DIGITALLOGICDESIGN

Lecture 2
COURSEOUTLINE
1. Introduction
2. Gate-Level Minimization
3. Combinational Logic
4. Synchronous Sequential Logic
5. Registers and Counters
6. Memories and Programmable Logic
BASICLOGICGATES
• We have defined three basic logic gates and operators

•We could build any digital circuit from those basic logic
gates

•In digital logic, we are not using normal mathematics,

we are using Boolean algebra

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 DERIVEDGATES
NAND NOR XOR XNOR
AND-Invert OR-Invert Odd Even

X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

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PRACTICALEXAMPLESOFAND&ORGATES
A seat belt alarm system An intrusion detection system

Floyd 11th edition

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PRACTICALICSFORLOGICGATES

74 Series Logic Gate Functions

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PRACTICALICSFORLOGICGATES

74 Series Logic Gate Functions

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MEASUREMENTDEVICES
How to practically monitor the output of a gate?

Oscilloscope

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MEASUREMENTDEVICES

Logic State Analyzer

Probe
Floyd 11th edition

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EXPRESSIONSANDLOGICCIRCUITS
•Any Boolean expression can be converted into a circuit by combining
basic gates in a relatively straightforward way
• The diagram below shows the inputs and outputs of each gate
•The precedenciesare explicit in a circuit. Clearly, we have to make
sure that the hardware doesthe operations in the right order!

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SIMPLIFICATIONOFTHELOGIC
FUNCTION
F(A,B)=A’B’ + A’B + AB’

B B’ F

A A’

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 SIMPLIFICATIONOFTHE
LOGIC FUNCTION
F(A,B)=A’B’ + A’B + AB’
= A’ * (B’ + B) + A * B’ (Distributivity)
B
F = A’ * (B + B’) + A * B’ (Commutativity)
A
= A’ * 1 + A * B’ (x + x’ = 1)

= A’ + (A * B’) (x +x’y)=(x+x’)(x+y)(Distributivity)
B
F = (A’ + B’) (De Morgan’s)
A
= (A B)’ 1 GATE (NAND) ONLY

By using simplification rules, we can optimize the design, so that it is

implemented with a single gate, instead of 7 (Two Basic gates)
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EXPRESSIONSANDLOGICCIRCUITS

•Now that we are familiar with Boolean algebra and

logic gates, how would that help usbuild logic circuits?
•If you want to build a logic circuit, you must have a
Boolean expression to represent it with logic gates!

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ALGEBRAICFORMSOF
REPRESENTING BOOLEANFUNCTIONS
• Sum of Products (SOP)
• Product of Sums (POS)

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SUMOFPRODUCTS(SOP)

Switching functions formed by:

SUMMING (ORing) PRODUCT (ANDed) terms.
Example:
sum terms

F  A, B,C, D   ABC  B D  ACD

literals
(product terms)
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SUMOFPRODUCTS(SOP)

Product termsare known as minterms

F = 001 011 101 110 111
F = A'B'C+ A'BC+ AB'C + ABC' + ABC
A B C F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 The apostrophe ’ here means invert

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 SUMOFPRODUCTS(SOP)
Product term (or minterm)
🢝 ANDed product – input combination for which output is true
🢝 Each variable appears exactly once, in true or inverted form (but not both)

From the pervious example:

F(A, B, C) = m(1,3,5,6,7)
A B C F minterms = m1 + m3 + m5 + m6 + m7
0 0 0 0 A'B'C‘ m0 = A'B'C + A'BC + AB'C + ABC' + ABC
0 0 1 1 A'B'C m1 This form is called the canonical form
0 1 0 0 A'BC' m2
0 1 1 1 A'BC m3 F(A, B, C) = A'B'C + A'BC + AB'C + ABC + ABC'
1 0 0 0 AB'C' m4 = (A'B' + A'B + AB' + AB)C + ABC'
1 0 1 1 AB'C m5 = ((A' + A)(B' + B))C + ABC'
1 1 0 1 ABC' m6 = C + ABC'
1 1 1 1 ABC m7 = ABC' + C
= AB + C
Short-hand notation for This form is called the minimal form
minterms of 3 variables 18
 HOWTOBUILDACIRCUITFROMTHESOPFUNCTION?
F = A'B'C + A'BC + AB'C + ABC' + ABC

Answer:

SOP  AND/OR
Two-level Implementation

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 PRODUCTOFSUMS(POS)
Switching functions formed by taking the:
PRODUCT (ANDing) of SUM (ORed) terms.
Example: Literals
(Sum terms)

 
F  A, B,C, D   A  B C B  D A  C  D  
Products
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PRODUCTOFSUMS(POS)
Sum termsare known as Maxterms
F= 000 010 100
F = (A + B + C) (A + B' + C) (A' + B + C)

A B C F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

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PRODUCT-OF-SUMS (CONT’D)
Sum term (or maxterm)
🢝 ORed sumof literals – input combination for which output is false
🢝 each variable appears exactly once in a sumterm, in true or inverted form (but
not both)

F(A, B, C) = M(0,2,4)
A B C maxterms = M0 • M2 • M4
0 0 0 A+B+C M0 = (A + B + C) (A + B' + C) (A' + B + C)
0 0 1 A+B+C' M1
0 1 0 A+B'+C M2 This form is called the canonical form
0 1 1 A+B'+C' M3
1 0 0 A'+B+C M4
1 0 1 A'+B+C' M5 F(A, B, C) = (A + B + C) (A + B' + C) (A' + B + C)
1 1 0 A'+B'+C M6 = (A + C) (B + C) (remember: F=AB + C)
1 1 1 A'+B'+C' M7
This form is called the minimal form

short-hand notation for

Maxterms of 3 variables
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HOWTOBUILDACIRCUITFROMTHEPOSFUNCTION?
F(A, B, C) = (A + B + C) (A + B' + C) (A' + B + C)

Answer:

POS OR/AND
Two-level Implementation

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SOPANDPOSREPRESENTTHESAMEFUNCTION
A B C F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

F=m(1,3,5,6,7) F=M(0,2,4)

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 POSVERSUSSOP

• Any expression can be written either way

• We can convert from one form to the other using theorems

• Sometimes SOP looks simpler

AB + CD = ( A + C )( B+ C )( A + D )( B+ D )
• Other times POS looks simpler
(A + B)(C + D) = BD + AD + BC+ AC
• However, SOP is most commonly used

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 MINIMIZATIONOFLOGICFUNCTIONS
We have chips with millions of gates
🢝Why care about minimizing a function?
🢝What do a few gates matter?
Basic logic functions are replicated thousands of times
🢝Saving one gate for a memory cell pays off
What is the criterion for minimization?
🢝Should we minimize the…
🢝Number of product terms?
🢝Number of logic operations?
🢝Number of variables (literals)?
🢝Number of wires?
🢝… ?
For implementation: minimize the number of gates!
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HOWTOMINIMIZETHEGATECOUNT?
Example: F=A’BC’+AB’C’+AB’C+ABC’= Σm(2,4,5,6)
How many gates do we need for implementation?
🢝If AND gates have 3 inputsand OR gates have 4 inputs?
🢝If all gates are binary (2 inputs)?

Are there any tricks we can use?

🢝Combine minterms:
🢝A’BC’+ABC’=BC’
🢝AB’C’+AB’C=AB’
F= BC’+AB’

🢝How many gates doesFneed now?

This mainly depends on your experience but we need a systematic
approach to minimize Boolean expressions

Answer: Karnaugh maps(K-maps) 27

KARNAUGHMAPS
•Karnaugh maps (K-maps) are graphical representations of Boolean
functions
• One map cell corresponds to a row in the truth table
•Also, one map cell corresponds to a minterm or a maxterm in the
Boolean expression
• Multiple-cell areas of the map correspond to standard terms

x y minterm
0 0 m0
0 1 m1
1 0 m2
1 1 m3

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2-VARIABLEK-MAP
y x
x 0 1 y 0 1
0 1 0 2
0 m0 m1 OR 0 m0 m2
2 3 1 3
1 m2 m3 1 m1 m3

• The ordering of variables is important for 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑥 is the

row, 𝑦 is the column
• For the K map on the left, cell 0 represents 𝑥 ′ 𝑦′; cell 1
represents 𝑥 ′ 𝑦, e t c …
• If a minterm is present in the function, then a 1 is placed
in the corresponding cell
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BOOLEANFUNCTIONSINAK-MAP
The1s and 0s represent a function in a K-map
🢝A 1 represents the On-set (F=1), while a 0 represents the Off-set (F=0)
🢝Similar to the truth table
🢝0s are typically not shown

x y f x y f
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

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2-VARIABLEK-MAP
Any two adjacent cells in the map differ by ONLY one variable,
which appears complemented in one cell and uncomplemented in
the other
Example

𝑚0(= 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ ) is adjacent to 𝑚1(= 𝑥 ′ 𝑦),

this means that
𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ + 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 = 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 = 𝑥′
Also 𝑚0 (= 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ ) is adjacent to 𝑚2 (= 𝑥𝑦′ )
𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ + 𝑥𝑦′ = 𝑦 ′ 𝑥 ′ + 𝑥 = 𝑦′
but 𝑚0 (= 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ ) is NOT adjacent 𝑚3 (= 𝑥𝑦)! 31
 2-VARIABLEK-MAP:ANEXAMPLE
𝐹 𝑥1, 𝑥2 = 𝑥1′𝑥2′+ 𝑥1′ 𝑥2+ 𝑥1 𝑥 2′
= 𝑚0 + 𝑚1+ 𝑚2
= 𝑥1′ + 𝑥2′
The 1s are placed in the K-map for specified
minterms: 𝑚0 , 𝑚1 and 𝑚2
Grouping (ORing) of 1s allows for
simplification
What (simpler) function is represented by
each dashed rectangle?
𝑥1′ = 𝑚0 + 𝑚1
𝑥2′ = 𝑚0 + 𝑚2

Note that m0 is covered twice!

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3-VARIABLEMAP
• Note the order of the
minterms

• Gray code is used, so that

the difference between any
adjacent cells is still ONLY
one literal

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 3-VARIABLEMAP:EXAMPLEI
Simplify the Boolean expression: F 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = Σ(2,3,4,5)

F 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑥 ′ 𝑦

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 3-VARIABLEMAP:EXAMPLEII
Simplify the Boolean expression: F 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = Σ(3,4,6,7)

F 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥𝑧′

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 3-VARIABLEMAP:EXAMPLEIII
Simplify the Boolean expression: F 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = Σ(0,2,4,5,6)

F 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑧 ′ + 𝑥𝑦′

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 3-VARIABLEMAP:EXAMPLEIV
Let the Boolean function 𝐹(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) = 𝐴′ 𝐶 + 𝐴′ 𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵′ 𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶
(a) Express this function as a sumof minterms
(b) Find the minimal SOP expression

𝐹 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 = 𝛴(1,2,3,5,7) 𝐹 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 = 𝐶 + 𝐴 ′ 𝐵
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NOTESONA3-VARIABLEMAP
•The number of adjacent cells that may be combined must always
represent a number that is a power of two, such as 1, 2, 4 and 8
•As more adjacent cells are combined, we obtain a product term
with fewer literals
• One cell represents one minterm, giving a term with 3 literals
• Two adjacent cell represent a term with 2 literals
• Four adjacent cells represent a term with 1 literal
•Eight adjacent cells encompass the entire map and produce a
function that is always equal to logic 1

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