NCERT Solutions Physics Class XII

CHAPTER 14
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS: MATERIAL, DEVICES
AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
Q.14.1 In an n-type silicon, which of the following statement is true:
(a) Electrons are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants.
(b) Electrons are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
(c) Holes are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
(d) Holes are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants.

Ans.14.1
The correct statement is (c ).
In an n-type silicon, the electrons are the majority carrier, while the holes are the minority
carriers. An n-type semiconductor is obtained when pentavalent atoms, such as phosphorous,
are doped in silicon atoms.

Q.14.2 Which of the statements given in Exercise 14.1 is true for p-type semiconductor.

Ans. 14.2
The correct statement is (d).
In a p-type semiconductor, the holes are the majority carriers, while the electrons are the
minority carriers. A p-type semiconductor is obtained when trivalent atoms, such as
aluminium, are doped in silicon atoms.

Q.14.3 Carbon, silicon and germanium have four valence electrons each. These are
characterized by valence and conduction bands separated by energy band gap
respectively equal to (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝒄𝒄 , (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 and (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮 . Which of the following statements is
true?
(a) (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 < (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮 < (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝒄𝒄
(b) (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝒄𝒄 < (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮 > (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺
(c) (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝒄𝒄 > (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 > (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮
(d) (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝒄𝒄 =(𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 = (𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 )𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮

Ans.14.3
The correct statement is (c).
Of the three given elements, the energy band gap of carbon is the maximum and germanium
is the least. The energy band gap of these elements is related to (𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 )𝑐𝑐 > (𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 )𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 > (𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 )𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 .

Q.14.4 In an unbiased p-n junction, holes diffuse from the p-region to n-region because
(a) free electrons in the n-region attract them.
(b) they move across the junction by the potential difference.
(c) hole concentration in p-region is more as compared to n-region.
(d) All the above.

Ans.14.4
The correct statement is (c).
The diffusion of charge carriers across a junction takes place from the regions of higher
concentration to the region of lower concentration. In this case, the p-region has greater
concentration of holes than the n-region. Hence, in an unbiased p-n junction, holes diffuse
from the p-region to the n-region.

Q.14.5 When a forward bias is applied to a p-n junction, it

(a) raises the potential barrier.
(b) reduces the majority carrier current to zero.
(c) lowers the potential barrier.
(d) None of the above.

Ans.14.5
The correct statement is (c).
When a forward bias is applied to a p-n junction, it lowers the value of potential barrier. In
the case of a forward bias, the potential barrier opposes the applied voltage. Hence, the
potential barrier across the junction gets reduced.

Q.14.6 In half-wave rectification, what is the output frequency if the input frequency is
50 Hz. What is the output frequency of a full-wave rectifier for the same input
frequency.

Ans.14.6
Input frequency = 50 Hz
For a half-wave rectifier, the output frequency is equal to the input frequency.
Hence, the output frequency = 50 Hz
For a full-wave rectifier, the output frequency is twice the input frequency.
Hence the output frequency = 2 × 50 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 100 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

Q.14.7 A p-n photodiode is fabricated from a semiconductor with band gap of 2.8 eV.
Can it detect a wavelength of 6000 nm?

Ans.14.7
Energy band gap of the given photodiode, 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 = 2.8 eV
Wavelength, 𝜆𝜆 = 6000 nm = 6000× 10−9 m
The energy of a signal is given by the relation,
ℎ𝑐𝑐
𝐸𝐸 =
𝜆𝜆
Where
h = Planck’s constant = 6.626× 10−34 Js
c = sped of light = 3× 108 m/s
6.626×10−34 ×3×108 3.313×10−20
𝐸𝐸 = = 3.313× 10−20 J = eV = 0.207 eV
6000×10−9 1.6×10−19
Therefore the energy of a signal of wavelength 6000 nm is 0.207 eV, which is less than 2.8
eV – the energy band gap of the photodiode. Hence, the photodiode cannot detect the signal.
Q.14.8 The number of silicon atoms per m3 is 5 × 1028. This is doped simultaneously
with 5 × 1022 atoms per m3 of Arsenic and 5 × 1020 per m3 atoms of Indium. Calculate
the number of electrons and holes. Given that ni = 1.5 × 1016 m–3. Is the material n type
or p type?

Ans.14.8
Number of silicone atoms, 𝑛𝑛𝑆𝑆 = 5× 1028 / 𝑚𝑚3
Number of arsenic atoms, 𝑛𝑛𝐴𝐴 = 5× 1022 / 𝑚𝑚3
Number of indium atoms, 𝑛𝑛𝐼𝐼 = 5× 1020 / 𝑚𝑚3
Number of thermally generated atoms, 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 = 1.5× 1016 / 𝑚𝑚3
Hence number of electrons, 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 5× 1022 − 1.5× 1016 = 4.99× 1022
Number of holes = 𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻

In thermal equilibrium, the concentration of electrons and holes in a semiconductor are

related as:
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻 = 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 (1.5×1016 )2
Therefore, 𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻 = = = 4.51× 109
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 4.99×1022
Since the number of electrons are more (4.99× 1022 ) than the number of holes (4.51× 109 ),
the material is an n-type semiconductor.

Q.14.9 In an intrinsic semiconductor the energy gap Eg is 1.2eV. Its hole mobility is
much smaller than electron mobility and independent of temperature. What is the ratio
between conductivity at 600K and that at 300K? Assume that the temperature
dependence of intrinsic carrier concentration 𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒊 is given by
𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈
𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒊 = 𝒏𝒏𝟎𝟎 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 �− �
𝟐𝟐𝒌𝒌𝑩𝑩 𝑻𝑻
where 𝒏𝒏𝟎𝟎 is a constant.

Ans.14.9
Energy gap of the given intrinsic semiconductor, 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 = 1.2 eV
The temperature dependence of the intrinsic carrier-concentration is written as:
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 = 𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �− �
2𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
Where, 𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 = Boltzmann constant = 8.62× 10−5 eV/K
T = Temperature
𝑛𝑛0 = constant

Initial temperature, 𝑇𝑇1 = 300 K

The intrinsic carrier-concentration at this temperature can be written as
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖1 = 𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �− �……(1)
2𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 ×300

Final temperature, 𝑇𝑇2 = 600 K

The intrinsic carrier-concentration at this temperature can be written as
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 = 𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �− �……(2)
2𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 ×600

The ratio between conductivity at 600K and at 300 K is equal to the ratio between the
respective intrinsic carrier concentration at these temperatures.
Therefore,
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒�−2𝑘𝑘 ×600�
𝐵𝐵
= 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖1 𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒�−2𝑘𝑘 ×300�
𝐵𝐵
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 1 1
= exp � − �
2𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 300 600
1.2 2−1
= exp � � = exp(11.6) = 109× 103
2×8.62×10−5 600
Therefore, the ratio between two conductivities is 1.09× 105

Q.14.10 In a p-n junction diode, the current I can be expressed as

𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆
𝑰𝑰 = 𝑰𝑰𝟎𝟎 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 � − 𝟏𝟏�
𝟐𝟐𝒌𝒌𝑩𝑩 𝑻𝑻

where I0 is called the reverse saturation current, V is the voltage across the diode and is
positive for forward bias and negative for reverse bias, and I is the current through the
diode, 𝒌𝒌𝑩𝑩 is the Boltzmann constant (8.6×10–5 eV/K) and T is the absolute temperature.
If for a given diode I0 = 5 × 10–12 A and T = 300 K, then
(a) What will be the forward current at a forward voltage of 0.6 V?
(b) What will be the increase in the current if the voltage across the diode is increased to
0.7 V?
(c) What is the dynamic resistance?
(d) What will be the current if reverse bias voltage changes from 1 V to 2 V?

Ans.14.10
In a p-n junction diode, the expression for current is given as:
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼0 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 � − 1�
2𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
Where, 𝐼𝐼0 = Reverse saturation current = 5× 10−12 A
T = Absolute temperature = 300 K
𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 = Boltzmann constant = 8.6× 10−5 eV/K = 8.6× 10−5 × 1.6 × 10−19 J/K
= 1.376× 10−23 𝐽𝐽/𝐾𝐾
V = voltage across the diode
e = charge of an electron = 1.6× 10−19 C

(a) Forward voltage, V = 0.6V

1.6×10−19 ×0.6
Current, 𝐼𝐼 = 5 × 10−12 × 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 � − 1� = 5 × 10−12 × exp(22.256)
1.376×10−23 ×300
= 0.02315 A

(b) For forward voltage, V = 0.7V, we can write

1.6×10−19 ×0.7
Current, 𝐼𝐼′ = 5 × 10−12 × 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 � − 1� = 5 × 10−12 × exp(26.132)
1.376×10−23 ×300
= 1.117 A
Hence increase in the current, ΔI = I’-I = 1.117 – 0.02315 = 1.0934 A

𝐶𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 0.7−0.6

(c) Dynamic resistance = = = 0.091𝛺𝛺
𝐶𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 1.0934
(d) If the reverse bias voltage is changed from 1 V to 2 V, the current will remain same as
𝐼𝐼0 will be equal in both cases. Therefore the dynamic resistance in the reverse bias will be
1
= ∞
0

Q.14.11 You are given the two circuits as shown in Fig. 14.36. Show that circuit (a) acts
as OR gate while the circuit (b) acts as AND gate.

Ans.14.11
(a) A and B are the inputs and Y is the output of the given circuit. The left half of the
given figure acts as the NOR gate, while the right half acts as the NOT gate.

Hence the output of the NOR gate is ��������

𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵
This will be input for the NOT gate. Its output will be ��������
𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 = A + B
So Y = A + B
Hence, this circuit functions as an OR gate.

(b) A and B are the inputs and Y is the output of the given circuit. It can be observed
from the following figure that the inputs of the right half NOR gate are the outputs of
the two NOT gates.

Hence, the output of the given circuit can be written as:

Y = ���������
𝐴𝐴̅ + 𝐵𝐵� = 𝐴𝐴̿ + 𝐵𝐵� = 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵Hence this circuit functions as an AND gate.
Q.14.12 Write the truth table for a NAND gate connected as given in Fig. 14.37.

Hence identify the exact logic operation carried out by this circuit.
Ans.14.12
A acts as the two inputs of the NAND gate and Y is the output, as shown in the following
figure.

Hence, the output can be written as:

��������
Y = 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴̅ + 𝐴𝐴̅ = 𝐴𝐴̅ ……………(i)
The truth table for equation (i) can be drawn as:
A Y = (𝐴𝐴̅) This circuit functions as a NOT gate. The symbol for this logic circuit is
0 1 as shown below:
1 0

Q.14.13 You are given two circuits as shown in Fig. 14.38, which consist of NAND gates.
Identify the logic operation carried out by the two circuits.
Ans.14.13
(a) The output of the left NAND gate will be �����
𝐴𝐴. 𝐵𝐵, as shown in the following figure:

Hence, the output of the combination of two NAND gates is given as:
�����
Y = (𝐴𝐴. �����
𝐵𝐵).(𝐴𝐴. 𝐵𝐵) = �����
𝐴𝐴. 𝐵𝐵 + �����
𝐴𝐴. 𝐵𝐵 = AB
Hence the circuit functions as an AND gate.

(b) 𝐴𝐴̅ is the output of the upper left of the NAND gate and 𝐵𝐵� is the output of the lower
half of the NAND gate, as shown in the following figure.

Hence, the output of the combination of the NAND gates will be given as:
Y = 𝐴𝐴̅ . 𝐵𝐵� = 𝐴𝐴̿ + 𝐵𝐵� = A + B
Hence, this circuit functions as an OR gate.

Q.14.14 Write the truth table for circuit given in Fig. 14.39 below consisting of NOR
gates and identify the logic operation (OR, AND, NOT) which this circuit is performing.

(Hint: A = 0, B = 1 then A and B inputs of second NOR gate will be 0 and hence Y=1.
Similarly work out the values of Y for other combinations of A and B. Compare with
the truth table of OR, AND, NOT gates and find the correct one.)
Ans. 14.14
A and B are the inputs of the given circuit. The output of the first NOR gate is ��������
𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵. It can
be observed from the following figure that the inputs of the second NOR gate become the
output of the first one.

Hence, the output of the combination is given as:

Y = �������������������
��������
𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴�������� ������
+ 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴̅. 𝐵𝐵� + ������ ������
𝐴𝐴̅. 𝐵𝐵� = = 𝐴𝐴̅. 𝐵𝐵� = 𝐴𝐴̿ + 𝐵𝐵� = 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵

The truth table for this operation is given as:

A B Y ( = A + B)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
This is the truth table of an OR gate. Hence, this circuit functions as an OR gate.

Q.14.15 Write the truth table for the circuits given in Fig. 14.40 consisting of NOR gates
only. Identify the logic operations (OR, AND, NOT) performed by the two circuits.

𝐴𝐴

𝐴𝐴

Ans.14.15
(a) A acts as two inputs of the NOR gate and Y is the output. As shown in the following
��������
figure. Hence the output of the circuit is 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴̅
 The truth table for the same is given as:

A Y = (𝑨𝑨) ���
0 1
1 0
This is the truth table of a NOT gate. Hence, this circuit functions as a NOT gate.
(b) A and B are the inputs and Y is the output of the given circuit. By using the result
obtained in solution (a), we can infer that the outputs of the first two NOR gates are 𝐴𝐴�
and 𝐵𝐵� , as shown in the following figure.

Above is given the inputs for the last NOR gate.

Hence, the output for the circuit can be written as:
Y = ��������
𝐴𝐴̅ + 𝐵𝐵� = 𝐴𝐴̿ . 𝐵𝐵� = A.B
The truth table for the same can be written as:

A B Y(=A!B)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
This is the truth table of an AND gate. Hence, this circuit functions as an AND gate.