaires have
internal wiring that is visible when the unit is in use.
A white insulation is then often used so as to blend in
with the white of the housing.The proviso here is that
the connection block is clearly labelled.
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5.

5.3.15 Hum
In general, lamps, ignitors, capacitors and even luminaires
do not produce any disturbing noise level when correctly
used in their application. Sometimes during the starting
process some hum or rustling can be noticed, especially
with glow-switch starters. If hum is noticeable, it almost
always comes from the ballasts. Anyhow, when used in
indoor applications, e.g. shops, the hum level caused by
control gear should be as low as possible.

The electric current passing through the coil of a ballast

causes a magnetic field, which arranges the disorderly
oriented elementary magnetic particles of the ballast iron.
So we find in the iron magnetostriction and magnetic
poles.
The ordering of the elementary magnets causes a certain
deformation of the iron (magnetostriction), resulting in
the iron expanding in certain directions.This process is
repeated every half cycle if alternating current is used
and results in a noise of 100 Hz and higher harmonics.
The magnetic poles exert forces of attraction in the air
gap of the ballast core, also resulting in a noise of 100 Hz
and higher harmonics.The generation of these magnetic
vibrations can be suppressed to a high degree by means
of a suitable design of the ballast. In particular, air gap
filling and ballast encapsulation can contribute to low
noise levels.
But the magnetic field also spreads outside the magnetic
core. All magnetic metal parts in the immediate
surroundings of the ballast, such as the ballast case, the
sheet-steel of the luminaire, etc., are subject to forces in
this magnetic field and can cause noise.

To avoid unpleasant 'humming' noise, constructions for

the ballast mounting, as well as the ballast mounting itself,
must be as rigid as possible.The hum will be more
pronounced if the ballast is mounted on a resonant
surface. Avoid loose metal parts and create distances
between ballasts and metal parts.

5.3.16 Dimming
Dimming can be defined as the reduction of the luminous
flux of a lamp, either continuously or in steps, by reducing
the operating current.This is not always possible without
adversely affecting the performance of the lamp.

Basically, dimming is achieved in one of the following ways

(see Fig. 162):
- By switching a (variable) resistor or inductive coil in
series with the lamp(s)
- By running the lamp(s) from a variable transformer
- By suppressing the AC waveform of the supply current
during part of the cycle by means of an electronic
element (thyristor) – such a device is also called a
'chopper circuit'
- By increasing the frequency of the supply current of an
inductive coil, thereby increasing the impedance of this.

Resistors are now rarely used for dimming purposes.

They are inefficient and produce a lot of heat.

Variable transformers are appreciated because of their

high power handling capacity, but at the same time they
are heavy and expensive.

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5.

L L

N N

a) b)

L L

N N

c) d)

Fig. 162 Four basic ways of dimming:

a) by a variable resistor
b) by a variable transformer
c) by a thyristor circuit
d) by frequency regulation.

In the case of fluorescent lamps operated on

electromagnetic gear, dimming is mostly achieved by the
extra inductive coil in series or by the thyristor circuit
(Fig. 163). In both cases only inductive circuits are
allowed, and the parallel compensating capacitor must be
placed before the dimming device. Capacitive or
duo-circuits are not allowed because:
- with the extra series impedance, the total impedance
for stabilising would become lower instead of higher
- with the thyristor circuit, the moment of current
suppression must be different for the inductive and the
capacitive branch due to the phase shift, which is
impossible to realise in one and the same device.
During dimming, only the lamp current will decrease.The
capacitor current will remain the same.The result is that
the power factor will become capacitive and will shift to
lower values.

extra
coil B B
L L

C C

N N

Fig. 163 Dimming with an extra inductive coil in series and by

a thyristor.
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5.

Inductive coils, in the form of an extra ballast, are used to

reduce the light output of street-lighting lanterns after
a certain hour.This is done either by switching the extra
ballast in series with the principal one, or by using two
ballasts of half the nominal power rating in parallel,
switching one off when dimming is required.

Thyristor dimmers are by far the most popular nowadays,

because they are small and inexpensive.
Dimming to give half the light output is nearly always
possible. By using thyristor dimmers, practically any type
of fluorescent lamp can be dimmed down to about
50 per cent of the nominal lamp current, which roughly
corresponds to a 50 per cent reduction in light output
(so-called 'top dimming'). For indoor installations,
however, top dimming is of limited practical use and at
ambient temperatures below 5 ºC krypton-filled lamps,
like the Philips 'TL'D, may become unstable when dimmed.

The disadvantage of thyristor dimming where lamp circuits

incorporating glow-discharge starters are concerned, is
that the dimmed lamp will cause the starter to become
conductive. At what degree of dimming this will happen is
difficult to predict, but the result is that the starter will
make repeated attempts to ignite the lamp.This is the
main reason why dimming of fluorescent lamps in a
glow-switch starter circuit is discouraged.
When dimming to below 50 per cent of the nominal
current, the discharge will no longer provide sufficient
heat to keep the electrodes at the proper emission
temperature, and continuous electrode heating becomes
necessary.The heating current must be independent of
the lamp current, thus a separate heating transformer will
be required. Lamps operated in this mode can be dimmed
to give almost zero light output (but not entirely, unless a
switch is provided).They can also be started from a
dimmed position.These dimming installations almost
invariably operate at high frequency to prevent disturbing
flicker at low lighting levels.

Frequency regulation is the most recent technology, and

is employed in the Philips HF electronic light regulation
ballast.With this ballast the lamp current can be regulated
down to about 10 per cent of the nominal value. Dimming
is here achieved by increasing the frequency of the supply
current.

5.3.17 Stroboscopic effect and striations

For this subject, see also Section 3.3.10.
1.A fluorescent lamp operating on an alternating current
will exhibit a fluctuating light output.This is because the
lamp extinguishes and restrikes every half cycle of the
supply. So this light ripple has a fixed (mains) frequency
and can cause the stroboscopic effect. It mainly
depends on the phosphors used in the lamp: the use of
phosphors exhibiting little or no afterglow may result
in more pronounced fluctuations.
The use of inductive (Fig. 164a) and capacitive circuits
together in a duo or 'lead-lag' combination reduces the
light ripple (Fig. 164b) In an inductive circuit, the lamp
current will lag behind the supply voltage by
approximately 60 º, while in the capacitive circuit the
current will lead the voltage by approximately 60 º.This
means that the light output of a twin-lamp duo-circuit
has two components mutually shifted by 120 º.

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5.

The best solution for preventing the stroboscopic

effect is to spread the lighting over the three phases of
the supply (Fig. 164c), where the minimum light output
of one lamp coincides with high light outputs of the
two other lamps.

1 cycle
˚ ˚ ˚ ˚ ˚

0
90

0
27

36
18
a)

1 cycle
˚ ˚ ˚ ˚ ˚
0

0
90

0
27

36
18

b)

1 cycle
˚ ˚ ˚ ˚ ˚
0

0
90

0
27

36
18

c)

Fig. 164 Prevention of the stroboscopic effect by using

combined inductive and capacitive circuits ('lead-lag' or duo-
circuit) and by spreading the lighting over the three phases of
the supply.

2.The light ripple can also have an effect on the quality of

camera pictures.This phenomenon may become
apparent when CCD colour cameras operate in auto-
shutter mode and the lighting of the area is
predominantly with fluorescent lamps.The auto-shutter
mode is normally selected when cameras are equipped
with manual or fixed-iris lenses and the automatic light
response is controlled by an electronic shutter system
in the camera.The stronger the light to which the
camera is exposed, the shorter the shutter time, hence
the shorter the light integration time in the sensor. For
example, with a shutter time of 1/1000th of a second
the light integration of the CCD sensor is only 1 ms.
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5.

Within the normal CCIR scanning period of 20 ms

(50 Hz), the 1/1000th of a second light integration time
is just a snapshot in the normal frame-scanning period.
In this manner the sensitivity of the camera is reduced.
As described before, the light output of fluorescent
lamps varies continuously from minimum (at zero
crossing) to maximum during the positive and negative
phases of the mains voltage, twice during one mains-
voltage cycle. In other words: the fluorescent lamp is
flashing 100 times per second. Due to the ‘persistence
of vision’ of our eyes, viewing a scene illuminated with
'TL' lamps, gives the impression of a white and
continuous light output.
At the dip of the light output, the excitation of the
fluorescent powders takes place with minimum energy.
At this point, the light output is therefore not white, the
colour depending on the properties of the non-saturated
excitation of the fluorescent powders in the lamp.
As the human eye works as an integrator, this effect
cannot be noticed.The light ripple of a TL lamp is
illustrated in Fig. 165.

non-saturated
phosphors
white light

yellowish light

reddish light

momentary light output

Fig. 165 Colour shift during the 100 Hz light ripple of a

fluorescent lamp.

When the automatic shutter in the camera is switched

off, the two light ripples of a 'TL' lamp are integrated
during the normal 20 ms frame integration time of the
sensor and consequently the light impression is white.
This is illustrated in Fig. 166.

100Hz fluorescent
light ripple

20 ms
normal shutter time

Fig. 166 The 20 ms frame integration time of a CCD colour

camera with the automatic shutter switched off, compared
with the 100 Hz fluorescent light ripple.

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5.

Using the automatic shutter in sufficiently-illuminated

scenes, the shutter speed increases and consequently
light integration in the sensor takes place during a
shorter period of time. Depending on the position
where the light integration (snap-shot) takes place with
respect to the mains phase (light ripple), it is now
possible that a TV frame is shot during the non-
saturated excitation of the fluorescent light, see Fig. 167.

light integration

short shutter time

mains lock fase

20 ms

Fig. 167 Using the automatic shutter and with the camera
locked to mains frequency, it is possible to shoot stable and
white pictures.

It can be said that the light at this point in time is not

white and the light output is less. If the phase of the
camera shutter remains constant with respect to the
mains phase, the automatic light control and the white-
balance circuits in the camera will compensate for
these effects and stable pictures will be produced.This
situation is obtained by locking the camera frame
synchronisation to the mains (mains lock).
When there is no fixed phase relation between the
scanning frequency of the camera (free running) and
the mains frequency, the camera will take a snap-shot
of the scene at varying phases of the fluorescent lamp
light output.This causes a colour fading to become
visible.The extent of the colour fade will depend on
the lighting design of the area.
In applications where the scene is illuminated with just
one fluorescent lamp or other gas-discharge lamp,
stabilised by conventional gear, the colour-fading risk is
at its maximum. It is recommended that cameras be
locked to mains frequency and the phase of the camera
synchronisation be adjusted such that the camera signal
output is maximum. If mains lock is not possible in
such an application, the lens iris should be closed to
the point where the colour fading just disappears. Now
the shutter speed is less (full-frame integration), and
the additional benefit is that the sensor smear effect is
less.This solution cannot be used in applications that
need short shutter speeds to suppress movement blur.
In all other cases (combination of inductive and
capacitive circuits, three-phase installation of high-
frequency stabilised) this phenomenon will not occur.

3.The movement of the arc on the electrode(s) (flicker)

has no fixed frequency and will only become noticeable
in exceptional cases. It depends on several factors,
including lamp position, supply voltage, temperature,
age of the lamp (electrode), and also the lamp current
waveform (peak factor).
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5.

4. Striations are noticeable as a pattern of more or less

bright regions in the long discharge tube of fluorescent
lamps.The pattern can move through the discharge
tube. It can appear when the lamp is cold or when the
lamp is dimmed down to too low a level.

5.3.18 Circuit breakers, fusing and earth

leakage
1. Standard conditions

Under normal conditions the highest current that can

occur is the current during the starting phase.When the
starter is closed, practically the entire supply voltage is
across the ballast, resulting in a high current and a low
power factor.The fuses must be capable of handling this
high initial current for several minutes. For most of the
fluorescent lamps stabilised with copper/iron ballasts, this
starting current is about 1.5 times the normal operating
current.

During switching on, a few other processes are going on

as well:
- The (empty) parallel compensating capacitor will be
charged with a high inrush current,
- Depending on the magnetic saturation of the ballast, a
voltage induction will take place in the ballast,
- Gas-discharge lamps can have some rectification or
DC component in the lamp current.
These phenomena occur in the very first 3 to 5
milliseconds and can result in a peak current of 15 to 25
times the nominal current.This surge current will depend
on the lamp and ballast type and the number of lamps
per circuit as well as, of course, on the resistance and
impedance of the lamp and supply cables and the
impedance of the mains supply network.This latter part
varies greatly in practice. It is recommended that a surge
current of 20 to 25 times the nominal current during the
first 3 milliseconds be used and 7 times the nominal
current for the first 2 seconds for parallel compensated
circuits as a guide for selecting fuse ratings.
In the duo-circuit, the capacitor is connected in series
with the coil, so the very high surge currents cannot
appear in this case.

Devices for switching and fusing must be capable of

handling these currents correctly.This means that for
fuses slow-acting gI types (normal general-purpose type
for cable fusing) have to be used (German name: gL).
The main purpose of the fuse is to protect the cable and
the distribution part of the lighting installation from
damage in the case of a failure in the installation. So the
fuse rating is primarily related to the cable core used in
the installation.
As the various national electrical safety rules differ slightly,
the recommended fuse ratings for lighting equipment
published by the various lamp, gear and fuse suppliers are
not always the same. Moreover, there are differences in
the various brands of fuses.
As a guide, it is recommended to load gl-fuses to not
more than 50 - 70 per cent of their rating.

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5.

The same applies to main circuit breakers (MCBs).

Although the switching characteristics of MCB types are
laid down in recommendations like CEE-19, 2nd edition,
the various characteristics of different types and brands
can differ considerably.

Circuit breakers are tested and calibrated to carry

100 per cent of their rated current in open air at a
specified temperature, normally 25 ºC.When mounted in
an enclosure, the ambient temperature may be higher. As
a result, circuit breakers are permitted to continuously
carry only 80 per cent of their current rating.The
manufacturer's technical information should be carefully
reviewed to determine the exact capabilities of a specific
breaker.
Main circuit breakers work on two principles:
1. The thermal part, being a bimetal strip, which is heated
by the passing current.The switching-off characteristic
is similar to that of a fuse and is influenced by time
and current value. It is effective after a minimum of
some 2 to 5 seconds for the smaller overload
currents.
2. The electromagnetic part, being a magnet coil, which is
effective for the high overload currents and reacts
within milliseconds (see Fig. 168).

switching time (s) switching time (s)

0
0

00
00

10
10
00
10

00
10
0
10

0
10
10

10
1

L-curve
1

U-curve
1
0.

K-curve
1
01

0.
0.

B C D
1

01
00

0.
0.

10

20
30

70

0
2
3

50

10
5

5
6

20
30
2

15
20
10

30
0.

1.

multiple of nominal current multiple of nominal current

Fig. 168 Switching characteristics of various types of main

circuit breakers.

According to CEE-19, 2nd edition (L, U and K)

According to EN 60898 / VDE 0641 (B, C and D)

For lighting applications, the less sensitive types of circuit

breakers are advised, such as the U, K, C, or D types.
Taking the 10 A MCB type C as a reference (with a load
assumed to be 1), then the other types can handle loads
as shown in the following table:
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5.

C-type B-type L-type U-type K-type

10 A 16 A 10 A 16 A 10 A 16 A 10 A 16 A 10 A 16 A
1 1.6 0.6 1 0.7 1.1 1.3 2.1 1.5 2.5

Information on what lighting load a certain MCB can

handle may be given by the MCB supplier, provided
information about the cabling layout, lamp type and
circuit is available. As a guide, a practical value for the
figure (1) of the 10 A MCB type C represents a 1500 W
lighting load with the conventional gear.

2. Non-standard conditions

A fluorescent lamp circuit normally consists of four parts:

lamp, ballast, starter and compensating capacitor.
The effects of short-circuiting one of these parts are:

1. Short-circuiting of the lamp

This has been described above: in the inductive circuit the

mains current will be approximately 1.5 times the
nominal value, which means an extra temperature rise of
the ballast and cabling by a factor 1.5 2.There is no
immediate damage or danger, and the situation can
continue to exist for days.Tested in a complete luminaire
at 110 % Vmains , the ballast temperature must be lower
than 232 ºC, which guarantees a minimum lifetime of the
ballast of 20 days in this situation. In most cases the
mains fuse will not blow and the situation can only be
solved by good maintenance.
In a capacitive circuit, the current is even lower than the
nominal value when the lamp is short-circuited. So then
the described effects are not noticeable.

2. Short-circuiting of the ballast

As there is no current limit in this case, the lamp current

in the inductive circuit will immediately rise to an
undefined high value. If the current is not switched off by
the mains fuse, the lamp will normally become an open
circuit because (one of) the lamp electrodes will melt. In
most cases this process is so quick that there will be no
extra danger or damage. In practice, however, it often
happens that the ballast is partly short-circuited inside
the copper coil, for example at the end of the ballast
lifetime.This results in a higher ballast temperature and a
higher lamp power.This process is cumulative and
normally the mains fuse will not blow, while the ballast
gets hotter and hotter until a fatal earth or winding
breakdown occurs. For this reason, the ballast must be
mounted in such a way that it can cause no danger during
end-of-life failure.
Good maintenance can prevent blown-up lamps and
burned-out ballasts.
When, in a capacitive circuit, the ballast is short-circuited,
the lamp is only stabilised by the series capacitor. In most
cases the lamp will extinguish, as the remaining
impedance is too high (Z c = 2. Z L ). In those cases where
the lamp continues to work, the high capacitive peak
currents through the lamp will rapidly damage the lamp
electrodes.The lamp will blacken at the lamp ends and
sooner or later a lamp electrode will break, resulting in an
open circuit.

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5.

3. Short-circuiting of the ignitor

At the end of the lifetime of a glow-switch starter, the

bimetal electrodes will stick together and will not re-open
again.Then the short-circuit current will continuously
flow through the lamp electrodes, resulting in
pronounced lamp-end blackening and a hot ballast.This
effect can often be found in practice if the maintenance
of the installation is not well done. It is advisable to also
renew the glow-switch starter during lamp replacement.

4. Short-circuiting of the parallel compensating capacitor

This results in a complete short-circuit of the mains, so

the mains fuse will react. In fact, short-circuiting of the
capacitor will not occur in practice, as capacitors for
lighting applications must have a switch-off mechanism
that results in an open circuit during excessive capacitor
currents. In that case the circuit is not compensated, so
the mains current will rise.
Regular control of mains current and/or power factor is
advisable.

5. Short-circuiting of the series capacitor

In fact there are no visible signs or critical effects when

the series capacitor is short-circuited.The lamp circuit
will function normally, but only the power factor will
change and shift.

3. Earth leakage

There are two different official earth classifications:

1. Protective earth (PE) with symbol , which must

ensure safety in case of (human) contact with
accessible metal parts that can become live, e.g. at the
end of the life of a component.
2. Functional earth with symbol , which must be
connected for reasons other than safety.

With electromagnetic lamp control gear we only have to

deal with protective earthing, which is permissible by
mounting the gear to an earthed metal component.
Capacitors in metal housings can often be mounted by
means of a metal stud (see Fig. 169).

Fig. 169 Typical capacitor with metal stud fixing.

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5.

Earth leakage currents in lighting circuits depend on the

quality of all system components and on the circumstances
(humidity, dust, age).With respect to luminaires, IEC 598
restricts these currents to 0.5 or 1 mA, depending on the
insulation classification.The earth connection may consist
of an earth lead or the capacitance between the
luminaire and its surroundings.
The earth leakage current of a ballast normally is very
low: all ballasts undergo a high-voltage insulation test of
2500 V to check their insulation resistance.This can be
checked in practice with a Megger (megohmmeter) of
minimum 500 V DC, resulting in an insulation resistance
of more than 2 megohm.Tests with burning lamps can
give earth leakage currents of about 1 to 2 mA per lamp
circuit. In older installations these values can be
somewhat higher due to humidity, dust, cable capacity or
during the starting period. But the earth leakage current
should never be higher than 5 mA per lamp circuit.
There are two different applications for earth leakage
devices:
1. to protect people from direct contact with live parts,
reacting to the current through the human body; there
are 10 mA and 30 mA devices,
2. to protect people and grounded installations, reacting to
the direct current to earth; there are devices of 300 mA
and higher.

5.3.19 Fault finding

When a lighting installation becomes inoperative, a
complex, thorough, trouble-shooting procedure may prove
overly time-consuming. In many cases, a simple check of
the power switches, lamps and gear may provide the
quickest response to the problem. In some cases,
however, it may be necessary to isolate the problem
systematically and perform complete electrical tests in
order to restore the lighting properly. Besides, it is
important to know if the installation or individual isolated
lighting points were functioning properly before the
failure.
There are four basic causes of failures:
A. Lamp-related: not starting, cycling, too bright or dim
B. Gear-related: too hot, or damaged ballast, capacitor,
starter
C. Installation-related: cable too hot, terminals or
lampholder damaged, blown fuses, contactors or circuit
breakers switched
D. Supply-voltage-related: too high, too low, wrong
frequency, bad voltage waveform.

There are also four basic trouble-shooting methods:

1.Visual inspection
2. Quick fix for restoring lighting
3.Trouble-shooting checklist
4. Electrical tests

1A. Visual inspection of lamps

End-of-life of lamps is characterised by low light output

and/or different colours.Visual signs include blackening at
the ends of the arc tube and electrode tip deterioration.

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5.

Additional checks:

- Broken lamp pins

- Broken or loose electrodes in lamp tube
- Tube blackening
- Lamp type and wattage must correspond to that
required by ballast label
- Lamp orientation designation incorrect for application
(base up, base down)

1B. Visual inspection of components

- Damaged ballast, starter or capacitor

- Evidence of moisture or excessive heat
- Loose, disconnected, pinched or frayed leads
- Incorrect wiring
- Ballast, starter and capacitor must correspond with
lamp type and lamp wattage appropriate to the actual
mains supply voltage

1C. Visual inspection of installation

- Incorrect wiring
- Blown fuses, switched circuit breakers or contactors
- Hot cables
- Damaged lampholders

1D. Visual inspection of mains supply

Verify that the correct line voltage is being supplied and

that phase and neutral are connected in accordance with
the wiring diagram.

2. Quick fix for restoring lighting

After the visual inspection and repair, replace any defective

component, starting with the lamp and glow-switch starter.

3. Trouble-shooting checklist

When, after following points 1 and 2, a failure still exists,

some tests will have to be carried out.

Fault I: lamp shows bright flash and does not ignite again.
Possible cause:
- No ballast, incorrect ballast, short-circuited ballast
- Capacitor across the lamp instead of across the mains

Fault II: newly-replaced lamp does not ignite.

Action: disconnect starter and measure mains voltage and
open-circuit voltage at the lampholder. In the case of a
linear coil, these must both be equal:
- If so, replace the starter
- If not equal, replace the ballast
- If equal and there is no ignition with new starter and
lamp, check lampholder and circuit contacts

Fault III: lamp remains in glow stage, does not ignite

properly or only lamp ends (electrodes) emit some light.
Possible cause:
- Lamp was damaged in previous overload
- Starter defect or short-circuited

Fault IV: lamp flickers.

Possible cause:
- Lamp operating voltage too high, end of lamp life
- Low supply voltage: check ballast connection
- Burning position not to specification
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5.

Fault V: strong blackening of lamp, light output reduction.

Possible cause:
- Overload operation
- Wiring / ballast defect
- Capacitor across lamp instead of across mains
- End of lamp life

Fault VI: fuse acting shortly after switch-on.

Possible cause:
- Fuse rating too low or not of slow-acting type
- Wiring defect, overload operation

Fault VII: differences in lamp colour.

Possible cause:
- Large variation in burning positions in an installation
- Underload
- Lamps of different operating age or different suppliers
- Lamps of different colours used

4. Electrical tests

Voltage and current measurements present the possibility

of exposure to hazardous voltages and should be
performed only by qualified personnel.To measure the
correct effective values, true RMS voltmeters have to be
used. Measurements with non-true RMS meters can give
up to 50 per cent lower values, especially during
measurements of the lamp voltage or other non-sine-wave
voltages (see table below).

Description Waveform True RMS Peak RMS calibrated Average RMS calibrated

Sine wave 100 100 100

Square wave 100 71 111

Triangular wave 100 120 96

Single-phase electronic
100 200 50
load current

Single-phase electronic
100 166 83
plus 30 % linear load

The parallel compensating capacitor can be measured

in two ways:
1. Measure mains current and lamp current.
If both are the same, the capacitor is open-circuit and
has to be replaced.
If the mains current is about half the lamp current, the
capacitor is in order, resulting in a power factor of
approximately 0.9.
2. Disconnect capacitor from circuit and discharge by
short-circuiting terminals.
Check capacitor with ohmmeter set to highest
resistance scale. If the meter indicates a very low
resistance, which then gradually increases, the capacitor
is in order.
If the meter indicates a very high resistance, which
does not diminish, the capacitor is open-circuit and
should be replaced.

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5.

If the meter indicates a very low resistance, which

does not increase, the capacitor is short-circuited and
should be replaced.This method can also be used for
the series capacitors.

Measurement of the starting-pulse voltage of a starter is

beyond the capability of most instruments available in the
field, due to the high peak voltages.The practical way is
to replace the suspect starter by another one.

Measurements on the ballast can be done in two steps

after disconnecting the ballast from the circuit:
1. Check with ohmmeter on the terminals.Values should
be low (15 to 200 Ω, depending on lamp power). If the
value is high, the ballast is open-circuit.
2. Connect ballast to the mains supply (well fused!) and
measure the short-circuit current.This should be
approximately 1.5 times the nominal lamp current.

Measurements of the lamp electrodes can be done on

the 4-pin versions with a standard ohmmeter.The
resistance of the electrodes varies for the different lamp
types, but is less than 50 Ω when cooled down.

Measurements on the lamp in operation can only be

done if the starter is not operative. As the lamp voltage is
not a sine wave and subject to the tolerances in the total
circuit, measured lamp voltages give only a rough
indication of correct functioning.The lamp current can be
measured rather accurately.

Measurements of the mains supply normally involve the

effective value of the supply voltage and mains current,
and sometimes the frequency.When pulses, interruptions,
harmonics (waveform) can play a role, 'laboratory'
instruments are necessary, preferably over a longer period
while recording the readings.
It is advisable to measure the various phase currents in
an installation, in order to check the balance of the load.
Also, the measurement of the current in the neutral wire
in a star network gives an indication of the quality of the
total system. Due to harmonics in the lamp current, the
current in the neutral conductor is not zero, but should
be 50....70 per cent of the phase currents. If the current
in the neutral conductor is higher than in the phases, the
balance in the load is not correct or the mains supply
waveform does not have a good sine wave.This can lead
to overload of the neutral cable.
For safety and good ignition, earthing of the luminaires
and the electrical system can be essential. Check the
system's current to real earth (see Section 5.3.18: Earth
leakage).The voltage between real earth and the neutral
conductor is not limited by safety regulations, but
normally lies between 0 and 6 V.

Apart from these electrical tests, a check has to be made

that all components are used within their specifications,
with special attention to the maximum temperature.
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5.

5.3.20 Installation aspects

- The live side of the mains must be connected to the
ballast. As most ballasts are symmetrical there is no
marked indication at the ballast terminals for the mains
and lamp connection. Mixing up the ballast terminals can
slightly influence the radio-interference level.
- In the total circuit, however, interchanged connection of
live and neutral terminals can cause increased radio
interference, higher earth leakage currents and/or
ignition problems.
- It is recommended that the bottom plate of the ballast
be connected to earth, for example via a metal part of
the luminaire. In the case of end-of-life of the ballast,
short-circuiting of the ballast windings to the metal
laminations of the ballast will result in a blown mains
fuse.The ballasts do not have a separate earth contact:
earthing-while-mounting.
- In two or three-phase networks with a neutral
conductor, this neutral wire must have the same cross-
section as the phase wires.
- Use stranded wire in places that are subjected to
vibrations or where the wire must be able to bend in
use, as in a spotlight.
- Most ballasts, starter holders and lampholders are
equipped with either single or double insert contacts,
suited for solid solid-core wire of 0.5 - 1.0 mm2, which
should be properly stripped.
- At ambient temperatures below 10 ºC, closed luminaires
should be used to avoid too-low lighting levels.
- Circuits with glow-switch starters require long starting
times at low temperatures. An earthed metal shield
near the lamp will improve the starting process, shorten
the starting time and increase lamp life.This earthed
metal shield can be the mounting plate for the ballast.
- Mount the ballast as close as possible to the lamp.
Although the starter peak initially has a high value, its
energy content is restricted. Due to the high ohmic
resistance of long installation wires, the starter energy
can easily be lost.This can happen in particular in series
circuits with two 'TL' 4-6-8 W lamps.
- Preferably mount ballasts on metal surfaces for good
heat transmission. If the ballast has to be mounted on
heat-isolating material (wood), the -type ballast
should be used.
- In outdoor applications, SL lamps should be used inside
an enclosed luminaire.This is to prevent moisture from
creeping into the lamp.
- SL lamps cannot be dimmed as this will considerably
reduce their lifetime. Also, the dimming circuit in which
the lamps are used can be damaged.

5.3.21 Non-standard supply voltages

In combination with the correct gear, fluorescent lamps
can function perfectly on a wide range of supply voltages.
The luminaire itself is not limited to certain supply
voltages either.
For non-standard voltages, appropriate gear components
should be selected:
- Ballasts have to be designed for the proper supply
voltage and frequency and for the chosen lamp type. So
ballasts for a mains supply frequency of 50 Hz are
different from those for 60 Hz, even if the mains voltage
and the lamp type are the same. If the desired ballast

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5.

type is not in the standard Philips range, information can

be obtained from the local Philips organisation.
- Starters are related to lamp type, ballast and supply
voltage.The Philips range of starters cannot be used for
voltages other than those for which they are specified.
All starters are suited for 50 and 60 Hz.
- Capacitors are specified by their working voltage and
capacitance (in µF). As long as the circuit voltage is
lower than the voltage indicated on the capacitor, the
capacitor can be used.There is no difference between
capacitors for 50 or 60 Hz supply voltage frequencies.
The necessary capacitance can be calculated and is, for
example in the case of parallel compensation,
5/6 smaller for 60 Hz supplies than for 50 Hz supplies.
- Filter coils are related to a capacitance (in µF) and a
frequency. As long as the power supply voltage is lower
than that indicated on the filter coil, the filter coil can
be used.
- In large lighting installations, in most cases there is a
possibility to transform the non-standard voltage
centrally into a standard voltage. In small projects a
local solution has to be found.
- If the power supply voltage for fluorescent lamp circuits
is generated by a separate motor/generator set (e.g. for
emergency lighting), special attention must be paid to
the right choice of the generator/alternator type.
Not all types of generators can correctly handle the
changing power factor and/or the harmonics in the
phase and neutral currents. Minimum requirements can
be supplied on request.

5.3.22 Maintenance
Control-gear components are in fact designed to be
maintenance-free. Regularly checking the tightness of the
screw terminals can prevent problems caused by open-
circuits or sparking. Loose mounting screws at the
ballasts can cause hum. In very dusty surroundings, the
ballast can become overheated and should be cleaned.
It is advisable to renew the glow-switch starter(s) during
lamp replacement.
The voltage required for ionisation during the starting
process might be affected by dirty lamps, excessive
moisture, or a combination of both. In installations with
considerable dust accumulation, the lamps have to be
cleaned regularly for reliable starting. Also clean the
equipment during lamp replacement.