RESEARCH GUIDE

Chapter Four

4.0 Introduction

The introduction of chapter four should provide a clear description of the following:

1. A brief summary of what the chapter entails, e.g. This chapter presents the analysis and
interpretation of data collected to answer the three research questions which relates to the
aims of the project.
2. The instruments used to collect the data in the research
3. The software used to input and process the data. Researchers have the option of using
either Microsoft Excel or IBM SPSS software, or even combining them. Microsoft Excel
offers accessible data handling for basic analysis, IBM SPSS software provides advanced
statistical tools for in-depth research. Provide a brief explanation of why the particular
software was chosen, e.g. ‘The researcher felt that the Excel program is simpler to use..’
4. A list of the research questions that the data analysis is based on, e.g. The data analysed
relates to the following research questions:
 To what degree will the use of self- directed learning incorporated with
technology impact student performance in Economics?
5. Identify and explain the statistical analysis method used in the research. The two most
common methods are descriptive analysis and inferential analysis. Descriptive analysis
aims to summarize and describe key features of a dataset, providing a clear and concise
overview of the data's characteristics. Descriptive statistics include measures of central
tendency (such as mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (such as range,
standard deviation). Visualization tools like graphs, charts, and tables are also common in
descriptive analysis. Inferential analysis involves making predictions, inferences, or
generalizations about a population based on a sample of data. It extends findings from a
limited dataset to a larger population. Inferential statistics include hypothesis testing,
 confidence intervals, and regression analysis. These techniques help researchers draw
conclusions about the population parameters from sample data.
NB: A comprehensive data analysis will include both descriptive analysis and inferential
analysis

Provide an explanation of how statistical tools such as mean, standard deviation, and
Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient will be used from the data collected,
e.g. ‘The mean was used to determine the students and teachers’ average rating for each
of the independent variables. The standard deviation indicated how far apart the students
and observers’ ratings were from the mean..’

The entire introduction to chapter four should be a continuous paragraph, with the
research questions listed in bullet point form.

Chapter four is where you present and analyze the data collected from your study. Depending on
your research design and methodology, you may use quantitative or qualitative methods, or a
combination of both, to analyze your data. Here are some general steps and guidelines for each
section of your chapter four:

1. Data Analysis: This section provides a summary of the characteristics of your sample,
such as age, gender, education level, income, etc. You can use tables, charts, graphs, or
other visual aids to display the descriptive statistics. You should also report the measures
of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and variability (standard deviation, range,
variance) for your variables of interest. For example, you can report the mean and
standard deviation of students’ academic performance scores, or the percentage of
students who use technology for learning purposes.

2. Data analysis by research questions: This section answers your research questions
based on the results of your data analysis. You should use appropriate statistical tests or
techniques to test your hypotheses or explore your research questions. For example, you
can use t-tests, PPMC, etc. to compare groups, examine relationships, or identify
differences among variables. You should report the test statistics, p-values, effect sizes,
 and confidence intervals for each test. You should also interpret the results in relation to
your research questions and hypotheses. For example, you can say whether the results
support or reject your hypotheses, or whether there is a significant or meaningful
difference or relationship between variables.

3. Discussion of results: This section discusses the implications and limitations of your
results. You should explain how your results relate to the existing literature and theory on
your topic. You should also discuss the strengths and weaknesses of your research design
and methodology, and how they may affect the validity and reliability of your findings.
You should also suggest directions for future research and recommendations for practice
or policy based on your results. For example, you can discuss how technology can
enhance or hinder student learning, and what factors may influence its effectiveness.

Steps to Analysing Data

Gather the data from the questionnaire and other data sources and input into excel or SPSS
software. The layout of the data is crucial to ensure clarity of data presentation. Below is an
example of how data layout:
The number of respondents is listed in the first column and each question is listed horizontally.
The responses for each question should be coded. Survey responses are coded to transform the
text from open-ended questions into numerical or categorical data that can be analyzed and
interpreted. Coding allows researchers to group and compare similar responses, identify patterns
and themes, and measure the frequency and intensity of opinions, attitudes, or behaviors. A
numerical value should be assigned to each option for a question. In the spreadsheet, enter the
corresponding number of the respondents choice for each question.

Example

1. How often do you use technology (such as computers, tablets, smartphones, internet, etc.) for
learning Economics?
o Never 1
o Rarely 2
o Sometimes 3
o Often 4
o Always 5

Mean, standard deviation, and Pearson correlation are common statistical measures that are used
to describe and analyze data.

 Mean: The mean is the arithmetic average of a set of values, calculated by adding up all
the values and dividing by the number of values. It is a measure of central tendency that
indicates the typical or expected value of a variable. For example, the mean height of a
sample of students can be calculated by adding up their heights and dividing by the
number of students. The mean is sensitive to extreme values or outliers, which can skew
the result.

 Standard deviation: The standard deviation is a measure of variability that indicates

how much the values in a data set deviate from the mean. It is calculated by taking the
square root of the variance, which is the average of the squared differences between each
value and the mean. A low standard deviation means that the values are close to the mean,
while a high standard deviation means that the values are spread out. For example, the
 standard deviation of test scores can show how consistent or inconsistent the students’
performance is.

 Pearson correlation: The Pearson correlation coefficient ® is a measure of linear

correlation that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two
variables. It is calculated by dividing the covariance of the two variables by the product
of their standard deviations.

4.1 Data Analysis

Presentation of Data

Table 4.1: Demographic Profile of the Participants

Demograph
ic Profile of
the
Participants
Descriptio Frequenc Percentag
Measure n y e
Age 14 22 63%
15 13 37%
16 0 0%
Total 35 100%
Gender Male 12 34%
Female 23 66%
Total 35 100%

Provide a breakdown and analysis of the demographic data of the respondents.

Example
The 35 student participants' demographic profile is shown in Table 1. The table's results show
that students that engage in answering the questionnaire range in age from 14 to 15.
Table 4.2: Analysis of responses from each question

The image shows the results of a survey on the impact of technology on student performance,
with responses from 35 participants. Each row represents a question related to the use and impact
of technology, with multiple-choice answers and their respective frequencies. The mean and
standard deviation values are calculated for each question.

Example of how to explain data using Mean and Standard Deviation

For Question 1, “How often do you use technology?”, the mean is 3.57, indicating that most
respondents use technology “Often” to “Always”. The standard deviation is 0.88, showing a
moderate spread in responses.
Examining Students Performance Using Pre-test and Post-test Scores
The next aspect of data analysis requires a thorough analysis of the students scores before and
after introducing technology in the lesson.
Example of Analysis of Student Performance
The table shows the pre and post test scores of 35 students in a Economics course, before and
after a four-week intervention period, during which all of the students used technology to learn
Economics.
The average pre test score for the whole group was 9.6 out of 20, or 48%. Analysis can also be
done on gender to compare performance of the two set of students.

Graphical Analysis of Data

Explanation of Histogram
The histogram in figure 4.1 shows the performance of students on tests before technology was
introduced. Based on the data, the mean of the distribution is 9.23 and SD is 2.462.
4.2 Data Analysis by Research Question

For each research question, create a subheading that states the question clearly and concisely.
Under each subheading, include the following sections:

State the null and alternative hypotheses for the question. The null hypothesis is the assumption
that there is no relationship or difference between the variables, while the alternative hypothesis
is the opposite.

Example

Research Question 1: To what degree will the use of self-directed learning incorporated
with technology impact student performance in Economics?

o H0 (Null Hypothesis): The use of self-directed learning incorporated with technology

has no impact on student performance in Economics.

o H1 (Alternative Hypothesis): The use of self-directed learning incorporated with

technology has an impact on student performance in Economics.

Describe the data analysis method and the statistical test you used to test the hypotheses. Explain
why you chose this method and test, and how they fit the type and level of data you have.
Provide the formula and the assumptions of the test, and check if they are met by your data.

Example

To test the first research question, a Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to measure the
strength and direction of the linear relationship between the use of self-directed learning
incorporated with technology and student performance in Economics.

Report the results of the data analysis and the statistical test, using tables, graphs, or charts to
display the data and the test statistics. Make sure to label and number the figures properly, and
refer to them in the text. Include the value of the test statistic, the degrees of freedom, the p-
value, and the effect size. The p-value is the probability of obtaining the observed result by
chance if the null hypothesis is true, and the effect size is the magnitude of the relationship or
difference between the variables.

Interpret the results and state whether you reject or accept the hypothesis. Compare the p-value
to a significance level, which is the threshold for deciding whether the result is statistically
significant.

Example
The results showed a moderate positive correlation between the use of self-directed learning with
technology and student performance in Economics. (Explain the r and p values and state whether
hypothesis is accepted or rejected).

Inferential Statistics
Inferential analysis is a statistical method used to draw conclusions and make predictions about a
population based on a sample of data. It allows researchers to estimate population parameters
from sample statistics and test hypotheses to draw conclusions about populations. Inferential
analysis is commonly used in research papers to analyze data and answer research questions. It
involves objectively and quantitatively summarizing the data, determining which data patterns
are significant, and making inferential statements about system performance. Inferential analysis
is useful when it is too difficult or expensive to collect data from the whole population of
interest. Instead, researchers collect data from a sample and use inferential statistics to make
reasonable guesses about the larger population.

Inferential Statistics Methods

 PPMC is used in inferential analysis to test the hypothesis that there is a significant
linear relationship between two continuous variables in a population, based on a
sample of data. PPMC can also be used to estimate the strength and direction of the
correlation between the variables. For example, you can use PPMC to test if there is
a significant relationship between the frequency and duration of technology usage by
students and their academic achievement (PPMC will be the main statistical tool
used to determine the extent of the relationship between variables)
  A t-test is used to compare the means of two groups and determine if they are
significantly different from each other. For example, you can use a t-test to compare
the mean performance of students from the pre and post tests.
 ANOVA is used to compare the means of more than two groups and determine if
there is a significant difference among them. For example, you can use ANOVA to
compare the mean performance of students who use technology low, medium, and
high levels.
 Regression analysis is used to estimate the relationship between one or more
independent variables and a dependent variable. For example, you can use regression
analysis to find out how technology use affects student performance, and how much
variation in performance is explained by technology use.

NB: Due to its complexity, it is not recommended to use ANOVA and regression analysis
when examining and presenting data.

4.3 Discussion of Results

The discussion of results is a crucial part of a research paper, where you interpret and evaluate
your findings in relation to your research question, literature review, and research design. In this
section, you should:

 Summarize your main results and how they answer your research question

 Explain the meaning and implications of your results in the context of existing literature
and theory

Summary of main results

Start by reiterating your research question and briefly summarizing your main results. For
example:
The main purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of technology on student
performance in Economics. The results showed that there was a significant positive correlation
between technology use and student performance in Economics.

Explanation of results

Explain what your results mean and how they relate to the existing literature and theory on the
topic. You should also discuss any unexpected or surprising results and how they can be
explained.

Example
The positive correlation between technology use and student performance in Economics supports
the hypothesis that technology can enhance learning outcomes … These findings are consistent
with previous studies conducted by Chen et al. (2020) and Kim et al. (2019) …..

NB: A detailed analysis must be provided when discussing the findings of the study to validate a
deep understanding of the results.

Chapter Five

The introduction to chapter five of the research paper is where you summarize the main findings
and implications of your study, and provide a transition to the conclusion and recommendations.
It has several key goals:
 Restate the research problem and objectives
 Highlight the most important results and how they answer your research questions
 Discuss the implications and limitations of the research
 Provide recommendations on how the findings of the study can be put into practice
5.0 Introduction

This section should restate the research problem and objectives, and briefly describe the
methodology and results of your study. It should also provide an overview of the structure and
content of the rest of the chapter.

Example
The purpose of this study was to examine determine the extent to which technology can be used
to improve student performance. The study employed a quasi-experimental design, where a
group of students were taught using technology compared to the traditional method…. The
study addressed the following research questions:

 To what degree will the use of self- directed learning incorporated with technology

impact student performance in Economics?

 To what degree will the use of cognitive engagement incorporated with technology

impact student performance in Economics?

 To what degree will the use of collaborative learning incorporated with technology

impact student performance in Economics?

The rest of this chapter is organized as follows:

Section 5.1 summarizes the main findings of the study and discusses how they answer the
research questions.

Section 5.2 evaluates the implications of the study

Section 5.3 examines the limitations of the research project …..

5.1 Summary of Findings

Chapter 5.1 of a research paper is where you summarize the main findings of your study and
discuss how they answer your research questions. For each research question, highlight the key
findings and explain how they support or reject your hypothesis or answer your research
question. Use evidence from your data analysis to support your claims, and cite relevant sources
to compare or contrast your findings with the literature. The summary of findings from the
research can presented in a table

Example
Research questions Major findings

Research question 1: To what degree will The findings showed that SDL with technology
the use of self- directed learning support had a positive and significant effect on
incorporated with technology impact student performance in Economics……
student performance in Economics?

5.2 Implications

This section of the research paper is where you discuss the implications of your research for the
existing literature, practice, or policy in your field. It is an important section that shows the
contribution and significance of your research to the advancement of knowledge or practice.
Discuss the practical implications of your findings, such as how they can be applied to solve
real-world problems or improve real-world outcomes. Explain how your findings can benefit
various stakeholders, such as practitioners, policymakers, or the general public. Provide specific
examples or suggestions for how your findings can be implemented or used in practice.

Example

The results from this study indicates the importance of utilizing technology in the education

system. As a result, these findings have certain implications for our educational system:

 In order for students’ performance to improve using technology, teachers must be

knowledgeable on how to effectively utilize this resource.

5.3 Limitations

For this part of the research paper, evaluate the limitations of your study. Identify the potential
weaknesses, biases, errors, or confounding factors that may have influenced your results or
affected the validity or generalizability of your findings. Explain how these limitations may
impact the interpretation or application of your findings, and how they can be addressed or
minimized in future research.

Example

• The speed of the internet proved to be a major problem during the delivery of the lesson
which incorporated technology.

5.4 Recommendations

For this section, provide specific and actionable recommendations based on some of the
limitations uncovered that can be applied to solve real-world problems or improve real-world
outcomes, or that can be used to advance theoretical understanding or inform the development of
new theories or models in your field. Explain how your recommendations can benefit various
stakeholders, such as practitioners, policymakers, or the general public, and provide specific
examples or suggestions for how your recommendations can be implemented or used in practice
or future research.

Example
 As insufficient number of computers proved to be a problem during the study, students

should be encouraged to bring their own laptops, tablets or other multimedia device to use

in the lesson.
5.5 Conclusion

The conclusion of a research paper is the final section where you synthesize and wrap up your
research, presenting the main points and implications of your study. the conclusion should focus
on the implications and significance of your research, and how it adds value to the existing
literature and practice.

Example
The utilization of technology in Economics lessons may considerably improve students’

performance. However, this can only be possible if teachers are adequately trained and prepared

on how to effectively incorporate technology in the classroom.

Appendices
The appendices section of a research paper is where you include extra information that is not
essential to your main argument, but that may help the reader understand your research better.
For example, you may include full transcripts of interviews, detailed statistical data, or
documents used in your research. The appendices are placed at the end of the paper, after the
reference list. Each appendix should have a label and a title, and should be referred to at least
once in the main text.

Example

Appendix A: Permission

Appendix B: Questionnaire, checklist, analysis of data, charts

Appendix C: Lesson plans, worksheets