A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID

CONSISTING

FIRST TWELVE

WITH EXPLANATIONS, ILLUSTRATIONS,

EXAMPL

BY

J. G . B R A D S H AW
L AT E S C H O L A R O F ,TESTIS ceOLLEGE, C A M B R I D G E ; F O R M E R LY A N
ASSISTANT M A S T E R A T C L I F T O N C O L L E G E

-
M A C M I L L A N A N D C O . , LIMITED
NEW Y O R K T H E M A C M I L L A N C O M PA N Y

189
All rights
A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID.
EVC
 First Edition
Reprinted

v
C7,1-

1
G L A S G O W : P R I N T E D A T T H E U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS
BY R O B E R T M A C L E H O S E A N D C O .
 PREFAC

IT is not here intended. to discuss the advisability

Euclidean Geometry to young boys. T h e fact is accepted that
this most abstract subject forms part o f the curriculum o f
our schools. T h e question arises, how f a r the study o f i t
can be rendered intelligible, serviceable, and, if
able to boys
Some teachers begin b y instructing their pupils i n the
elements of geometrical drawing, a plan which is excellent in
itself, but does not help them to overcome the initial difficulties
of geometrical reasoning. I t seems that two facts shati-l-
kept in view. Yo u n g minds can grasp
tions, whereas theoretical reasoning presents t o them great
difficulty. A g a i n , so long as their natural enterprise is not
stamped out by constant repression, but stimulated
problems, they are generally ready to puzzle out questions for
themselves. Therefore, in the first place, Euclid
introduced to the beginner with the help, as far as
of practical illustrations. Ta k e a class out o f doors, and
illustrate the application o f I . 4 t o indirect
their interest will be aroused, and i n future there w i l l be
little of the bewildering muddle-headedness connected with
that proposition, of which the majority of teachers of a low
 Vi P R E F A C E .

class in Euclid are so painfully aware. A n d i n

place, let the pupils be encouraged to build up
their own geometry. A n attempt has been made, though a
very imperfect one, i n this little book t o indicate how the
pupil, in certain propositions, may deduce the proof
self. B u t this must rest rather in the hands of
than of the
Orthodox geometricians will find here much scope
cism, but then it does not often fall to the lot of our orthodox
geometricians to teach the elements of
Those who adopt this book will probably prefer their own
way of using it, but i t is well to state the plan
the subject that prompted the writing of it. I t is intended
that no propositions should be learnt and written out, until
- _
the geometrical facts and proofs contained in the
propositions have been understood through oral teaching.
The questions on the axioms are designed for
while the questions on page 1 2 give practice i n handling
compasses and r u l e r ; b u t i t is recommended that a t this
stage n o written explanation o f their drawings should be
exacted from the beginners. L e t the first attempt
out any geometrical reasoning be made with the riders on
pages 32 and 33. B u t even here i t is best to go through the
greater part o f t h e exercise vivd, voce, before t h e class i s
allowed t o commit anything to paper. A f t e r they
quired some skill in doing these very easy riders, an attempt
may be made to learn the propositions with a view to writing
them out, but i t is generally best to postpone this as
possible, for the pupil gains i n power b y depending on his
own reasoning, instead of being set to learn
 PREFACE. v i i

made b y others. A t any rate his first t r i a l should

the shortest and not the longest propositions.
The purely Euclidean part of the book has been reprinted
at t h e end i n a consecutive form, partly f o r reference, and
partly to help the beginner to distinguish i t from
atory matter.
I have to thank m y former colleagues at Clifton, Mr.
Hall, and M r. H . G. Barlow, for help and suggestions while
the book was passing through the press, and M r. H. S. Hall,
and M r. F. H . Stevens, for permission t o borrow from their
unrivalled edition o f Euclid, t o which this is intended as an
easy introduction.

PACKWOOD HAUGH,
November, 1894.
 A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID,

CHAPTER

DEFINITIONS,*

1. A point is that which has position, but no magnitude.

2. A l i n e is that which has length without breadth.

The extremities of a line are points, and the intersection o f two lines
is a point.

3. A s t r a i g h t line is that which lies evenly between its

extreme points.

4. A surface is t h a t which has length and breadth, b u t

no
The boundaries of a surface are lines.

5. A plane surface is one in -which any two points being

taken, t h e straight line between them lies wholly o n t h a t
surface
A plane surface _is frequently referred to simply as

10. A n y portion of a plane surface bounded by one

lines, straight or curved, is called a plane figure.

* A few definitions only are given here. S e e page 63 for

list.
B. E. A
2 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

11. A c i r c l e i s a plane figure contained b y

line, which is called the c i r c u m f e r e n c e , and
is such t h a t a l l straight lines drawn from a
A c e r t a i n point within the figure t o
ference are equal to one another t h i s point is
called the centre of

A radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the centre

to the

12. A diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn through

the centre, and terminated both ways by the

I t is necessary t o understand clearly what Euclid means

by a point and a line.

A point is considered as a mere mark of position and

out any area of its own.
A line has no breadth: i t is an indefinitely
Now it is impossible to represent such a point or such a line
on paper, for they ought not t o be visible. W h e n a rough
sketch is made of a house or tree, lines more or less thick are
drawn to denote the boundary of the brick or wood. B u t there
are no such thick lines in nature. S o in the same way we have
to draw lines more or less thick to denote Euclid's lines, b u t
we must remember that mathematical lines have really no depth
or breadth.
A surface must not be confused w i t h a solid body. I t is
merely the outside of a solid body, and cannot even be
film or shell, for then it would have some depth,
Many surfaces are smooth, but
The surface o f a new garden roller is smooth. B u t take
several points on the roller and join them b y a straight line,
and the joining lines w i l l not always lie along t h e surface.
 DEFINITIONS. 3

Again, the lens of a microscope or telescope is smooth, but

not
Mark several points on a sheet of paper. I f your sheet of
paper is lying down flat, the straight lines which join
ou the surface of the paper. S o now your sheet of
paper is a plane surface. B u t if you make an arch
of the paper, as in the accompanying
the straight lines, which join some of the points,
lie outside of the surface of the paper. A n d so your
sheet of paper is no longer a plane surface. I t is possible to
take two points such that the straight line joining
lie on the surface. B u t those are particular points, and the
definition implies t h a t whatever points are taken, the line
joining them must lie on
Now i f on our flat sheet of paper which represents
surface we draw a line o r any number of lines enclosing a
space, the spaces so enclosed are called plane figures.
called "plane" because the figure is drawn on a
I f the sheet of paper is crumpled or curved into an arch, the
spaces enclosed are still figures, but no longer
Now on every printed page there are very many figures
formed by the printed letters. Some letters, such as an
enclose no figure; others, such o , ' enclose one
there are two letters each of which enclose two figures, viz.,
B' and g.' According to their shape, these plane
called b y various names. A t present we are only dealing
with one, viz., the circle. W e notice that i t is bounded by a
single curved line (not a straight line, as many blunderers
say). T o draw i t , we use a pair o f compasses. W e place
the sharp point of the compasses at 0 (see figure on
the centre of the circle; we extend our other leg till
at A : finally we revolve our compasses, keeping the fixed point
at 0, and moving the other leg round. T h i s other leg w i l l
mark out the boundary of our figure. T h e boundary
circle is called its circumference. W h e r e there is no fear o f
confusion the word circle' is often used to signify
 4 A F I R S T STEP I N EUCLID.

ference. B u t properly, a circle is a figure,' and

ence a 'boundary.'
The distance OA to which we have stretched
is called a radius of the circle. T h e line BOO is a diameter,
OB and 0 0 are radii. S o we see that a diameter is double
of a radius.

POSTULATES
LET IT BE GRANTED :

1. That a straight line may be drawn from any one point

to any other point.

2. That a finite, that is to say, a terminated

may be produced to any length in that straight line.

3. That a circle may be described from any centre, a t any

distance f r o m t h a t centre; t h a t is, w i t h a radius equal t o
any finite

These postulates are demands f o r the use of a ruler and a

pair of
The f i r s t t w o postulates demand t h a t a ruler
allowed for joining points or producing
The third postulate demands that a pair of
be used t o draw a circle from any given p o i n t w i t h a n y
radius already given in. position.
Thus it will be seen that, for the purpose of measuring, Euclid
does not sanction the use of a ruler, or of compasses.
not allowed t o carry o u r compasses f o r marking o f f equal
distance
I t may be objected that this is rather an absurd restriction.
In his second proposition he shows how a line may be drawn
from any given point equal t o any given straight line, and
the proposition is interesting as a piece o f ingenuity. A s a
matter of fact, nobody who wished t o draw a line equal t o
 AXIOMS. 5

another line, say an inch long, would hesitate to carry

passes, and in the second chapter we have allowed the student
to carry his

AXIOMS

An a x i o m is that which is evident to the senses, and which

cannot be made clearer

GENERAL AXIOMS.*

1. Things which are equal t o the same thing are equal

to one another,

2. I f equals be added to equals, the wholes

3. I f equals be taken from equals, the remainders

4. I f equals be added to unequals, the wholes are unequal,

the greater sum being that which includes the greater of the
unequal

5. I f equals be taken from unequals, the remainders are

unequal, the greater remainder being that which is left from
the greater of

6. Things which are double of the same thing, or of equal

things, are equal to

7. Things which are halves of the same thing, or of equal

things, are equal to

9. The whole is greater than its part.

I t is not likely that any one will be found who will object
to the self-evident nature of the eight axioms
I t more frequently happens that the beginner is not only
willing to accept the truth of the axioms, but considers that
* For the axioms in full, see
6 A FIRST STEP I N

there are many other things hi geometry which might be

accepted without proof. I f so, he may find
statements to be universally true which are in reality
in particular

ILLUSTRATION OF AXIOM 1.*

Two guards, one at Windsor, the other at
had a dispute by letter about their comparative heights. Each
claimed to be the taller. B u t they -were unable to
posts. S o a comrade of equal height to the Windsor
sent up to London, and was found to be equal in
to the guard at Buckingham Palace. T h e two
thus each equal in height to the "traveller," and even
limited intelligence it was obvious that they must
in height to
In the language of Euclid, things which, are equal to
thing are equal to one another. T h e two guards were "the
things," and the traveller "the

EXERCI
In the following examples state the conclusion
out the
(I) Tom and John are both the same age as I, therefore . • .
(2) Volumes II. and III. are the same length as Vol. I., therefore . .
(3) I have the same amount of money as Brown or
fore . . .
(4) A=B and
Which of the axioms are illustrated by the
ments
(1) Brown has as much money as Smith, and Jones
therefore Brown and Jones together have as much money as Smith
and
(2) Two armies, equal in number, each lose 500 men in a battle,
consequently they still have the same number

* This illustration is due, I believe, to the late Mr. Hawtrey.

 AXIOMS. 7

(3) Brown and Smith are each double the height of the
therefore they are the same height as
(4) My whole hand is larger than
(5) Tom has more money than John. T h e y each lose a
fore still has Tom more money
(6) I am older than you. I n five years) time I shall still
than
(7) Smith and Brown are each the same age as Jones, therefore they
are the same age as
(8) One half of a book is as long as the

GEOMETRICALEXERCISE ON
N.B.—The sides of a square are
1. I n Figure 2* prove that Fe is equal to OD.
2. I n Figure 1 prove that (1) A K = AN; (2) KE = NF; (3) EE = FD;
(4) A E is greater than A N ; (5) AF is less than AB; (6) the sum
EL = the sum of DC, CL.
3. I n Figure 5 prove that EA is equal
4. I n Figure 3 prove that (1) EB D U ; (2) AD is greater than EA;
(3) the sum of AB, AG = the sum of AD, AE.
5. I n Figure 4 prove that (1) AC B D ; (2) OR is greater
(3) AR
6. I n the figure of Example 1 on page 11 ABCD is a square, and. with
centres A and C two circles with equal radii have been described. Prove
that BM and PE are equal, and also DN
7. I n the figure on page 16 DE, DF are radii of the larger
BE, BC of the smaller circle, and DBA is a triangle with all
equal. Prove that AF = BE, and hence that AF

The following examples on the axioms may be tried after

Chapter IV. has been read:
8. I n Figure 5 prove that the angles EAG, FBC are equal, and that
the angle EAB is greater than FBA.

* Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 will be found on pages

8 A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID,

9. I n the figure on page 34, if it is given that the angles AEG, ACF
are equal, and also the angles CBG, BCF are equal, prove that
ABC, ACB
10. I n the figure on page 44, if it is given that the angles ACD, ADC
are equal, prove that (1) the angle ADC is greater than the angle BUD;
(2) the angle BCD is greater than the angle AUDI
 CHAPTER I I .

FURTHER DEFINITIONS.

16. A triangle is a plane figure bounded by

lines
19. A n equilateral triangle is a
three sides
A
20. A n isosceles triangle i s a triangle, t w o o f
whose sides

Any one of the angular points of a triangle may be regarded

as its v e r t e x a n d the opposite side is then called the base.
In the case of an isosceles triangle the term base is only applied
to the side which is not equal to the other two, and the term
vertex to the angle opposite to
I t has been already remarked t h a t Euclid
sidered t h a t distances could n o t b e accurately measured b y
carrying the compasses. I n the next chapter we shall show
how he gets over this difficulty. M e a n t i m e , i n
chapter we shall assume that we are able to

DRAWING TO SCALE.
In drawing maps or plans i t is necessary to represent actual
distances by very much shorter lines. I f we want to represent
a large tract of country i n a small map, an inch on the map
9
10 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

may represent 10 miles, or even 50 or 100 miles. I f we wish

to have a fairly detailed map, we represent only 1 mile of the
district by an inch. I f w e are drawing a plan of a house,
probably each inch of the plan is made to denote only a few
feet o r yards. I f our scale i s an inch t o the mile, then 2
inches denote 2 miles, i n c h denotes m i l e , 1 yard denotes 36
miles, and
E x ERCISE.

(1) On the scale of an inch to the mile draw lines to represent 3 miles,
4,1 miles, m i l e , 2 miles, 1 mile, 3 furlongs.
(2) On the scale of i n c h to the mile draw lines to represent 4 miles,
5 miles, 3i miles,
(3) On the scale of i t h of an inch to the yard, draw lines-to represent
7 yards, 12 yards, 24 yards, 29 yards.

ON CIRCLES.
Before drawing a circle i t is necessary to know two things:
(1) The point where the sharpened leg of the compass must
be placed, i.e. the position of
(2) The extent to which the compass must be stretched, i.e.
the length of the radius.
I t will be seen that by means of the circle we can
position of points, a l l o f which lie a t the same distance from
some fixed point. F o r instance, all points one mile
a given point A lie on a circle,* whose centre is A and radius
equal to one mile.
In practical life we may represent by a circle the boundary
of the ground t h a t may be grazed b y a tethered animal, o r
reached by a garden syringe, or commanded by a gun, etc., etc.
To enable us to draw a plan of such boundaries we must know
(1) The position o f t h e fixed point, i.e. t h e centre
circle
(2) The length of the range of the tethered animal, syringe,
or gull, i.e. the radius of our circle.
* A " c i r c l e " here means " t h e circumference." S e e
 ON CIRCLES. 1 1

EXAMPLE I .

Let ABCD represent a small square plot of grass, each of whose

is 20 yards. Cows are tethered to the A and 0 with
ropes 15 yards long. D r a w a figure
which part of the grass cannot be
which part can be eaten by both.
yards to
15 yards will be represented by 1-8 of an
Inch, i.e. i n c h .
The cow tethered at A can graze for a
distance of 15 yards from A.
Hence i t can graze over the
closed i n a circle whose centre is A and
radius
Therefore with centre A and radius inch, describe a circle cutting
AB, AD in M
Similarly, with centre C inch, describe another circle,
cutting CB in P and CD
Then the shaded part cannot be touched by either cow, the dotted
part can be eaten

EXAMPLE I I .
On a straight line i i n c h in length as base draw a
its other two sides equal to A inch
Let AB be a straight line a- inch in length. Since the sides are to
measure i n c h and I inch,
that the third angular point must
be i n c h from A, and / inch
Since i t is to be i n c h from A , i t
must lie on the circumference of a
circle, whose centre is A and radius
inch. Since it is to be
B, i t must lie on the
of a circle, whose centre is B and
radius / inch. N o w the only points which are on both
are the points where the
If these points are C and D, then the triangle ACB has its sides of
the required length. A l s o if A and B are joined to D, the triangle ADB
will have its sides of the required length.
12 A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID.

EXERCI
1. Draw a figure to show the amount of ground that can
by a fixed syringe, which can squirt water a distance o f
(Scale i n c h to the yard.)
2. A man stands on the edge of a circular grass plot of radius 16
yards, and waters i t w i t h a syringe t h a t carries 24 yards. D r a w a
figure to show how much will be watered. (Scale -rtz- inch to the yard.)
3. A donkey is tethered 8 yards from a long straight hedge, and can
graze a distance of 12 yards from its tether. D r a w a figure
how much of the hedge i t can nibble. (Scale A inch to the yard.)
4. I n question 2, another man with an equally powerful
on the circumference at. the farthest point reached b y the
Show what part of the ground will be watered
5. Two forts containing guns that can carry 2 miles are 3
Draw a figure to show what space will be under fire from
(i inch to the mile.)
6. A and B are any two points 3 inches apart. D r a w a
which all points 2 inches distant from A must lie. D r a w
upon which a l l points 2 inches distant from B must lie. H o w many
points are there distant 2 inches both from A and B?
7. A and B are any two points 1 inch apart. C B D is any straight
line passing through B, but not through A . D r a w a figure
all points 11 inches from A lie, and find two points in CBD
inches from A.
8. York and Harrogate are 18 miles apart in direct line. F i n d two
points which are each 8 miles from York and 16 miles
(Scale-11-g inch to the mile.)
9. A B is any straight line of limited length, and DAC another line of
unlimited length passing through A. F i n d another point besides A in
DAC, which is the same distance from B as A is
10. A B is a line 1 inch long. D r a w a circle on which w i l l lie a l l
points 2 inches distant from A, and another on which will lie all points
2 inches distant from B H e n c e draw two isosceles triangles on the
base AB, with their sides 2
11. M and N are two towns 4 miles apart. A straight
through N. F i n d two points on it, each 5 miles from M. (Scale i n c h
to the mile.)
12. A and B are two points 1 inch apart. C B D is any
through B. D r a w an isosceles triangle with vertex A and base on CBD
having sides 2
 ON CIRCLES. 1 3

13. A and B are points 2 inches apart. Draw a circle on

lie all points 2 inches distant from A, and another on which will lie all
points 2 inches distant from B, and let one of the points in
circles cut be C. I f A, B, and C are joined, what kind of
forme
Anyone who has been able to do this last question
little difficulty in drawing an equilateral triangle on
base AB, whatever may be the distance from A to B. F o r
we have the position of two. angular points of our
A and B, and only need to find the position of the
we will
Now C has to be the same distance from A, as B is from A.
Therefore it must lie on the circumference of a
centre is A and radius AR
Again C has to be the same distance from B, as A is from
B. Therefore it must lie on the circumference of a
centre is B and radius BA.
These circles only cut in two points, and so C must
of these
I t is not unlikely that by some such process of
the above, Euclid or his predecessors arrived at
tion of his first
He writes out his propositions i n a very clear way, giving
the reason for each step, and the student in course of
to learn to write them out in a

Proposition is the name given to each separate

Propositions are of two kinds, Problems and Theorems.
A problem proposes to effect some
tion: e.g. in the first proposition it is proposed to describe an
triangle on a given finite
This is called the general enunciation of
tion
A problem consists of four parts: I . , general
II., particular enunciation; I I I . , construction
14 A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID.

I. The general
(1) the data, or things given, e.g. a finite
(2) the quaesita, or things required, e.g. to describe
teral triangle on it.
I I . The p a r t i c u l a r e n u n c i a t i o n repeats
of the general enunciation, but refers to a special
with letters.
(1) the d a t a , e.g. let AB be the given
(2) the q u a e s i t a , e.g. i t is required to describe an equilateral
triangle
I I I . The construction directs the drawing of such lines
or figures as may be necessary to effect the purpose of
blem, e.g. in Proposition I. the necessary circles are directed to
I V. The p r o o f demonstrates that the object of the problem
has been effected, e.g. in Proposition I. the triangle ABC
to be an equilateral

A theorem proposes to demonstrate some geometrical truth,

e.g. if two circles cut one another, they cannot have the
In a theorem the enunciation
(1) the hypothesis, or that which is assumed
to exist, e.g. (in the above) it is supposed that two
one
(2) the conclusion, or the assertion to be proved, e.g. (in
the above) it is to be proved that the circles cannot have the
same
In other respects the parts of a theorem are similar
of a
At the end of a p r o b l e m there are written the letters
Q.E.F., which are the initial letters of quod erat faciendu.m.,
"which was to
At the end of a theorem the letters Q.E.D. stand for quod
erat demonstrandum, "which was to
 EUCLID, BOOK I . , 1 . 1 6

PROPOSITION 1. PROBLEM.

General Enunciation.
To describe an equilateral triangle on a given
lin

Particular
Let AB be the given finite
I t is required to describe an equilateral triangle

Constructio
From centre A with radius AB, describe the
From centre B with radius BA, describe the
Let the circles intersect
Join CA
Then shall ABC be an

Proof. Because A is the centre of the

therefore AC=AB,
and because B is the centre of the
therefore
Therefore AC and BC are each equal
But things which are equal to the same thing are equal
another. A x . I.
Therefore
Therefore CA, AB, BC are equal to
Therefore the triangle ABC is equilateral;
and it is described on the given straight line AB. Q.E.F.
 CHAPTER I I I .

WE w i l l now show how Euclid draws a straight line from a

given point equal to a given straight line without carrying the
compasse
Let A be the given point, BC t h e given
straight line.
He joins A to one extremity of the straight
line, say to B.
With centre B and radius BC
a circle.
On AB, on either side of it, he describes an equilateral triangle
BAD, and produces DB to meet the circle just drawn in E.
With centre D and radius D E he describes another circle,
and produces D A to cut it in F.
Then he proves that A F is equal
[NoTE. I n this construction be careful to produce DB, not D A or AB,
to meet the small circle. A l i t t l e thought w i l l convince any one of the
reason for this step.]
Now t o prove t h a t A F i s equal t o BC, w e m u s t use a
"traveller," and here our " traveller" is BE.
I t is quite obvious that BC is equal to BE, for they are radii
of the same
By Axiom 3 we can also prove A F equal to BE.
For D F and. DE are a large pair
and D A and DB are a small pair
and i f we take the small pair from the large pair, each from
each, we have the remainders A F and BE.
Hence we see that A F must be equal to BE.
1
 EQUAL LINES. 1 7

Therefore " o u r two guards" A F and BC are each equal to

the " traveller " BE, and so they are equal to
I t is a good thing to practise drawing this figure with A and
BC in many different positions. I f care is taken to
and not any other line, to the circumference of the small circle,
little difficulty should be found in doing this. I n
join the vertex of the equilateral triangle described on t h e
base A B to B, and produce that line onwards beyond B to the
circumference of the circle described about B

Now suppose in. the above figure there was any

A M drawn from A t o any distance. I f we were asked to cut
off from A M a part equal to BC, we should with centre
radius A F draw a circle cutting A M in N. T h e n A N can be
proved equal
In t h e accompanying figure the lines BC, A F only of
figure have been
Here AF is our " traveller."
AN is equal to A I ' , for they are radii of the
same
BC has already been proved equal to AF.
Therefore A N and Be, being both equal to A F, are equal
to one

This is the way Euclid cuts off a part of a straight line equal
straight
But he does not go through all the
He wants to cut off from AM a part equal
He has already shown how a line AF can be drawn from A equal
to BO. S o he merely says, "From the point A draw the straight line
AF equal to BC." A n d this is his way throughout. W h e n he
shown how to draw an equilateral triangle, or how to find
point of a straight line, or how to draw a perpendicular, be
the

B, E.
18 A F I R S T STEP I N EUCLID.

PROPOSITION 2. PROBLEM.
General Enunciation.
From a given point to draw a straight line equal to
straight

Particular
Let A be the given point, and BC the given
I t is required to draw from the point A a straight
to
Construction.
and on AB describe an equilateral triangle DAB.
From centre B, with radius BC, describe the
Produce DB to meet the circle CEG
From centre D, with radius DE, describe the
Produce DA to meet the circle EFH at F.
Then AF shall be equal
Proof. B e c a u s e B is the centre of the
therefore BC=BE,
and because D is the centre of the
therefore DF=DE,
and DA, DB, parts of them,
Therefore the remainder A F=the remainder BE. A x . 3.
And it has been shown that BC is equal
Therefore AF and BC are each equal
But things which are equal to the same thing are equal to
one another. A x .
Therefore AF
and it has been drawn from the given point A. Q.E.F.
 EUCLID, BOOK I . , 3 . 1 9

PROPOSITION 3. PROBLEM.
General Enunciation.
From the greater of two given straight lines, to cut o f a part
equal to

Particular Enunciation.
Let A K and BC be the two given straight lines, of which
AK is the
I t is required to cut off from AK a part equal to BC.

Construction
From the point A draw the straight line AF equal to BC,
and from centre A, with radius A F, describe the circle
meeting AK
Then AM shall be equal to BC.

Proof
Because A is the centre of the circle
therefore AM =AF.
But BC =AF,
therefore AM and BC are each equal to AF,
therefore AM = BC,
and it has been cut off from the given straight line AK. Q . E . F.
 CHAPTER I V .

FURTHER DEFINITIONS.

8. A p l a n e a n g l e is the inclination of t w o straight lines

to one another, which meet together, but are not i n
straight line.

7. When a straight line, standing on another straight line,

makes the adjacent angles equal t o one another,
each of the angles i s called a r i g h t a n g l e ; and
the straight line which stands on the other is called
a perpendicular to it

8. A n o b t u s e angle i s an angle which i s

greater than a

9. A n a c u t e angle i s an angle which i s less f z ,

than a

28. A s q u a r e is a four-sided figure

all its sides equal, and all its angles

GEOMETRICAL AXIOMS.

S Magnitudes which can b e made t o coincide w i t h one

another
2
 ON ANGLES, 2

10. Two straight lines cannot enclose

11. A l l right angles

I f a half-crown is taken up and laid upon another half-crown

so that the edges of the first fall exactly over the edges
second, the under surface of the upper coin is said
with the upper surface of the
I f a piece of paper is laid upon another, so that
of one lies exactly over each corresponding edge of the other,
the surfaces of the pieces of paper are said
This method is called superposition, because
tude is placed over the

With t w o straight pencils t r y to enclose a marble. T h e

truth of Axiom 10 will then be

ON ANGLES.
An angle is not
The shape of a field may be a triangle, a square, or
but it cannot be
Two lines make an angle with one another when they are
different i n direction and the angle measures the amount of
this difference in direction, and the magnitude of the angle is
not altered by the length of
I f two men A and B start from the same point, A walking
in a northerly and B in a north-easterly direction,
of their routes make a certain angle, and that angle is not
changed whether they walk 10 yards or 10 miles. H a third
man C walk only one yard in an easterly direction, his route
would have made a greater angle with A's direction
route had done, even though B had walked
A t any time o f day, say a t one o'clock, the hands of all
correct clocks make the same angle with one another. T h e
22 A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID.

hands of Big Ben make the same angle as the hands of the
tiniest bijou
In the figure on page 512 the lines ED, DF are
the lines CA, A F, but ED, D F contain a larger angle than
CA, AF.
You may be directed along a road and told to turn to the
right at a big angle (" abruptly " would probably be the word
used), whether after turning to the right you walked straight
on for 100 yards or 5 miles, you would have turned through
the same
The lines which meet and form an angle are said
that
But equal angles may be contained by lines of
e.g. B A and AC are greater than
A D E G
DE, El', but contain an equal
there are two pairs of lines
length, these pairs do
sarily contain equal angles, e.g. the
pair of lines BA, AC are equal to
the pair GH, HK, but the angles they contain are
Again DE, E F are shorter than G i l , H K , b u t contain a
larger
The point where the arms of the angle meet is called the
vertex o r angular_ _point. T h e angle contained b y B A
AC is called the angle BAC or the angle CAB,
the angle A, when there is only one angle at A.
Mention the angle contained by
(1) EB and BL in (4) Q0 and OA in
(2) OB and BD in (5) FB and BC in
(3) DO and EO in (6) BC and FO in figure on p.
Mention the lines which contain
(I) ADC, DOB in
(2) OEB, ODE, OBE in
(3) POB and AOB in
(4) CAE and GFB in
 OX TRIANGLES. 2 3

ON TRIANGLES.

Triangles have six parts, viz, three angles and

Two triangles are said to be identically equal or equal i n a l l
respects when one can be placed over the other so t h a t i t
exactly covers it. T h e n all the six parts of the one w i l l be
equal to the six parts of the other.

Triangles may be of the same size though different i n shape. T h i s

is expressed by saying that the triangles
in area. T h e triangles in the
are equal in area, but are not

Now, i f i t is known that three of the parts of one triangle

are equal to three of the parts of another triangle, i t
be proved that the remaining parts

But this is not always the case. F o r instance, i f we are told that
the three angles o f one triangle are equal to the three angles of the
other triangle, i t does not follow that the three sides are equal. F o r
we can have two triangles, one very small, the other very large, which
have all their angles equal e.g. in Figure 1, if AC and N M are joined,
the triangle ACD has its angles equal to those of the triangle DNM,

INDIRECT MEASUREMENT.

Now i t is of the greatest importance in geometry to

to prove that triangles are equal in a l l their parts when we
know that certain parts
Geometry means the science o f measuring the earth, and
deals t o a great extent w i t h the measurement o f distances
that cannot be measured directly. W e can measure directly
the height of a man or length of a road, but a
alone is of little help for discovering the distance of a star, or
even the height of a mountain. E v e n the following problem
might prove difficult.
24 A F I R S T STEP I N EUCLID.

Suppose that A and B are two stakes with, some

body H (say a haystack) interposed between, them. F i n d the
distance from A

I t is agreed that some indirect method must be employed, by

drawing lines in some other part of the field, where
no obstacles in
The point C is taken in such a position that its distances from
A and B can be measured directly.
Mr. Simpleton takes another point N, draws a line
to CA, and another N M equal t o CB. H e joins L M , and
measures it, and declares AB must be equal to LM.
Mr. Wiseman, however, takes a point F, and draws FD,
FE equal to CA and CB, but also makes the angle
to the angle ACB. H e measures DE and declares that A B
must be the same length as DE. W h i c h of the two
Can Euclid
You will notice that the two triangles ABC, DEF have three
parts equal: viz, the two sides AC, CB equal to the sides DF,
FE, and also the angle ACB, contained by AC, CB, equal
angle DFE, contained by DF, FE.
Does it follow that the side AB is equal to the side DE?
We must pause to

THE EQUALITY OF TRIANGLES.

I can take up a pencil and lay the top of i t exactly over
the top of another pencil, and so that its length lies along the
pencil
Will the point of the one lie exactly over the point of the
other
Not unless the pencils are of
 THE EQUALLTY O F TRIANGLES. 2 5

Suppose I have two pairs of exactly similar compasses, and

place the pivot of one compass exactly over the pivot of the
other compass, and one leg o f the first over one leg
second, will the other leg of the first compass lie
the other leg o f the second compass? N o t unless
passes are equally opened, or i n other words not unless the
angles contained by the legs of the compasses
Now let AB, A C be two rods* jointed together at A , and
DE, DF another pair
at D, and let A B be equal to DE,
and AC to DF, and also let
BAC be equal to the angle EDF.
Then we can place the
down on the second pair so that A lies on D and AB along DE.
Then B will fall on E, because AB is equal to DE.
And A C will lie along DE because the angle BAC is equal
to the angle EDF.
If these angles were unequal the rod AC might fall as
lines in
And because AC lies along DF, and is equal to it in length,
the point C will fall on F.
If AC was not equal to D F, AC would either not
or would overlap DF.
I f now BC and EF are joined by straight strings, the string
BC must lie along EF.
For the end B falls on E, and the end C on F, and i f BC
does not lie upon EF they will enclose a space, which
(See Axiom
So BC falls exactly on EF, and is equal to it.
Also the. whole triangle ABC falls exactly on DEF and must
be equal to it.
And the angle A B C falls exactly on the angle D E F, and
must be equal t o i t , and similarly the angle A C B must be
equal to the angle I R E .
*Rods jointed together by a pivot are here used, as they can
made and employed to illustrate to a class the method of
26 A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID.

Hence we see that if two

(1) two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other,
each to each, and
(2) the angle contained by the two equal sides of
equal to the angle contained by the two
of the
we draw three condmions, viz. that
(1) the third sides are equal;
(2) the triangles are equal in area;
(3) the remaining angles of the one are respectively equal
to the remaining angles of
And so i t is evident that Mr. Wiseman was right, and that
it is necessary that the contained angles also shall
But driven into a corner Mr. Simpleton retorts " B u t my
triangles had two sides of the one equal to two sides of the
other, therefore the contained angles must
To such folly no answer is necessary. B u t i t is a piece of
folly that a large number of
Caution. Care must be taken in drawing the
clusion. L o o k carefully to see that the remaining angles which
you assert to be equal are
Corresponding angles are those which
posite to the

This mistake i s most frequently made

when the triangles are reversed
as in the accompanying A

[N.B. I f a triangle is cut out in paper, its reverse is obtained by

turning the paper over with its face

In the triangles ABC, LMN, i f i t is given that A B = ML,

BC M N , and the angle A B C = the angle LMN, then the
angle A corresponds to the angle L, because they
to the equal sides BC, MN, T h e angle C corresponds to the
angle N.
 THE EQUALITY OF TRIANGLES.

QUEST
1. I n the triangles ABC, LMN it is given that AB - LM and BC =MN.
Does it follow that the angle ABC is equal to the angle LMN?
2. But if the angle ABC is also given equal to the angle LMN, what
conclusions do
Which angle in the triangle LAIN will be equal to the
3. Again, if in these triangles ABC, LAIN it was given that
AB, CA are equal to the sides LM, NL respectively, and the angle BCA
equal to the angle MNL, does i t follow that the side BC equals the
side
4. I f in Figure 1, EL, FM are joined, and it is given that EB F D ,
BL = DM, and the angle EBL = the angle FDM, what conclusions do we
draw
5. I n Figure 2, OB and OD are radii of the circle, and
equal. H a v e the triangles OEB, OED two sides of the one equal
sides of the other? I f so, what angles must also be given equal,
may be able to prove the triangles equal in
6. I n Figure 4, i f AD and BC are joIned, the triangles AOD, BOO
have the sides AO, OD equal to the sides BO, OC, each to each. A r e
the contained angles equal? I f so, we can prove the triangles equal in
all respects. W h a t angles in the triangle BOO will be equal to the
angles OAD, ODA
7. I f in Figure 2, we join AC, the two sides AO, OC of
AOC are equal to the two sides BO, OD of the triangle BOD.
able to draw the conclusion that AC is equal
8. I f in Figure 3, GE and FA are joined, the triangles FGE, FGA are
formed. H a v e these triangles two sides of the one equal to two sides of
the other? I f so, what angles do these equal pairs of sides contain? A r e
these contained angles equal? I f so, what conclusions do
28 A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID.

PROPOSITION 4. T H E O R E M .

General Enunciation.
I f two triangles have two sides of the one equal to
of the other, each to each, and have also the angles
those sides equal, then shall their bases or third sides
and the triangles shall be equal i n area, and their remaining
angles shall be equal, each to each, namely, those to
equal sides are opposite; that is to say, the triangles shall be
equal in

Particular Enunciation.
Let ABC, DEF be two triangles, which have
the side AB t h e side DE,
and the side A C = t h e side DF,
and the contained angle BAC=the contained angle EDF.
Then shall the base B C be equal to the base EF, and the
triangle A B C shall be equal t o the triangle D E F i n area;
and the remaining angles shall be equal, each to each, to which
the equal sides are opposite, namely,
the angle ABC to the angle DEF,
and the angle ACB to the angle DFE,

Proof.
For if the triangle ABC be applied to the triangle DEF,
so that the point A may be on the point D,
and the straight line AB along the straight line DE,
then because AB is equal to DE, H Y P .
therefore the point B must coincide with the
 EUCLID, BOOK L , 4 . 2 9

And because AB falls along DE,

and the angle BAC is equal to the angle EDF,
therefore AC must fall along DF.
And because AC is equal to DF,
therefore the point C must coincide with the point F.
Then B coinciding with E, and 0 with F,
the base BC must coincide with the
for i f not, two straight lines would enclose a space; which is
impossible. A x .
Thus the base BC coincides with the base EF, and
equal to it. A x .
And the triangle A B C coincides w i t h the triangle D E F,
and is therefore equal to it in area.
And the remaining angles o f t h e one coincide w i t h the
remaining angles of the other, and are therefore equal
namely
the angle ABC to the angle DEF,
and the angle ACB to the angle DFE.
That is, the triangles are equal in all respects. Q . E . D
 CHAPTER V.

In the accompanying figure OA, O B are radii o f

and OP i s the bisector o f the angle A 0 B . P r o v e that A P
equals PB.
[The bisector of an angle is that line
it into two

We see that the lines A P, PB, which we

wish to prove equal, are sides of the triangles
AOP, POB, and these triangles appear to be
equal triangles reversed
But it is necessary to prove

I t will be found very helpful to draw figures accurately, for

ance often helps t o suggest a method o f proof. B u t remember that
appearance is not proof, and that a reason must be found for each step
of the

Firstly, have these triangles any

Yes. O A equals OB, because they are radii of
circle
Can we state that AP is equal to BP?
Not at present, for this is the very thing we have
Look again. O P belongs to both triangles. A n d so
the two sides AO, OP of the triangle AOP equal to the two
sides BO, OP of the triangle BOP, each
Now A O , OP contain the angle AOP,
and B O , OP contain the
Are these contained
3
 EQUALITY OF TRIANGLES. 3 1

We must not, like Mr. Simpleton, say that they are equal,
because they are
But is there not some reason why they must be equal ? or
have they not been
Let us look at what was given. H a v e we made use
thing W h a t does " bisector " signify ‘? W h y, that the angle
AOP equals the angle BOP.
We have therefore got two sides AO, OP and
angle AOP equal to two sides BO, OP and their contained
angle BOP.
And so we conclude that the third side AP equals the third
side BP.
This is written out as follows:
In the triangles AOP, BOP,
I A O = BO, because they are radii of the
because O P
the contd. angle AOP = the contd. angle BOP (given);
therefore the third side AP = the third side BP. Q . E . D .

ANOTHER
I f N, M are the middle points of the sides AD, CD of
A_BCD. J o i n A M , NC and prove them equal,
equal to the angles DAM, DMA (see
In the triangles ADM, CDN, A
B
A D -DC, being sides of a
because D M = DN, being halves of
Lind the contained angle at D is common; N \,..„.....,.
therefore AM
and the angle DAM = the
o m c
and the angle DMA - the 1.
Q.E.D
32 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

HINTS FOR PROVING TWO TRIANGLES EQUAL.

(I) Find two sides of the one which are equal to two sides
of the other, each to each, and be careful t o have a sufficient
reason for stating that they
(2) Find the angles which these pairs of sides contain.
(3) Find a reason w h y these contained angles should b e
equal.
I f these contained angles are not known or cannot be proved
to be equal, your knowledge o f Euclid i s n o t yet i n general
sufficient to enable you to prove the

EXERCIS
The student is advised t o draw a separate figure in each
only the lines and points that are required for the question in hand.

1. I f A B C D is a square, and K , t h e middle point of A B , i s joined

to D and C, prove that K D = KC (see Figure I).

2. I f K , N , M are the middle points o f the sides A B , A D , D C o f a

square A B C D , a n d K N , N M a r e joined, prove t h a t K I C - NM (see
Figure

3. I f A O B is a diameter of a circle, and OC a radius a t right angles

to AB, prove that AC - CB (see

4. Tw o points B and D on the circumference of a circle are joined.

OE, the bisector of the angle BOP, cuts B D i n E. P r o v e t h a t E is the
middle point of BD (see

5. F r o m M, the middle point o f a straight line A B , another straight

line is drawn at right angles to AB. I f P is any point in this line, prove
that PA = PB.

G. I f L and M are the middle points of the sides BC, CD o f the square
ABCD, prove that BM - LD, and find an angle equal to the
(see Figure

7. I n Figure 1, i f NO and L D are joined, prove t h a t N O L D , and

find an angle equal to the
 EQUALITY OF TRIANGLES. 3 3

8. ABCD, AEFG are two squares with common angle at A. J o i n

ED, BG and prove them equal (see Figure 3). W h a t angle in
is equal to the

9. A circle, whose centre is A, cuts the sides AB, AD of

ABCD in E and F. Join FB, DE and prove them equal (see

10. ABODE is a five-sided figure, having all its sides equal and all its
angles equal. J o i n AD, ED and prove
Also join CA, EB and prove them equal (see

11. I n Figure 1, prove that PC

12. I n Figure 3, prove CE

13. I n Figure 1, prove EL

14. I n Figure 4, prove QR - BC. [ N o t e that i t is given that the

angle QOP = the

15. I n Figure 4, prove (1) A D = BC, (2) the angle ODA =

00B, and (3) the angle OAD = the

16. Using what has been proved in question 15, prove in Figure 4 that
(1) the angle ABC = the angle BAD, and (2) the angle BAC =
A_B

17. Hence prove that the angle OAB = the angle OBA by

I f after practice in the previous questions the pupil

able to do questions 15, 16 and 17 by himself, be has
formidable "Pons Asinorum."
I f he cannot do so entirely unaided he may possibly
to overcome the difficulties with a
In question 17 you are asked to prove that the angles
base o f the isosceles triangle 0 AB are equal to
and in question 16 that the angles at the other side of
are equal to
The proofs of questions 15, 16, 17 should be written out in
full. I f the pupil has been able to do so, he will have little
difficulty in learning Euclid's next
B. E.
 34 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

PROPOSITION 5. T H E O R E M .

General E n u n c i a t i o n .
The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal
another; and i f the equal skies be produced, the angles on
side of the base shall also be equal to

Particular Enunciation.
Let A B C be an isosceles triangle, having the side AB equal
to the side AC, and let the straight lines AB, AO be produced
to D and E :
then shall the angle ABC be equal to the angle ACB,
and the angle CBD to the angle BCE.
Construction.
In BD take any point F ;
and from AE the greater cut off AG equal to AF the less. I . 3.
Join FC, GB.
Proof. Then in the triangles FAC, GAB,
FA=GA, C o n s t r .
becaus { A C = A B , " T Y R
also the contained angle a t A i s common t o b o t h
triangles;
therefore the triangle FAC is equal t o the triangle GAB in all
respects; 1.4.
that the base F C = the base GB,
and the angle A C F = t h e angle ABG,
also the angle AFC = the angle AGB.
 EUCLID, BOOK I . , 5 . 3 5

Again, because the whole AF =the whole AG, C o n s t r .

and the part AB =the part AC, H y p .
therefore the remainder BF= the remainder CO.
Then in the two triangles
-[ B F = CG , P r o v e d .
FC=GB, P r o v e d .
because also the contained angle BFC =the
CGB; P r o v e d .
therefore the triangles BFC, CGB are equal in
so that t h e angle FBC=-4 the
and the angle BCF= the angle CBG,
Now it has been shown that the whole angle ABG
to whole angle ACF,
and that the parts of these, namely, the angles CBG,
also
therefore the remaining angle ABC is equal to
angle
and these are the angles at the base of the
Also it has been shown that the angle FBC is equal
angle GCB;
and these are the angles on the other side of the base. Q . E . D .

EXERCISE ON ISOSCELES

1. In. Figure 1, if BD, EF, KN are joined,

(1) The angle ABD = the
(2) The angle AKN = the angle ANK.
(3) The angle A.EF = the

2. I n Figure 2, if AC, CB are joined,

(1) The angle OAC = the
(2) The angle ACB = the sum of the angles
(3) The angle OBD = the
(4) The sum of the angles OCB, ODB equals the
36 A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID.

3. I n Figure 5, join GE and prove that the angle AGE equals the
angle AEG.
4. Prove that all the angles of an equilateral triangle
5. A B C is an equilateral, and ABD an isosceles triangle on
base AB. Prove that the angle CAD equals the angle CBD, whether the
triangles are on the same side or on opposite sides of AB.
In the following questions, the equality of the triangles is proved with
the help of the property of
6. I f X, Y are the middle points of the equal sides AB, A C of the
isosceles triangle ABC, prove that OX equals BY.
7. E, F are points on the base BC of the isosceles triangle
that BE equals OF. Prove that AE equals AF.
8. M is the middle point of the base BC of the isosceles triangle ABC.
Prove that AM is at right angles to BC (see
9. L , M, N are the middle points of the base BC and the sides AC,
AB of the isosceles triangle ABC. Prove that LM equals LN.
10. The equal sides BA, CA of an isosceles triangle BAC
beyond the vertex A to the points E and F, so that A E is equal to AF.
Join FB and EC and prove them to
 CHAPTER VI.

REDUCTIO

The following statement would be accepted as true:

I f rain is falling, there are
I t does not
I f there are clouds overhead, rain
The second statement is called the converse of
One proposition is said to be the converse of
the hypothesis of each is the conclusion of
In the above illustration, rain is ' is
of the first proposition and the conclusion of
there are clouds overhead' is the conclusion of the
the hypothesis of the second
Therefore the second proposition is the converse of the first.
But the first proposition is true, while the second is
We see that the converse proposition of a
proved is not necessarily true. However, it often happens that
a converse proposition is true, but it must be proved before it
can be accepted
The converse of the
I f two sides of a triangle be equal to one another, then the
angles which are subtended by the equal sides shall be
to one another,
I f two angles of a triangle be equal to one another,
sides which subtend the equal angles shall be also equal
anoth
3
38 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D ,

We have now to find a method to prove this

position
There are two methods by which converse propositions may
frequently be proved, either by (1) the exhaustive method,
or (2) a method called "reductio a d absurdum," which
literally translated means "a reducing to absurdity."
The exhaustive method is not used in the first
tions, so we will not discuss it. L e t us try to understand the
second
"Reductio a d absurdum" is used when we wish t o
prove the truth of a proposition by showing that
of that proposition cannot possibly be true.
For
A thing is either (1) a ship or (2) not
An article is either (1) white or (2)
An animal either (1) has a tail or (2) has no tail.
Two things are either (1) equal or
Now in each case either (1) or (2) must be true.
I f we assume that (2) is true, and by reasoning from that
assumption arrive at an absurdity, we conclude either that our
reasoning has been incorrect or our
But if no flaw can be found in our reasoning,
viz, that (2) is true, must have
Therefore supposing that (1) or (2) must be true, and
have proved that (2) cannot be true, i t follows that (1) must
be
Hence in a " reductio ad absurdum " we assume as true the
opposite of the fact that we wish
I f with that assumption we arrive at an absurdity,
clude that the fact, that we wish to prove true, is true.
Let us take this simple case, which Euclid proves in Book
III.:
 REDUCTIO A D ABSURDUM. 3 9

Two circles which cut one another cannot have a

We assume as true the opposite of the fact that we wish
to
Therefore we assume that they have a
I f possible let the two circles have a common
Join E to C, the point where the circles cut, and from E
draw a straight line t o meet
ferences in F
We can prove that EF and EG
equal to EC, and therefore that EF
to
But this is absurd;
and so, since the circles either (1) have a
common centre or (2) do not have a common centre,
(1) has been proved untrue, we see that (2) must
There is considerable difficulty in dealing with
arising from the fact t h a t we are reasoning from a false
assumption and that the reasoning is not borne out by the
appearance of the figure.
For instance, i n the proof just given, i t goes against the
grain to make the statement that EF equals EC, when
contradicts
And so i t requires great care to reason correctly on
assumption (or hypothesis as i t is called) contrary t o the
evidence of

CONVERSE OF THE "PONS ASINORUM."

We have seen that i f two sides of a triangle are equal, the
angles opposite to them
We have to prove that i f two angles of a triangle
the sides opposite to them
We employ " reductio
We assume as true the opposite of the fact that we wish
to prove. Therefore we assume that the sides
I f so, one side must be greater than
40 A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID.

Let ABC be a triangle having the angle ABC equal to the

angle ACB (see Figure on the
We have to prove that AC, which is opposite to
ABC, is equal to AB, which is opposite to the angle ACB.
I f AC is not equal to AB, let AB be the greater. T h e n from
BA the greater, a part BD can be cut off equal to AC
Here arises a difficulty, for to the eye B D is obviously not
AC, and in the subsequent reasoning we are apt to forget that we have
assumed it to
We join
Now if we can prove that the triangle DBC is equal
to the triangle ABC, we shall have arrived at an absurdity.
In investigating these triangles we must be
to recall what has been given, and what has
We
fBD— AC by
BC
the contd. angle DBC--- the contd. angle ACE
and so we see that the triangles are equal in area and this is
absur
Now, as our reasoning has been correct, our assumption must
have been wrong. B u t the lines AB, AC must be
or unequal, and we have shown that they cannot
Therefore they must

EXERCISE ON
1, I f ABCD is a square, and the bisectors AO, BO of the angles at A
and B meet in 0, prove that AO
2. Prove that triangles which have all their angles equal have a l l
their sides equal, or in other words that equiangular triangles are also
equilateral
3. AO, BO, the bisectors of two angles of an equilateral triangle, meet
in 0. P r o v e that AO
4. A t the extremities of the base AB of an isosceles triangle ABC, AP
is drawn perpendicular to AC and BP is drawn perpendicular t o CB.
These perpendiculars meet in P. Prove that PA = PE.
 EUCLID, BOOK I . , 6 . 4 1

PROPOSITION 6. THEOREM.
General Enunciation.
I f two angles of a triangle be equal to one another, then
also which subtend, or are opposite to, the equal angles,
equal to

Particular Enunciation.
Let ABC be a triangle, having the angle ABC equal to the
angle ACB
then shall the side AC be equal to the side AB.

Construction.
For if AC be not equal to AB,
one of them must be greater than
I f possible, let AB be the greater;
and from it cut off BD equal 1.3
Join

Proof. T h e n in the triangles DBC, ACB,

{ DB = AC, C o n s t r .
BC is common
becau
and the contained angle DBC t h e
ACB; H y p .
therefore the triangle DBC is equal in area to the triangle ACB,
I.
the part equal to the whole; which is absurd.
Therefore AB is not unequal to AC;
that is, AB is equal to AC. Q . E . D .
 CHAPTER V I I .

In Figure 1, on page 83, if the lines FB, FE, EN

let us prove that the angle AFB is greater than the angle AEN.
We see that the angle AFE is equal to the angle
AE is equal to AF.
Now the angle AFE is only a part of the angle
the angle AEF contains the angle AEN.
Therefore our proof runs
The angle AFB is greater than its part the
But the angle AFE t h e angle AEF.
Therefore the angle AFB is also greater than the angle AEF.
Much greater therefore is the angle AFB than the

EX_ERC
1. I n Figure 3, if K is a point between A and G, prove that
AGB is greater than the angle AEK.
2. I n Figure 5, prove that the angle CBA is greater than the

INTRODUCTION TO
In the accompanying figure, A is the centre of the
C, D any points on its circumference, and B any other
the
The triangles ACB, ADB have their sides terminated at A
equal, i.e. the sides AC and AD.
But however we draw the figure, so long as C and D are on
the same side of AB, we cannot get two triangles ACB,
on the same base AB such that AC, AD are equal, and
BD
We can prove this by " reductio
4
 INTRODUCTION T O EUCLID I . ; 7 . 4 3

We assume as true that BC, BD can be

I f so, the angle BDC is equal to the angle BCD, for they will
be the angles at the base of the isosceles
But we can prove that the angle BDC 'is greater th,an, the
angle
In the first place, let the vertices C and D be
the other triangle, as in

A
Fig. 1. F i g . 2.
For the angle BDC is greater than its part the angle ADC,
and is therefore also greater than the angle ACD,
much greater than the
But one angle cannot at the same time be greater
equal to another
Hence we have an absurdity.
And so we see that BC and. BD cannot be
In the second place, let D be within the triangle ACB as in
Figure
Let AC, A D be produced to E and F.
Then the angles ECD, FDC on the far siae of the base of the
isosceles triangle ACD
Since we have assumed that BC is equal to BD, therefore the
angle BDC is equal to the
But we can prove that the angle BDC is greater than, the
angle
For the angle BDC is greater than its part the angle FDC,
and therefore greater than the angle ECD, and
greater
And so, in either case, we get an absurdity.
Therefore in the triangles ACB, ADB i f the sides AC, A D
terminated at A are equal, then BC, BD terminated at
also be
44 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

PROPOSITION 7. THEOREM,
General Enunciation.
On the same base, and on the same side of it, there cannot
triangles having their sides which are terminated at one extremity
of the base equal to one another, and likewise those which
minated at the other extremity equal to

Particular Enunciation.
If i t be possible, on the same base AB, and on the
of it, let there be two triangles ACB, ADB, having
AC, AD, which are terminated at A, equal to one another, and
likewise their sides BC, BD, which are terminated at
to one
CASE I. W h e n the vertex of each triangle is without the
other
Construction.
Proof. T h e n in the
because AC=AD, H Y I ) .
therefore the angle ACD =the angle ADC.
But the whole angle ACD is greater than its part, the
therefore also the angle ADC is greater than the angle BCD;
still more then is the angle B DC greater than the
Again, in the
because BC—BD,
therefore the angle B D C . the angle BCD:
but it was shown to be greater; which is
 EUCLID, B O O K I . , 7 . 4 5

CASE II. W h e n one of the vertices, as D, is within the other

triangle

Construction. A s before, join CD;

and produce AC, AD to E and F.

Proof. T h e n in the
because AC=AD, H Y P .
therefore the angles ECD, FDC, on the other side of
are equal to one another.
But the angle ECD is greater than its part, the angle BCD;
therefore the angle FDC is also greater than the angle BCD:
still more then is the angle BDC greater than the
Again, in the
because BC.---BD, H Y P .
therefore the angle BDC =the angle BCD :
but it has been shown to be greater; which is
The case in which the vertex of one triangle is on a side of the
other needs no
Therefore AC cannot be equal to AD, and at the same time
BC equal to BD. Q . E . D .
NOTE. T h e sides AC, A D are called conterminous sides:
similarly the sides BC, BD are
46 A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID.

ON THE EQUALITY OF TRIANGLES.

We have already shown i n Proposition 4 t h a t i f certain
conditions are given, we can prove that two triangles
cally
The conditions given i n Proposition 4 are n o t t h e only
conditions which will enable us to prove two
cally
We are now going to show that if two triangles have all the
sides of one equal to all the sides of the other, these triangles
are identically
And this proof is effected by means of the proposition last
proved
Let the triangles ABC, DEF on the opposite page be such that
AB =DE, B C = E F, C A
We can take up the triangle ABC and place BC upon EF, for
BC is equal to EF.
Then if we lay the triangle ABC down, it will fall
the triangle DEP.
For suppose that it falls in some other position, such as GEF.
Then we have the two triangles DEF, GEF on the
and on the same side of i t with their conterminous
viz., DE =GE, and also DF
But this is impossible, as we have
Therefore we see that the triangle ABC falls exactly on the
triangle DEF, and therefore the whole triangles are equal in all
respects, and the corresponding angles of the two
equal

IMPORTANT NOTE.

We have here proved that the triangles are equal in

Euclid in Proposition 8 confines himself to proving the
A corollary has therefore to be added to his
A c o r o l l a r y is a statement, the truth of which follows readily
from an established
 EUCLID, BOOK 1., 8 . 4 7

PROPOSITION 8. THEOREM.
General Enunciation.
I f two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of
the other, each to each, and have likewise their bases equal,
angle which is contained by the two sides of the one shall
to the angle which is contained by the two sides of
A

Particular Enunciation.
Let ABC, DEF be two triangles having the two sides
equal to the two sides ED, OF, each to each, namely, BA
and AC to OF, and also the base BC equal to the base EF:
then shall the angle BAC be equal to the angle EDF.
Proof.
For if the triangle ABC be applied to the triangle DEF,
the point B may be on E, and the straight line BC along EF;
then because BC-- EF, I T Y P .
therefore the point C must coincide with the point F.
Then BC coinciding with EF,
it follows that BA and AC must coincide with ED
for, if not, they would have a different situation, as
then, on the same base and on the same side of it
be two triangles having their conterminous
But this is impossible.
Therefore the sides BA, AC coincide -with the sides ED, DF.
That is, the angle BAG coincides with the angle EDF, and is
therefore equal to it.
Q.E.D
Corollary. I f in two triangles the three sides of the
equal to the three sides of the other, each to each, then
are equal in
 CHAPTER V I I I .

WE have now two ways of proving two triangles to be equal

in all
We must
two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other,
and also either
(1) the angles contained by these equal sides equal,
or (2) the third sides equal.

EXLMPL
I n the arcomparvying figure A and B are any two points on
cumference of the circle, and ABF is an
isosceles triangle described on the base AB.
Prove that the angle ACF is equal to the
angle BCE
I t happens that this can be proved in
either of the ways mentioned above. W e
give both

I. Because BC A C , therefore the angle CAB - the

and because FB - FA, therefore the angle FAB t h e angle FBA.
Therefore the whole angle FAC t h e whole
Then in the triangles FAC, FBC,
FA
because A C
and the contained angle FAO - the contained angle FBC;
therefore the triangles are equal in all respects, I . 4.
and so the angle ACF - the angle BCE
4
 EQUAL TRIANGLES. 4 9

Or, II. I n the triangles FAC, FRC,

-[ F A
because A C
FC is common to both triangles;
therefore the angle ACF = the angle BCF. I.
I t will not often happen that each of these two ways
employed. I n general we must look out for one or

FURTHER EXERCISE ON
1. A , B are two points on the circumference of a circle whose centre is
0, and M is the middle point of AB. I f CM are joined, prove that
the angle ACM equals the angle BCM, (2) the angle AMC equals the
angle CMB, (3) that CM is perpendicular to AB.
2. ABCD is a four-sided figure having AB equal to AD and
to CD. P r o v e that the angle ABC is equal to the angle ADC, and that
AC bisects both the angles BAD
3. Two circles whose centres are 0 and C cut each other in A
prove that the angle OAC equals the
4. I f A, B, C, D are four points on the circumference of a
centre is 0 and such that the line AB is equal to the line CD, prove that
the angle AOB is equal to the
5. I f the four-sided figure ABCD has its opposite sides AB,
and also BC, DA equal, prove that the opposite angles are
6. ABC is an isosceles triangle having AB equal to AC, and.
at B and C are bisected by straight lines which meet at 0. S h o w that
OA bisects the angle BAC.
7. M L N is any angle and S and T are points in the arms LM,
that LS equals LT. O n ST on the side remote from L an. equilateral
triangle SPT is described. Prove that LP bisects the angle MLN.
8. On the line PQ an equilateral triangle PRQ is drawn, and RM the
bisector of the angle PRQ cuts PQ in M. Prove that M is the middle
point
9. P is any point in the line AB; M and N are points in AB such that
PM is equal to PN; Q is the vertex of an equilateral triangle
MN. Prove that PQ is perpendicular to AB.
B.
 50 A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID.

10. A B is any line and P any point without i t ; a circle with. centre P
is drawn to cut AB in Q and R; P is joined to M the middle point
Prove that PM is perpendicular to AB.

ON CERTAIN IMPORTANT CONSTRUCTIONS.

I n the above exercise, in question 7 the construction
given whereby the angle M L N may
In question 8 the construction whereby the line PQ may be
bisected
In question 9 the construction whereby a perpendicular may
be drawn from P to AB, where P lies on A B ;
In question 10 the construction whereby a
be drawn from P to AB, where P lies without A l l
In each case the proof has been asked for.
These constructions are important and should be carefully
studied
They are Euclid's constructions for
(1) Bisecting an angle;
(2) Bisecting a straight line;
(3) Drawing a perpendicular to a given straight line from a
given point in i t ;
(4) Drawing a perpendicular to a given straight line
given point without it.
 EUCLID, BOOK I . , 9 . 5 1

PROPOSITION 9. PROBLEM.

General Enunciation.
To bisect a given angle, that is, to divide it into two equal parts.

Particular Enunciation.
Let BAC be the given angle;
it is required to bisect it.

Construction. I n AB take any point D ;

and from AC cut off AE equal to AD. I . 3.
Join DE.
and on DE, on the side remote from A , describe an equilateral
triangle DEF.
Join AF.
Then shall the straight line AF bisect the angle BAC.

Proof. F o r in the two triangles OAF, EAF,

- t D A .EA, C o n s t r .
b e c a u and
s e c o m m o n to both;
and D F. EF ;
therefore the angle DAF =the angle EAF.
Therefore the given angle BAC is bisected by the straight line
AF. Q . E . F .
52 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

PROPOSITION 10. PROBLEM.

General Enunciation.
To bisect a given finite straight line, that is, to divide it
equal

Particular Enunciation.
Let AB be the given straight line:
it is required to divide it into two equal parts.

Construction
On AB describe an equilateral triangle ABC, I . 1.
and bisect the angle ACB by the straight line CD,
and let CD cut AB in D.

Proof. F o r in the triangles ACD, BCD,

{ AC=BC, D e f .
and CD is common to both;
becaus
also the contained angle AC D= the contained angle
BCD; C o n s t r .
therefore the triangles are equal in all respects:
so that the base AD =the base BD. I . 4.
Therefore the straight line AB is bisected at the point D.
Q.E.F.
 EUCLID, BOOR I . , 1 1 . 5 3

PROPOSITION 11. PROBLEM.

General Enunciation.
To draw a straight line at right angles to a given,
line front a given point in

Particular Enunciation.
Let AB be the given straight line and C the given point in it.
I t is required to draw from the point C a straight line at right
angles to AB.

Construction. I n AC take any point D,

and from CB cut off CE equal to CD.
On DE describe the equilateral triangle D FE.
Join CF.
Then shall the straight line CF be at right angles to AB.

Proof. F o r in the triangles DCF, ECF,

DC=EC, C o n s t r .
because J and CF is common
and DF=EF ;
therefore the angle DCF =the angle ECF,
and these are
But when. a straight line, standing on another straight line,
makes the adjacent angles- equal to one another, each
angles is called a right angle;
therefore each of the angles DCF, ECF is a
Therefore CF is at right angles to AB,
and has been drawn from a point C in it. Q ,
54 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

PROPOSITION 12. PROBLEM.

General Enunciation.
To draw a straight line perpendicular to a given straight line of
unlimited length, from a given point without t .

A F

Particular Enunciation.
Let AB be the given straight line which may be produced in
either direction, and let C be the given point without it.
I t is required to draw from the point C a straight
pendicular to AB.
Construction
On the side of AB remote from C take any point 0 ;
and from. centre C, with radius CD, describe the -circle FDG,
meeting AB at F
Bisect FG at H ;
and join CH.
Then shall the straight line CH be perpendicular to AB.
Join CF and CG.
Proof. T h e n in the triangles FHC, GHC,
-Cand FH=GH, C o n s t r .
because H C is common to both;
and CF=CG, being radii of the circle FOG;
therefore the angle CHF=the angle CHG ;
and these are
But when a straight line, standing on another straight line,
makes the adjacent angles equal to one another, each
angles is called a right angle, and the straight line
on the other is called a perpendicular to it.
Therefore CH is a perpendicular drawn to the given straight
line AB from the given point C without it. Q . E . F .
 GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. 5 5

In Geometrical Drawing the following are the

tions

(1) To bisect the

With centre A and any radius, describe
cutting the arms in D and E. W i t h
changed, and centres D and E, describe
circle
The line joining A to the point F where the
circles intersect is

(2) To bisect d line AB. 0

With centres A and. B, and. any
than half AB, describe equal circles
in C M B
The point M where CD cuts AB is
point of AB. X

(3) To erect a perpendicular front a given point P

line AB.
With centre P and any radius
circle, cutting AB in C and D.
C and D and any radius greater
describe circles intersecting AC

Then PE is the

(4) To drop a perpendicular from the point P on the

With centre P and any radius
length draw a circle cutting AB in C
With centres C and D and radius unchanged,
draw equal circles intersecting
Then PE will be perpendicular

The difference between these and the Euclidean

lies in the fact that wherever it is possible circles of
56 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

are drawn instead of circles of some precise radius, such

involved in drawing equilateral triangles. T h e reason for this
is that time is wasted i n adapting compasses to
length
I t is a good exercise to prove by Euclidean methods that
these constructions
 CHAPTER I X .

LOCI A N D MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.

To find the line on which all points lie which are

from two
Let A B be the two points, and let P be any
point equidistant from A
Join P to M the middle point of AB.
Then in the triangles AMP, BMP,
AP . P B , G i v e n .
because A M --MB, C o n s t r .
PM is
therefore the angle PMA =the angle PMB.
Therefore PM is perpendicular to AB.
Therefore any point P which is equidistant from A and
on the line which bisects AB at
I t can be easily proved, and it may be left to the pupil
so, that any point T on the line PM .must be equidistant from
A and
Wherefore we see that all points equidistant from A and B
lie on the line PM, and that all points on this line
distant from A
The line PM is called the locus of points equidistant from
A and
Again, the locus of all points at a certain given distance from
a fixed point is a circle having that point for its centre, and the
(riven distance
5
58 A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID.

Again, the locus of all points i n a certain direction from a

given point is a straight line through that point.
A l o c u s is the path traced out by a point, which moves in
such a way, that it will satisfy a certain condition or law.
Suppose that you are directing a friend to find a
that you say that it is ten yards from a certain tree.
He knows then the locus of the ball, and if he walks round
the tree at a distance of ten yards from it, he will find
the ball may have been i n any one o f an infinite
positions
But if you are able to tell him that the ball also lies along a
certain line, he can follow that line up, and it will cut the circle
round the tree generally in two places, and he w i l l be able t o
find the ball without search. Y o u have given him two
knows that the ball lies on a certain circle; he also knows that
i t lies along a certain straight line. H e concludes that it must
lie at the intersection, of these two loci. T h i s is an instance of
the principle of the i n t e r s e c t i o n o f loci.
There are any number of points that w i l l satisfy a certain
condition, or in other words that will lie on a
But i n general there are only one o r two points that w i l l
satisfy two conditions, or in other words that will lie on each of
two loci, viz, those points where the two loci intersect.

EXAMPL
Find a point equidistant front A and B, anti half-an-inch from the
paint
The point required must lie on
dicular to A B through AI, the middle point of
AB, because it is equidistant from A
Also it must lie on a circle whose centre is C
and radius half-
Therefore it must be one of the two points
where these loci intersect, i.e. either at P
Therefore P and Q are points equidistant
from A and B, and each half-an-inch
 INTERSECTION O F LOCI. 5 9

EXERCIS

1. Find a point in a straight line A B of unlimited length equidistant

from two points P
2. I n Figure 1 find a point equidistant from A and B, and distant CB
from
3. Find a point equidistant from three points A, B, C, which are not
in the same
4. I n the side A B or in AB produced of a triangle ABC, find
equidistant from B
5. A town B is 6 miles due east of a town C. F i n d a point due north
of C and 8 miles from B. (Seale i n . to
6. I n Figure 3 describe a triangle on AD, having one side equal to AE
and. the other to DF.
7. Two houses A and B are on each side of a straight road. F i n d a
poin.t in it equidistant from A
8. I n Figure 5 describe an isosceles triangle on AG as base, having its
vertex in A R
9. A , B, C are 3 villages on a straight road, B is 2 miles north of A
and 4 miles south of C. F i n d a point equidistant from A and 0 and
4 miles

EQUALITY OF TRIANGLES.
We shall often find that when we want to prove
equal i n a l l respects t h e proof involves several preliminary
step

EXAMPL

2'o prove the triangle ABC equal in all respects to the triangle
ABD in
A l l we know without preliminary proof is that AB
A preliminary proof is required to show that
(I) A C = B D , ( 2 ) BC=AD.
60 A FIRST STEP I N EUCLID.

The whole proof will be written out as follows:

Because 0 0 = OD, radii of the
and OA. - OB, radii of the
therefore the remainder AC = the remainder BD.
In the triangles OBC, OAD,
OB
because-{ O C
the contained angle AOB
therefore the base BC = the base AD. I . 4.
In the triangles ABC, ABD,
AC
-
because B ABCis common;
= AD. P P r r o o v v ee dd ..

therefore the triangles ABC, ABD are equal in

Q.E.D

EXERCI
I. AI3CD is a square. W i t h centre A and radius AB a circle
AE is a radius drawn at right angles to AB and remote from AD. P r o v e
that (I) CB A E , (2) CA

2. To the corner A of a square hut ABCD a donkey is tethered by a

rope, whose length is twice the length of a side of the hut. D r a w
to show the ground over which the donkey

3. ABC is an isosceles and ABD an equilateral triangle on

base AB. Prove that DO bisects the angle ACB whether the
are on the same or on opposite sides of AB.

4. Draw a triangle having its sides equal i n length t o three given

straight lines. I s this

5. BODE is a square, and on BC as base an isosceles triangle ABC is

described. Prove that the angle ABE equals the angle ACM and that
AE equals AD.

6. On the arms BC, CE of an angle BCE, squares CBAD, CEFG are

described on the sides remote from the angle. Prove that the
is equal to the angle DCE, and that BG is equal to DE.

7. Divide a given angle into four

 MISCELLANEOUS RIDERS. 6 1

8. On AB one of the equal sides of an isosceles triangle ABC,

lateral triangle ABD is drawn. Prove that the angle ADC is equal to
the angle ACD.
9. Draw a rhombus given the position of two opposite angular points,
and the length of the
10. M and N are points in the diagonal AC of the square
that AM = NO. Prove that the angle BMN is equal to the angle BNM.
11. I n Figure 5 prove (1) EG = PC, (2) DG D F.
12. I n Figure 1 prove the angle ELK equal to the angle NMF.
13. I n Figure 3 prove the angle GOP equal to the angle ECF.
14. Divide a straight line into four
15. I n Propositions 9, 10, 11 would the proof be affected,
triangles were drawn instead of
16. I n Figure 4 prove the angle RQP equal to the angle DAB.
17. I f AO, BO the bisectors of the angles A and B of the regular
pentagon ABODE meet in 0, prove that AO B O .
18. From A and. B in Figure 5, AP is drawn perpendicular to AE, and
BP perpendicular to BC. These perpendiculars meet in P. Prove that
AP
19. Could the following construction be substituted for that
10? On. A B describe two equilateral triangles ABC, ABD. J o i n CD,
cutting AB in M. T h e n M is the middle point of AB.
20. I n Figure 4, if E is any point in OA, prove that the angle OBE is
less than the angle OAD.
21. I f i n Figure 2, B A is produced to any point P, show that the
triangles CAP, CBP have two sides and an angle of the one equal to two
sides and. an angle of the other. W h y are not the
22. Draw a right-angled isosceles triangle having each of its
one inch in length.
23. From a given point C in a straight line AB, make an angle equal to
half a right
THE DEFINITIONS, POSTULATES, AXIOMS, A N D
FIRST TWELVE
OF

EUCLID'S ELEMENTS.

DEFINITIONS.

1. A point is that which has position, but no magnitude.

2. A line is that which has length without breadth.
3. A s t r a i g h t l i n e is that which lies evenly between i t s
extreme points.
4. A surface is that which has length and breadth,
thickness
5. A p l a n e surface is one i n which any two points being
taken, t h e straight line between them lies wholly i n t h a t
surface
6. A p l a n e angle is the inclination of two straight lines to
one another, which meet together, b u t are n o t i n the same
straight line.
7. When a straight l i n e standing o n another
straight line makes the adjacent angles equal to
one another, each of the angles is called a r i g h t
angle a n d the straight line which stands on the
other is called a perpendicular to it.
8. A n obtuse angle is an angle which is
greater than one r i g h t angle, b u t less than
two right
9. A n acute angle is an angle which is less than
a right
6
64 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

10. A n y portion of a plane surface bounded by one

lines, straight or curved, is called a plane figure.
11. A circle is a plane figure
one line which is called the circumference, and
as such t h a t a l l straight lines drawn f r o m a
certain point w i t h i n the figure t o
ference are equal to one another: t h i s point is
called the centre of
A radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the centre
to the
12. A diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn through
the centre, and terminated both ways by the

13. A semicircle is the figure bounded by a diameter

circle and the part of the circumference cut off by the diameter.

14. A segment of a circle is the figure bounded by

line and the part of the circumference which it
15. Rectilineal figures are those which are
straight
16. A t r i a n g l e is a plane figure bounded by
lines
17. A q u a d r i l a t e r a l is a plane figure bounded
straight
The straight line which joins opposite angular points i n a
quadrilateral is called a diagonal.
18. A polygon is a plane figure bounded b y
four straight
19. A n e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e i s a triangle
whose three sides

20. A n isosceles t r i a n g l e is a triangle

two of whose sides
 DEFINITIONS. 6 5

21. A scalene t r i a n g l e i s a triangle which has three

unequal

22. A r i g h t - a n g l e d t r i a n g l e i s a triangle
which has a

23. A n obtuse-angled triangle is

angle which has an

24. A n a c u t e -angled t r i a n g l e is a triangle which has

three acute

25. P a r a l l e l straight lines are such as, being in

plane, do not meet, however far they are produced i n either
direction.

26. A p a r a l l e l o g r a m i s a
figure which has its opposite

27. A rectangle is a parallelogram

one of its angles a

28. A s q u a r e i s a four-sided
has a l l i t s sides equal and, all i t s angles r i g h t
angles

/7
29. A r h o m b u s i s a four-sided figure
which has all its sides equal, but its angles
are not

30. A t r a p e z i u m i s a four-sided figure

which has two of its sides parallel.

POSTULATES
LET IT BE
1. That a straight line may be drawn from any one point to
any other point.
B.
 66 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

2. That a finite, i.e. a terminated straight line, may

duced to any length in that straight line.
3. That a circle may be described from any centre, at any
distance from that centre, i.e. w i t h a radius equal t o a finite
straight line drawn from the centre.

AXIOMS.
1. Things which are equal to the same thing are equal
another
2. I f equals be added to equals, the wholes
3. I f equals be taken from equals, the remainders
4. I f equals be added to unequals, the wholes are unequal,
the greater sum being that which includes the
5. I f equals be taken f r o m unequals, the remainders are
unequal, the greater remainder being that which is left from
the greater of
6. Things which are double of the same thing, or of equal
things, are equal to one another.
7. Things which are halves of the same thing, o r of equal
things, are equal to one another.
8. Magnitudes which can b e made t o coincide w i t h one
another
9. The whole is greater than its part.
10. Two straight lines cannot enclose
11. A l l right angles
12. I f a straight line meet two straight lines so as to make
the interior angles on one side of it together less than two right
angles, these straight lines will meet if continually
the side on which are the angles which are together less than
two right
 EUCLID, B O O K I . , 1 , 6 7

PROPOSITION 1. PROBLEM.

General Enunciation.
To describe an equilateral triangle on a given

Particular Enunciation.
Let AB be the given finite
I t is required to describe an equilateral triangle on AB.

Construction.
From centre A with radius AB, describe the circle BCD.
From centre B with radius BA, describe the circle ACE.
Let the circles intersect in C.
Join CA and CB.
Then shall ABC be an equilateral triangle.

Proof. B e c a u s e A is the centre of the circle BCD,

therefore
and because B is the centre of the circle ACE,
therefore
Therefore AC and BC are each equal to AB.
But things which are equal to the same thing are equal
another. A x . 1.
Therefore
Therefore CA, AB, BC are equal to one another.
Therefore the triangle ABC is equilateral;
and i t is described on the given straight line AB. Q.E.F.
 68 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

PROPOSITION 2. PROBLEM.
General Enunciation.
From a given point to draw a straight line equal to
straight line.

Particular Enunciation,
Let A be the given point, and BC the given straight line.
I t is required to draw from the point A a straight line equal
to BC.
Construction. J o i n AB,
and on AB describe an. equilateral triangle DAB.
From centre B, with radius BC, describe the circle CEG.
Produce DB to meet the circle CEG
From centre D, with radius DE, describe the circle EFH,
Produce DA to meet the circle EFH at F.
Then AF shall be equal to BC.
Proof. B e c a u s e B is the centre of the circle CEG,
therefore
and because D is the centre of the circle EFH,
therefore DF
and DA, DB, parts of them,
Therefore the remainder AF=the remainder BE. A x . 3.
And it has been shown that BC is equal to BE;
Therefore AF and BC are each. equal to BE.
But things which are equal t o the same thing are equal t o
one another. Ax.
Therefore AF =BC,
and it has been drawn from the given point A. Q . E . F.
 EUCLID, B O O K I . , 3 . 6 9

PROPOSITION 3. PROBLEM.
General Enunciation.
Fr0711 the greater of two given straight lines, to out o f a part
equal to

Particular Enunciation.
Let A K and B C be the two given straight lines, of which
AK is the greater.
I t is required to cut off from AK a part equal to BC.

Construction.
From the point A draw the straight line AF equal to BC,
and from centre A , with radius A F, describe the circle
meeting AK at M.
Then AM shall be equal to BC.

Proof.
Because A is the centre of the circle FMN,
therefore AM =AF.
But B C = AF,
therefore A M and BC are each equal to AF,
therefore AM = BC, A x . I.
and it has been cut off from the given straight line AK. Q . E . F.
 70 A 141RST STEP I N E U C L I D .

PROPOSITION 4, T H E O R E M .
General Enunciation.
I f two triangles have two sides of the one equal to
of the other, each to each, and have also the angles
those sides equal, then shall their bases or third sides
and the triangles shall be equal in area, and
angles shall be equal, each to each, namely, those to
equal sides are opposite: that is to say, the triangles shall be
equal in

Particular Enunciation.
Let ABC, DEF be two triangles,
the side AB . t h e side DE,
and the side AC ----the side DF,
and the contained angle B A C . t h e contained angle EDF.
Then shall the base B C be equal to the base EF, and the
triangle A B C shall be equal t o the triangle D E F i n area;
and the remaining angles shall be equal, each to each, to which
the equal sides are opposite, namely,
the angle ABC to the angle DEF,
and the angle ACB to the angle DFE.

Proof.
For if the triangle ABC be applied to the triangle DEF,
so that the point A may be on the point D,
and the straight line AB along the straight line DE,
then because AB is equal to DE, H Y P .
therefore the point B must coincide with the
 EUCLID, B O O K 1 . , 4 . 7 1

And because AB falls along DE,

and the angle BAC is equal to the angle
therefore AC must fall along DF.
And because AC is equal to DF,
therefore the point 0 must coincide with the point F.
Then B coinciding with E, and C with F,
the base BC must coincide with the
for i f not, two straight lines would enclose a space; which is
impossible. A x .
Thus the base BC coincides with the base EF, and is therefore
equal to it. A x .
And t h e triangle A B C coincides w i t h the triangle D E F,
and is therefore equal to it in area.
And t h e remaining angles o f t h e one coincide w i t h t h e
remaining angles of the other, and are therefore equal to them,
namely,
the angle ABC to the angle DEF,
and the angle ACB to the angle DFE.
That is, the triangles are equal in all respects. Q . E . D .
 72 A F I R S T STEP IN E U C L I D .

PROPOSITION 5. THEOREM.
General Enunciation.
The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal
another; and i f the equal sides be produced, the angles on
side of the base shall also be equal to

Particular Enunciation.
Let A B C be an isosceles triangle, having the side AB equal
to the side AC, and l e t the straight lines AB, A C be produced
to D and E :
then shall the angle ABC be equal to the angle ACB,
and the angle CBD to the angle BCE.
Construction.
In BD take any point F ;
and from AE the greater cut off AG equal to AF the less. I . 3.
Join FC, GB.
Proof. T h e n in the triangles FAC, GAB,
1 FA . G A , C o n s t r .
AC=AB, HY
becaus
lalso the contained angle a t A i s common t o b o t h
triangles;
therefore the triangle FAC is equal t o the triangle GAB in all
respects; I . 4.
that the base FC --the base GB,
and the angle A C E = the angle ABG;
also the angle A F C = the angle AGB.
 t u r n i p , B O O K T. , 5 , 7 3

Again, because the whole AF t h e whole AG, C o n s t r .

and the part AB =the part AC, H y p .
therefore the remainder BF t h e remainder CG. A x . 3.
Then in the two triangles BFC, CGB,
BF =CG, P r o v e d .
FC=GB, P r o v e d .
becaus
also the contained angle B F C —the contained angle
CGB ; P r o v e d .
therefore the triangles BFC, COB are equal in all respects;
so that t h e angle FBC=the angle GCB,
and the angle BCF t h e angle CBG, L 4.
Now i t has been shown that the whole angle ABG is equal
to whole angle ACF,
and that the parts of these, namely, the angles CBG,
also equal;
therefore the remaining angle A B C Ts equal to the remaining
angle ACB ;
and. these are the angles at the base of the triangle ABC.
Also i t has been shown that the angle FBC is equal to the
angle GOB;
and these are the aaigles on the other side of the base. Q . E . D .
 74 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

PROPOSITION 6. T H E O R E M .

General Enunciation.
i f two angles of a triangle be equal to one another, then
also which subtend, or are opposite to, the equal angles,
equal to

P a r t i c u l a r Enunciation.
Let A B C be a triangle, having the angle A B C equal to the
angle ACB
then shall the side AC be equal to the side AB.

Construction.
For if AC be not equal to AB,
one of them must be greater than the other.
I f possible, let AB be the greater;
and from i t cut off BD equal to AC. i i . 3.
Join DC.

Proof. T h e n in the triangles DBO, ACB,

{ DB =AC, C o n s t r .
BC is common to both,
becaus
and the contained angle D B C = t h e contained angle
ACB; H y p .
therefore the triangle DBC is equal in area to the triangle ACB,
'.4.
the part equal to the whole; which is absurd. A x . 9.
Therefore AB is not unequal
that is, AB is equal to AC. Q . E . D .
 EUCLID, B O O K L , 7 . 7 5

PROPOSITION 7. T H E O R E M .
General E n u n c i a t i o n .
On Me same base, and on the same side of it, there cannot
triangles having their sides which are terminated at one extremity
of the base equal to one another, and likewise those which,
minated at the other extremity equal to

Particular Enunciation.
I f i t be possible, on the same base AB, and on the same side
of i t , let there be two triangles ACB, ADB, having their sides
AC, AD, which are terminated at A, equal to one another, and
likewise their sides BC, BD, which are terminated at B, equal
to one another.
CASE I . W h e n the vertex o f each triangle is without the
other triangle.

Construction, J a n CD.
Proof. T h e n
in the triangle ACD,
because AC—AD, H y p .
therefore the angle A C D t h e angle ADC.
But the whole angle ACD is greater than its part, the angle BCD,
therefore also the angle ADC is greater than the angle BCD ;
still more then is the angle BDC greater than the angle BCD.
Again, in the triangle BCD,
because BC B D , H y p .
therefore the angle B D C . the angle BCD:
but i t was shown to be greater; which is
7 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

CASE II. W h e n one of the vertices, as D, is within the other

riangle ACB.

Construction. A s before, join C D ;

and produce AC, AD to E and F.

Proof. T h e n in the triangle ACD,

because AC=AD, M T .
therefore the angles ECD, FDC, 011 the other side of
are equal to one another.
But the angle ECD is greater than its part, the angle BCD;
therefore the angle FDC is also greater than the angle BCD:
still more then is the angle BDC greater than the angle BCD.
Again, in the triangle BCD,
becauseBC=BD,
therefore the angle BDC=the angle BCD :
but it has been shown to be greater; which is impossible.
The case in which the vertex of one triangle is on a side of the
other needs no demonstration.
Therefore AC cannot be equal to AD, and .at the same time
BC equal to BD Q . E . D .
NOTE. T h e sides A C , A D are called conterminous sides:
similarly the sides BC, BD are
 EUCLID, B O O K I . , 8 . 7 7

PROPOSITION 8. T H E O R E M .
General E n u n c i a t i o n .
I f two triangles have two sides o f the one equal to two sides of
the other, each to each, and have likewise their bases equal,
angle which is contained by the two sides of the one shall be equal
to the angle which t's contained by the two sides of
A

Particular Enunciation.
Let ABC, DEF be two triangles having the two sides BA, AC
equal to the two sides ED, DF, each to each, namely, BA to ED,
and AC to DF, and also the base BC equal to the
then shall the angle BAG be equal to the angle EDF.
Proof.
For if the triangle ABC be applied to the triangle DEF, so that
the point B may be on E, and the straight line BC along EF
then because B C . E F, H y p .
therefore the point C must coincide with the point F.
Then BC coinciding with EF,
it follows that BA and AC must coincide with ED and OF:
for, if not, they would have a different situation, as
then, on the same base and on the same side of i t there would
be two triangles having their conterminous
But this is impossible.
Therefore the sides BA, AC coincide with the sides ED,
That is, the angle B A C coincides w i t h the angle EDF, and is
therefore equal to it. A x . 8.
Q.E.D
Corollary. I f in two triangles the three sides o f the one are
equal to the three sides of the other, each to each, then the triangles
are equal in
78 A F I R S T ST EP I N E U C L I D ,

PROPOSITION 9. PROBLEM.

General Enunciation.
To bisect a given angle, that is, to divide it into two

Particular Enunciation.
Let BAC be the given angle;
it is required to bisect it.

C o n s t r u c t i o n . I n AB take any point D ;

and from AC cut off AE equal to AD. I . 3.
Join DE.
and on DE, on the side remote from A, describe an equilateral
triangle DEF.
Join AF.
Then shall the straight line AF bisect the angle BAC.

Proof. F o r in the two triangles DAF, EAF,

DA E A , C o n s t r .
because a n d AF is common to both ;
and D F = E F ;
therefore the angle D A F = the angle EAF.
Therefore the given angle BAC is bisected by the straight line
AF. Q . E . P .
 EUCLID, B O O K I . , 1 0 . 7 9

PROPOSITION 10. PROBLEM.

General Enunciation.
To bisect a given finite straight line, that is, to divide it
equal

Particular Enunciation.
Let AB be the given straight line:
it is required to divide it into two equal parts.

Construction
Oil AB describe an equilateral triangle ABC,
and bisect the angle ACB by the straight line CD,
and let, CD cut AB in D.

Proof. F o r in the triangles AGO, BCD,

Def.
and CD is common to both;
becaus
also the contained angle ACD.--the contained angle
BCD ; C o n s t r .
therefore the triangles are equal in all respects:
so that the base AD . t h e base BD.
Therefore the straight line AB is bisected at the
Q.E.F.

C
80 A F I R S T STEP I N E U C L I D .

PROPOSITION 11. PROBLEM.

General Enunciation.
To draw a straight line at right angles to a given
line from a given point in

Particular Enunciation.
Let AB be the given straight line and C the given point in it.
I t is required to draw from the point C a straight line at right
angles to AB.

Construction. I n AC take any point D,

and from CB cut off CE equal to CD. I . 3.
On DE describe the equilateral triangle DFE.
Join CF.
Then shall the straight line CF be at right angles to AB.

Proof. F o r in the triangles DCF, ECF,

- C D C -=- EC, C o n s t r .
a n d CF isbecausecommon to both,
and DF= EF ;
therefore the angle D C F. t h e angle ECF, I . 8.
and these are
But when a straight line, standing on another straight line,
makes the adjacent angles equal to one another, each
angles is called a right angle;
therefore each of the angles DCF, ECF is a
Therefore CF is at right angles to AB,
and has been drawn from a point C in it. Q .
 EUCLID, B O O K I . , 1 2 . 8 1

PROPOSITION 12. PROBLEM.

General Enunciation.
To draw a straight line perpendicular to a given straight line of
unlimited length from a given point without it.

A F

Particular Enunciation.
Let AB be the given straight line which may be produced in
either direction, and let C be the given point without it.
I t is required to draw from the point C a straight
pendicular
Construction.
On the side of AB remote from C take any point D;
and from centre C, with radius CD, describe the circle FDG,
meeting AB at F
Bisect FG at H ;
and join CH.
Then shall the straight line CH be perpendicular
Join CF
Proof. T h e n in the triangles FHC, GHC,
-t F H =GH, C o n s t r .
a n d b sHO is common to both;
u
a
c
e
and CF=CG, being radii of the
therefore the angle CH F. t h e angle CHG ;
and these are
But when a straight line, standing on another straight line,
makes the adjacent angles equal to one another, each
angles is called a right angle, and the straight line
on the other is called a perpendicular to it.
Therefore CH is a perpendicular drawn to the given straight
line AB from the given point C without it. Q . E . F .
F
 E X P L A N AT I O N O F FIGURES.

FIGURE 1.

A B M is
L, M, N are the middle points of the sides of
A circle with centre A is drawn, cutting A B i n E and A D
in F.

FIGURE 2,

AB is a diameter of the circle.

00 is a radius, perpendicular
OD is any
OE is the bisector of the
AOCF is

FIGURE 3.

ABCD: AEFG are two squares with common angle at A.

$ A
 EXPLANATION O F FIGURES. 8 5

FIGURE 4.

Two circles are drawn w i t h the same centre 0

circles)
SQOBD, RPOAC are two straight lines through 0.
NOTE. I t is given that the angle QOP is equal to
AOB. ( T h i s is proved in Euclid, L, 15.)

FIGURE 5.

ABODE is a regular pentagon (i.e. all its sides and

equal)
A B M is

GLASGOW; P R I N T E D A T V I E U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S R V R o R E R T I I A O LV I T O S E A N D CO.