CELL: BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Organelles of cells
cell cycle
Cell division
Cell differentiation
Stem cells types
Stem cells applications
Living Organism
• A living organism may be defined as a complex unit of
physicochemical materials that is capable of self-regulation,
metabolism, and reproduction.
• Furthermore, a living organism demonstrates the ability to interact
with its environment, grow, move, and adapt.

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What Are the Main Characteristics of
organisms?
1. Made of CELLS
2. Require ENERGY (food)
3. REPRODUCE (species)
4. Maintain HOMEOSTASIS
5. ORGANIZED
6. RESPOND to environment
7. GROW and DEVELOP
8. EXCHANGE materials with
surroundings (water,
wastes, gases)

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Cell-basic unit of life
• Smallest living form
• Inside the cell some structure transport
• Metabolize
• Respire
• Reproduce (Meiosis)
• Multiply (Mitosis)
• Energy producing
• Keep information

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 Prokaryotes
• Nucleoid region (center)
contains the DNA
• Surrounded by cell
membrane & cell wall
(peptidoglycan)
• Contain ribosomes (no
membrane) in their
cytoplasm to make
proteins

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 Eukaryotes
• Cells that HAVE a
nucleus and
membrane-bound
organelles
• Includes protists,
fungi, plants, and
animals
• More complex type of
cells

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 Cell Structure and Function

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 Organelles
• Very small (Microscopic)
• Perform various functions for a cell
• Found in the cytoplasm
• May or may not be membrane-bound
Plant Cell

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 Cell or Plasma Membrane
• Composed of double layer of phospholipids and
proteins
• Surrounds outside of ALL cells
• Controls what enters or leaves the cell
• Living layer

Outside
of cell
Carbohydrate
chains
Proteins
Cell
membrane

Inside
of cell Protein
9 (cytoplasm) channel Lipid bilayer
 Cytoplasm of a Cell
cytoplasm
• Jelly-like substance enclosed
by cell membrane
• Provides a medium for
chemical reactions to take
place
• Contains organelles to carry
out specific jobs
• Found in ALL cells

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 The Control Organelle - Nucleus
• Controls the normal
activities of the cell
• Contains the DNA in
chromosomes
• Bounded by a
nuclear envelope (membrane)
with pores
• Usually the largest organelle
• Each cell has fixed
number of chromosomes that
carry genes
• Genes control cell characteristics
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 Nucleolus
• Inside nucleus
• Cell may have 1 to 3
nucleoli
• Disappears when cell
divides
• Makes ribosomes that
make proteins

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 Cytoskeleton
• Helps cell maintain
cell shape
• Also help move
organelles around
• Made of proteins
• Microfilaments are Cytoskeleton
threadlike & made
of ACTIN
• Microtubules are
tube-like and made
of TUBULIN Microtubules

Microfilaments

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 Centrioles
• Found only in animal
cells
• Paired structures near
nucleus
• Made of bundle of
microtubules
• Appear during cell
division forming mitotic
spindle
• Help to pull
chromosome pairs apart
to opposite ends of the
cell

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 Mitochondrion
(plural = mitochondria)
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Generate cellular energy (ATP)
• More active cells like muscle
cells have MORE
mitochondria
• Both plants & animal cells
have mitochondria
• Site of CELLULAR
RESPIRATION (burning
glucose)

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 MITOCHONDRIA
• Surrounded by a DOUBLE
membrane
• Has its own DNA
• Mitochondria come from cytoplasm
in the egg cell during fertilization
• Therefore you inherit your
mitochondria from your mother!

• Folded inner membrane

called CRISTAE (increases
surface area for more
chemical reactions)
• Interior called MATRIX
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 Endoplasmic Reticulum - ER
• Network of hollow membrane tubules
• Connects to nuclear envelope & cell membrane
• Functions in Synthesis of cell products & Transport

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Two kinds of ER ---ROUGH & SMOOTH
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)
• Has ribosomes on its surface
• Makes membrane proteins and
proteins for EXPORT out of
cell
• Proteins are made by
ribosomes on ER surface
• They are then threaded into
the interior of the Rough ER
to be modified and transported

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 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Smooth ER lacks ribosomes on
its surface
• Is attached to the ends of rough
ER
• Makes cell products that are
USED INSIDE the cell
• Makes membrane lipids
(steroids)
• Regulates calcium (muscle cells)
• Destroys toxic substances
Includes nuclear
(Liver)
membrane connected to
ER connected to cell
membrane (transport)

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 Ribosomes
• Made of PROTEINS and rRNA
• “Protein factories” for cell
• Join amino acids to make proteins
• Process called protein synthesis
• Can be attached to Rough ER OR Be free
(unattached) in the cytoplasm


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 Golgi Bodies
• Stacks of flattened
sacs
• Have a shipping side CIS
(trans face) and
receiving side (cis
face)
• Receive proteins
made by ER
TRANS
• Transport vesicles
with modified
proteins pinch off the
ends Transport
vesicle
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 Golgi Bodies
Look like a stack of pancakes

Modify, sort, & package

molecules from ER
for storage OR
transport out of cell

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 Golgi bodies

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 Lysosomes

• Contain digestive
enzymes
• Break down food,
bacteria, and worn out
cell parts for cells
• Programmed for cell
death (AUTOLYSIS)
• Lyse (break open) &
release enzymes to break
down & recycle cell
parts)

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 Lysosome Digestion

• Cells take in food

by phagocytosis
• Lysosomes digest
the food & get rid
of wastes

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 Vacuoles
• Fluid filled sacks for storage
• Small or absent in animal
cells
• Plant cells have a large
Central Vacuole
• No vacuoles in bacterial cells
• In plants, they store Cell Sap
• Includes storage of sugars,
proteins, minerals, lipids,
wastes, salts, water, and
enzymes

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 Chloroplasts
• Found only in producers
(organisms containing
chlorophyll)
• Use energy from sunlight to
make own food (glucose)
• Energy from sun stored in the
Chemical Bonds of Sugars
Surrounded by DOUBLE membrane
Outer membrane smooth
Inner membrane modified into sacs
called Thylakoids
Thylakoids in stacks called Grana &
interconnected
Stroma – gel like material
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 Chloroplasts

• Contains its own DNA

• Contains enzymes &
pigments for
Photosynthesis
• Never in animal or
bacterial cells
• Photosynthesis – food
making process

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 Cell growth, and differentiation

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 The Cell Cycle
• Mitosis and meiosis are
single steps in cell cycle
• G1, S, G2, and M phases
• Cells not in process of
dividing are in G0 phase
• Chromosomes are duplicated
in preparation for the next
round of division during
interphase

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 Control of the Cell Cycle
• The stimuli for entering the cell cycle is in the form of growth
factors and cytokines that are capable of inducing mitotic
divisions

• The cell cycle is highly regulated

• Proteins whose concentrations rise & fall in a controlled manner
• Cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinases (cdk)
• p53 and pRb
• Inhibitors of cdk

• Internal checkpoints & guardians monitor cell health

• Errors in this process can lead to uncontrollable growth and

cancer

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 Control of the Cell Cycle
• Cell cycle control is
focused at 3 places:
• G1 checkpoint
• G2 checkpoint
• M checkpoint
• Before S phase
(DNA synthesis)

• At transition
between G2 and
M phase

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 Binary fission
Daughter cells are identical copies
Chromosome Plasma membrane

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

Neither mitosis nor meiosis occurs in prokaryotes

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Bacteria DNA
Reproduction

Asexual, through binary fission

No true sexual reproduction, since

neither mitosis nor meiosis exist in
cell wall
prokaryotes

Horizontal transfer of genetic material Uptake of genetic material from

Transformation the environment

Transfer of genetic material

Transduction between prokaryotes by viruses

Direct transfer of genetic

Conjugation material from one prokaryote to
another
 Mitosis
•Four phases pair of
•1. Prophase: homologous,
duplicated
chromosomes condense, chromosomes
spindle apparatus forms,
nuclear envelope breaks
down
•2. Metaphase:
chromosomes line up at
equator of cell
•3. Anaphase: sister
chromatids separate
•4. Telophase: new
nuclear envelopes form, sister
chromosomes unwind nuclear
chromatids of
one duplicated
envelope
homologue
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 (a) Interphase in a seed cell: The (b) Late prophase: The (c) Metaphase: The chromosomes
chromosomes (blue) are in the chromosomes (blue) have have moved to the equator of the
thin, extended state and appear condensed and attached to cell.
as a mass in the center of the the spindle microtubules (red).
cell. The spindle microtubules
(red) extend outward from the
nucleus to all parts of the cell.

(d) Anaphase: Sister (e) Telophase: The (f) Resumption of interphase: The
chromatids chromosomes have gathered chromosomes are relaxing again
have separated, and one set into two clusters, one at the into their extended state. The spindle
has moved toward each pole. site of each future nucleus. microtubules are disappearing,
and the microtubules of the two
36 daughter cells are rearranging into
the interphase pattern.
 Each new nucleus is genetically
identical to the parent nucleus
Daughter Cells
Each cell has the same
Parent Cell genetic makeup as the
Chromosomes parent cell
have been
replicated

Mitosis

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 Meiosis
Characteristics of meiosis

• 1. Occurs in sex cells (germ cells) and produces gametes

• 2. A reductional division resulting in haploid cells

• 3. Involves two sequential divisions resulting in four cells

• 4. Produces cells that are genetically different because of

genetic recombination (crossing-over).

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 Meiosis produces gametes for sexual
reproduction
• Multiplies number of cells but also reduces chromosome number in
each daughter cell to exactly half the number present before meiosis

• Daughter cells get 1 member of each homologous pair, i.e. 1 allele for
each gene

• Mitosis produces 2 daughter cells

• Meiosis produces 4 daughter cells

• All body cells in humans are diploid, except gametes

• Cells with 1 member of each homologous pair are haploid

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 Meiosis

Daughter Cells (1n) Gamete Cells (1n)

each chromosome has
2 chromatids
Parent Cell
(2n)

1st division 2nd division

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 Cell Differentiation
• The process of altering the pattern of
gene expression and thus becoming a cell
of a particular type is called cell
differentiation.

• Presence of chemicals (or other

influences) starts altering the decisions
as to which genes will be turned on or
off.

• The zygote is a totipotent cell - its

daughter cells can become any cell type.
As the development proceeds, some of
the cells become pluripotent - they can
become many, but not all cell types.

• Later on, the specificity narrows down

further and a particular stem cell can
turn into only a very limited number of
cell types, e.g., a few types of blood cells,
but not bone or brain cells or anything
else. That is why embryonic stem cell
research is much more promising than
the adult stem cell research.
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Differentiation of different tissues and
organs

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 Stem cells and tissue engineering

Stem cell (SC)- Stem Cells are the cells which has the
ability to divide for indefinite periods and which can
give rise to specialized cells of various tissues of body.
Importance
Properties
• Two defining property-Ability to differentiate into
other cells, ability to self regenerate
• It can be maintained in the in vitro conditions for
extended period using artificial medium
• Its karyotype remains stable even after many division
• It can produce any type of adult cells of the
organisms.
Sources of stem cells
EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS
-Isolated from blastocyst stage of
embryos
-Pluripotent (capable of
developing into almost all the cell
types of the body) in nature

ADULT STEM CELLS

-It is present in all the organs, but
very little amount
- They are multipotent (ability of a
single stem cell to develop into
more than one cell type but with
ability to differentiate into a
closely related family of cells).
Classification of stem cells
Totipotent- can become any cell type
eg: Morula stage of Embryos
Pluripotent- almost any kind of cell except placenta
eg: Embryonic SC
Multipotent- Produces limited range of cell types
Adult SC: nerve cells, blood cells, muscle cells,
bone and skin cells.
Unipotent - cell which can make exact copies of itself
indefinitely, can differentiate, and produce same type
of cells eg. Adult muscle stem cell
Culture of embryonic stem cells
• Collection of embryos from IVF centres
• Isolation of ICM (inner cell mass) from the blastocyst
stage
• Transfer ICM to the center of culture plate containing
feeder cells and growth medium
• It can be differentiated to any cells by adding specific
medium
Difference between embryonic and adult stem cells
 Dolly was a female domestic sheep, and
Applications
the first mammal cloned from an adult
somatic cell, using the process of nuclear
transfer. 5 July 1996, Scotland, United
Kingdom
Parkinson’s Disease

A disorder of the central nervous system that affects movement, often

including tremors.
Nerve cell damage in the brain causes dopamine levels to drop, leading to the
symptoms of Parkinson's.
Parkinson's often starts with a tremor in one hand. Other symptoms are slow
movement, stiffness and loss of balance.
Muscular Dystrophy

A group of genetic diseases that cause progressive

• Polio
weakness and loss of muscle mass.
In muscular dystrophies, abnormal genes (mutations) lead
to muscle degeneration. Most forms begin in childhood. • Diabetes
Damaged muscles become progressively weaker. Most
people who have the condition eventually need a Type- I
wheelchair. Other symptoms include trouble breathing or
swallowing.
Gene therapy
Applications
• It can be used for neural degenerative diseases
(Alzheimer's and Parkinson’s disease)
• It can also used to treat diabetes by injecting in vitro
grown pancreatic islet cells
• It is also used for treating bone related diseases by
injecting in vitro developed osteocytes, chondrocytes
and myocytes
• Today most of the diseases get cured through stem
cell therapy eg. Muscular dystrophy, Polio.