GEOLOGICAL MAPS

A geologic map or geological map is a special-purpose map made to show various geological
features. Rock units or geologic strata are shown by colour or symbols. Bedding planes and
structural features such as faults, folds, are shown with strike and dip or trend and plunge
symbols which give three-dimensional orientations features. Stratigraphic contour lines may
be used to illustrate the surface of a selected stratum illustrating the subsurface topographic
trends of the strata.
Geological maps are essential tools that provide a visual representation of the distribution of
different rock types, structures, and other geological features within a specific area. These maps
are crucial for engineers and geologists to understand the subsurface conditions and make
informed decisions during construction projects.

Types of geological maps used in engineering geology:

Bedrock Geology Maps:
These maps depict the distribution and types of rock formations at or near the Earth's surface.
They help engineers understand the underlying geological structure and identify potential
challenges such as unstable rock formations or fault lines.

Quaternary Geology Maps:

Focusing on recent geological deposits from the past 2.6 million years, Quaternary geology
maps show information about soils, sediments, and landforms. Engineers use these maps to
assess factors like slope stability, groundwater conditions, and potential for landslides.

Fault and Fold Maps:

These maps highlight the location and characteristics of faults and folds in the Earth's crust.
Engineers need this information to evaluate the risk of seismic activity and plan construction
projects accordingly.

Engineering Geology Hazard Maps:

These maps integrate various geological data to identify potential hazards, such as landslides,
earthquakes, or volcanic activity. They help in designing structures that can withstand specific
geological risks.

Hydrogeological Maps:
Focused on the distribution of groundwater, hydrogeological maps provide information about
aquifers, groundwater flow patterns, and the potential for contamination. Engineers use these
maps to design effective groundwater management systems.

Geotechnical Maps:
Geotechnical maps combine geological and geotechnical information, providing details on soil
types, strength, and other properties. Engineers use these maps to assess foundation conditions,
slope stability, and other factors influencing construction.

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Land-Use Planning Maps:
These maps consider geological factors when planning land use, helping engineers and
policymakers make informed decisions about infrastructure development, zoning, and
environmental protection.

Mineral Resource Maps:

Geared towards the mining industry, these maps show the distribution of mineral resources.
Engineers involved in mining projects use these maps to locate valuable deposits and plan
extraction processes.

Importance of geological maps

Site Selection for Infrastructure Development:
Example: In Uganda, before constructing a dam, geological maps help identify suitable sites
by evaluating the bedrock stability and potential risks of landslides.

Foundation Design:
Case Study: When planning a new building in Kampala, engineers use geological maps to
understand the soil composition, helping them design appropriate foundations that can
withstand specific geological conditions.

Landslide Risk Assessment:

Example: Geological maps are instrumental in identifying areas prone to landslides. For
instance, in the mountainous regions of Uganda, these maps aid in assessing and mitigating
landslide risks for road construction.

Mineral Resource Exploration:

Case Study: Geological maps assist in locating and assessing mineral deposits. In Uganda,
maps guide mining companies to areas rich in minerals, promoting sustainable resource
extraction.

Groundwater Exploration:
Example: Engineers rely on geological maps to locate potential groundwater sources. In
Uganda's rural areas, maps help in drilling wells for communities with limited access to clean
water.

Tunnelling and Underground Construction:

Case Study: In urban development projects like subway construction, geological maps help
engineers plan tunnel routes by understanding the geological challenges they may encounter
beneath the surface.

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Slope Stability Analysis:
Example: Geological maps are crucial in assessing the stability of slopes, preventing disasters
such as the Bududa landslides in Uganda. Engineers use this information to design safe roads
and structures on hilly terrain.

Infrastructure Resilience Planning:

Case Study: When planning roads in Uganda, geological maps contribute to designing resilient
infrastructure that can withstand seismic activities or other geological hazards.

Environmental Impact Assessment:

Example: Before initiating a construction project near Lake Victoria, geological maps help
assess the potential impact on the lake's ecosystem, ensuring sustainable development.

Identification of Geological Hazards:

Case Study: In regions with volcanic activity like the Rwenzori Mountains, geological maps
aid in identifying potential volcanic hazards, allowing for proper land-use planning and risk
mitigation strategies.

Geochemical Analysis for Construction Materials:

Example: Geological maps assist in locating suitable sources of construction materials like
aggregates. This ensures that materials used in infrastructure projects meet engineering
standards.

Seismic Risk Assessment:

Case Study: In the context of the East African Rift System passing through Uganda, geological
maps are essential in evaluating seismic risks and designing earthquake-resistant structures.

Land Use Planning:

Example: Geological maps guide urban planning by highlighting areas with high geological
stability for residential zones and areas prone to flooding for appropriate land use.

Natural Resource Management:

Case Study: In the Albertine Graben, geological maps aid in managing oil and gas resources
by providing insights into the geological structures and potential risks associated with
extraction.

Monitoring Environmental Changes:

Example: Geological maps support ongoing monitoring of environmental changes, helping
authorities in Uganda respond to geological events such as erosion or shifts in river courses.

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DRIFTS AND OUTCROPS
Drifts:
Drifts refer to the deposits of sediments, usually left behind by glaciers, rivers, or wind. These
deposits can include a mix of clay, sand, gravel, and other materials. In Uganda, drifts might
be found in areas that were once covered by glaciers or near riverbanks where sedimentation
has occurred. For example, the Nile River in Uganda might have areas with significant drift
deposits along its course.

Outcrops:
Outcrops, on the other hand, are areas where bedrock or geological formations are exposed at
the Earth's surface. In Uganda, you could encounter outcrops in various regions, showcasing
the underlying geological structure of the land. For instance, the Rwenzori Mountains in
Uganda are known for their rocky outcrops, revealing the ancient rocks that make up the
mountain range.

They provide engineers with a direct view of the underlying rock structure, aiding in project
planning and design. Outcrops are like nature's billboards for geologists. They're these natural
rock formations that stick out, giving us a sneak peek into the Earth's geological history. In
engineering geology, they're like the open books that tell stories about the ground we build on.

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Example: Kampala Region
In the Kampala region, there could be glacial drifts left from the Pleistocene era. Understanding
the composition and characteristics of these drifts is essential for construction projects.
Engineers might encounter challenges like varying soil types within the drifts, affecting
foundation design and stability.

Example: Western Uganda

In the western part of Uganda, the presence of outcrops of Precambrian rocks, such as granites
and schists, can be common. Engineers need to consider these outcrops in infrastructure
development. For instance, if a road is planned through an area with extensive outcrops, the
construction process would involve rock excavation and possibly blasting, impacting project
timelines and costs.

Engineering Considerations for Drifts:

Foundation Design: The variability in soil types within drifts requires careful consideration
in foundation design. Engineers may need to adapt foundation types based on the specific
characteristics of the drifts.
Excavation Challenges: Drifts can pose challenges during excavation, especially if they
contain loose or water-saturated materials. Proper slope stability measures and dewatering
techniques may be necessary.

Engineering Considerations for Outcrops:

Rock Excavation: When encountering outcrops, engineers must plan for rock excavation. This
process involves removing or breaking up the rock to accommodate construction activities.
Blasting may be required, adding complexity to the project.
Slope Stability: Outcrops can influence slope stability. Engineers must assess the stability of
rock formations to prevent landslides or rock-falls during and after construction.

Importance of drifts
Foundation Design:
Example: In regions where glacial drifts are prevalent, engineers must consider the composition
and characteristics of these deposits when designing foundations for structures. The variation
in particle sizes and consolidation properties of glacial drift can significantly impact the
stability and load-bearing capacity of foundations.

Slope Stability Analysis:

Example: Landslides are often triggered by the presence of loose or poorly consolidated
materials in hillside areas. Knowledge of drifts is essential for assessing slope stability,
identifying potential landslide-prone areas, and implementing appropriate slope stabilization

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measures. For instance, the presence of clay-rich drifts may increase the risk of landslides
during heavy rainfall.

Tunnelling and Excavation:

Example: Engineers involved in tunnelling projects need to understand the nature of drift
deposits to anticipate potential challenges. For instance, loose, water-saturated drifts may pose
excavation difficulties due to their instability. Proper analysis of drift characteristics is essential
for selecting suitable tunnelling methods and support systems.

Groundwater Flow and Contamination:

Example: Drifts can act as important aquifers or barriers to groundwater flow. For instance, a
layer of well-sorted sand and gravel drift can serve as a productive aquifer, while clay-rich
drifts may act as impermeable barriers. Understanding these properties is crucial for managing
groundwater resources and preventing contamination.

Construction Material Source:

Example: Certain drift deposits, such as well-sorted gravel, can serve as valuable construction
materials. Engineers must assess the quality and availability of these materials when planning
construction projects. Knowing the location and characteristics of suitable drift deposits helps
in sustainable sourcing of construction materials.

Geo-Hazard Assessment:
Example: Coastal areas with marine drifts may face challenges related to erosion and storm
surges. Engineering solutions, such as seawalls or beach nourishment, should take into account
the type and distribution of marine drifts to effectively mitigate the impact of coastal hazards.

Importance of outcrops
Site Characterization:
Example: Imagine you're planning to construct a dam. Outcrops in the area can reveal crucial
information about the type of rocks and soil present, helping engineers assess the stability of
the foundation. If you find outcrops of fractured rock, it might indicate potential issues with
dam stability.

Geological Mapping:
Example: Let's say you're designing a highway. Outcrops along the proposed route can aid in
creating detailed geological maps. By studying these outcrops, geologists can identify different
rock types, fault lines, and other geological features that might impact construction. This
information is invaluable for designing safe and cost-effective foundations.

Understanding Groundwater Flow:

Example: Planning to build a subway system? Outcrops can provide insights into the
permeability of the rock layers. If you encounter outcrops with distinct water-bearing
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formations, it's a sign that there might be groundwater flow concerns. This information is
crucial for designing effective drainage systems.

Identification of Natural Hazards:

Example: Consider constructing a residential area. Outcrops can help identify potential
geological hazards like landslides or seismic activity. If you spot outcrops with evidence of
past landslides, it's a red flag for potential future instability, prompting engineers to implement
preventive measures.

Construction Material Assessment:

Example: Let's say you're building a skyscraper. Outcrops can serve as a guide to the quality
of construction materials available in the vicinity. If you find outcrops of durable rock, it could
be an excellent source for obtaining sturdy building materials locally, minimizing costs and
environmental impact.

AGE RELATIONSHIPS, INLIERS & OUTLIERS

Age Relationships:
Definition: Age relationships refer to the chronological order of geological events and
formations at a particular site. Understanding the sequence of events helps geologists
reconstruct the geological history of an area.
Example: for instance, if one is studying a sedimentary rock formation, by analysing the age
relationships, one might discover that a layer of shale was deposited first, followed by a layer
of sandstone. This information is crucial for understanding the environmental conditions that
existed during each deposition event and can influence construction decisions.

Outliers:
An outlier is an area of younger rock surrounded by older rocks. An outlier is typically formed
when sufficient erosion of surrounding rocks has taken place to sever the younger rock's
original continuity with a larger mass of the same younger rocks nearby.
Outliers are geological features or formations that deviate significantly from the surrounding
rock units. They are typically isolated occurrences that stand out due to their different
composition, age, or origin. Identifying outliers can provide valuable insights into past
geological processes, such as tectonic events or volcanic activity that might have influenced
the formation of these unique features.

Example: In a soil composition analysis, most data points might indicate the presence of typical
clay and sand. However, there might be an outlier indicating the presence of a rare mineral.
Identifying and understanding this outlier is essential, as it could impact the stability of
foundations or require additional considerations during construction.

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Inliers:
An inlier is an area of older rocks surrounded by younger rocks. Inliers are typically formed by
the erosion of overlying younger rocks to reveal a limited exposure of the older underlying
rocks.
Inliers are geological formations that are representative of the dominant rock units in a given
area. They are more common and conform to the overall geological characteristics of the
region. Studying inliers helps geologists establish the primary geological context and
understand the regional geological history.

Inliers are data points that conform to the expected geological pattern or trend. They represent
the majority of the geological features and are crucial for establishing a baseline understanding
of the site.

Example: In a geological survey of a region, if the majority of the rock formations exhibit a
consistent pattern of sedimentary layers, these are considered inliers. Understanding the typical
geological characteristics helps engineers design structures that can withstand the expected
geological conditions.

Engineering Considerations:
Risk Assessment: Understanding age relationships helps engineers assess the risk of
geological events. For instance, if an older rock layer is prone to erosion, it could pose a long-
term risk to structures built on top of it.

Stability Analysis: Outliers, especially in geological properties, may indicate potential

instability in the ground. Engineers need to carefully analyze and address these outliers to
ensure the stability of structures.
Design Adaptation: Inliers provide valuable information for designing structures that can
withstand common geological conditions. Engineers can adapt their designs based on the
prevalent geological characteristics to enhance the longevity and safety of projects.

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Scales of geological maps
Geological maps use various scales to represent the Earth's surface in a reduced and
manageable form. These scales help convey the spatial relationships of geological features
accurately.
A large scale map is one that shows small areas in detail, e.g. a town plan. Conversely a
small scale map shows large areas in less detail, e.g. a world map.
Large scale = small area
Small scale = large area

Verbal Scale:
A verbal scale expresses the relationship between a map distance and the corresponding
distance on the ground in words.
Example: "1 inch equals 1 mile" or "1:63,360" means that one unit on the map corresponds to
63,360 units on the ground.
Graphic Scale:
A graphic scale is a bar line marked to show distance on the ground. It is particularly useful for
maps that might be reproduced at different sizes.
Example: A graphic scale may have a bar representing 1 kilometre and subdivisions indicating
0.1 kilometres.
Fractional (Ratio) Scale:
This scale is expressed as a fraction, such as 1/24,000. The numerator represents the map
distance, and the denominator represents the equivalent ground distance.
Example: A ratio of 1:24,000 indicates that 1 unit on the map is equal to 24,000 units on the
ground.
Lithostratigraphic Scale:
In geological mapping, a lithostratigraphic scale represents the sequence of rock formations in
terms of time and space.
Example: Divisions may be labelled with specific rock formations and their ages, providing a
chronological framework for the geological history of an area.
Time Scale:
Geological maps may incorporate a time scale to indicate the ages of various geological
features and formations.
Example: Divisions like Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic represent different eras in Earth's
history.

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Contour Interval:
While not a traditional scale, contour lines on geological maps represent elevation changes and
may be considered a type of scale.
Example: If the contour interval is 10 meters, each contour line represents a change in elevation
of 10 meters.
Isopach Scale:
Isopachs are lines connecting points of equal thickness of a geological unit. The scale
associated with isopachs provides information about the thickness of rock units.
Example: Isopach lines on a map might indicate that a particular rock unit has a thickness of
50 meters in one area and 100 meters in another.
Gradient Scale:
In structural geology, a gradient scale may be used to represent the steepness of a geological
feature, such as a fault or a fold.
Example: The scale could be expressed as degrees of dip per unit distance.

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A geologic cross-section illustrates how different types of rock are layered or otherwise
configured, including geologic structures, such as folds and faults.
What Are the Essential Components of Geologic Maps?
1. The map itself
2. The map legend or key that explains all the symbols on the map
3. Geologic cross-section(s) of the map area.
General Rules for Interpreting Geologic Maps
Folds
Anticlines have their oldest beds in the centre, and their limbs (sides) dip away from the fold
axis or hinge. Plunging anticlines plunge towards the closed end (nose) of the V-shaped outcrop
belt.
Synclines have their youngest beds in the centre, and their limbs (sides) dip toward the fold
axis or hinge. Plunging synclines plunge toward the open end of the V-shaped outcrop belt.
Streams
They intersect dipping beds of rock, they will cut V shapes in the direction of dip.
They cut “V” shapes into horizontal beds and formation contacts that point upstream. The
formation contacts are parallel to topographic contour lines, and the stream drainage system
developed on horizontal and/or un-stratified formations has a dendritic pattern that resembles
the branching of a tree.
They cut across vertical beds, there will not be a V-shape
Faults
Upthrown blocks of faults tend to be eroded more (down to older beds) than downthrown
blocks.

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General
Geologic contacts migrate downdip upon erosion.
True dip angles can only be seen in cross-section if the cross-section is perpendicular to the
fault or to the strike of the beds.

Procedure for Reading and Interpreting Geological Maps:

Map Legend:
Start by examining the map legend (key). This provides information about the symbols and
colours used to represent different geological features.
In Uganda, geological maps may use symbols to represent rock types, faults, folds, and other
structural elements.
Scale:
Check the scale of the map to understand the spatial relationship between features. This is
crucial for determining distances and proportions.
Example: If the scale is 1:50,000, it means that 1 cm on the map corresponds to 50,000 cm (or
500 meters) in the actual terrain.
Topography:
Analyse the topographic features on the map. Understanding the landscape can provide context
for the geological formations.
Example: In Uganda, maps may show the elevation changes, rivers, and other topographical
features.
Rock Units:
Identify different rock units on the map. Geological maps use colours or patterns to represent
various rock types.
Example: In Uganda, you might find formations of the Basement Complex, which includes
granite and gneiss, or sedimentary rocks like sandstone and shale.
Geological Structures:
Look for symbols representing faults, folds, and other structural features. These symbols
indicate the orientation and nature of geological structures.
Example: A strike and dip symbol may show the orientation and angle of a rock layer.
Age of Rocks:
Check for information about the age of the rocks in different areas. This can be represented
using labels or colour codes.
Example: The map may indicate that certain rock units belong to the Precambrian or other
geological eras.

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Geological History:
Interpret the geological history of the area based on the distribution and relationships between
different rock units and structures.
Example: If a fault cuts across a rock formation, it suggests that the fault is younger than the
rocks it displaces.
Cross-Referencing with Other Maps:
Cross-reference the geological map with other maps, such as topographic maps or soil maps,
to gain a comprehensive understanding of the area.
Field Verification:
If possible, conduct field visits to verify the interpretations made on the map and gather
additional data.
Example
Suppose you have a geological map of a region in Uganda that shows:
Basement Complex rocks (granite and gneiss) in the western part.
Sedimentary rocks (sandstone and shale) in the eastern part.
A major fault running north-south through the central region.
Interpretation:
The Basement Complex rocks in the west suggest ancient crystalline rocks.
The sedimentary rocks in the east may indicate a basin or depositional environment.
The north-south fault may have played a significant role in the tectonic history of the region

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