𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐬: (Topic 1.

7) Rational Functions and End Behavior

A 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 is simply the quotient (fraction) of two ________________________.

𝑓(𝑥)
Rational Function: 𝑦 = where 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are both polynomials and 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑔(𝑥)
The following are all examples of rational functions:
2 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 6
𝑦= 𝑦= 𝑦=
𝑥+3 3𝑥 + 4 𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 11

𝐄𝐧𝐝 𝐁𝐞𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐨𝐫 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬

The end behavior of a rational function is determined by the leading terms of the numerator and denominator:
𝑎𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑏𝑥
𝐂𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐈: The leading terms have the same degree (𝑛 = 𝑑)
𝑎
𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐮𝐥𝐭: 𝑓(𝑥) has a horizontal asymptote: 𝑦 =
𝑏

𝐂𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐈𝐈: The denominator dominates the numerator (𝑛 < 𝑑)

𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐮𝐥𝐭: 𝑓(𝑥) has a horizontal asymptote: 𝑦 = 0

𝐂𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐈𝐈𝐈: The numerator dominates the denominator (𝑛 > 𝑑)

𝑎
𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐮𝐥𝐭: 𝑓(𝑥) has the end behavior of the polynomial 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑏

𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞: If the degree of the numerator is exactly 1 more than the degree of the denominator, then 𝑓(𝑥) has a
slant (oblique) asymptote.

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟏: Determine if the following rational functions have a horizontal asymptote, slant asymptote, or neither.
If the function has a horizontal asymptote, write the equation of the asymptote.
3𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 7 2𝑥 − 5 2𝑥 − 4
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = b) 𝑦 = c) 𝑔(𝑥) =
5𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2 5𝑥 + 9

4𝑥 + 5 3 4
d) 𝑦 = e) 𝑘(𝑥) = f) 𝑝(𝑥) = −
8𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 7 2𝑥 + 1

𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐬: Topic 1.7 Rational Functions and End Behavior Created by Bryan Passwater
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟐: Write limit statements to describe the end behavior of the following rational functions
2𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 1 5𝑥 − 8𝑥 + 9 −3𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = b) 𝑔(𝑥) = c) ℎ(𝑥) =
6𝑥 − 𝑥 + 4 2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4

Left: Left: Left:

Right: Right: Right:

d) e)

Left: Left:
Right: Right:

𝐒𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐀𝐬𝐲𝐦𝐩𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐬
If the degree of the numerator is exactly 1 greater than the degree of the denominator, a rational
function will have a slant asymptote that is parallel to the ratio of leading terms.

𝑎𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) = where 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑏𝑥 are the leading terms and 𝑛 = 𝑑 + 1,
𝑏𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐
𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) has a slant asymptote parallel to the line 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑏

1
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟑: Which of the following rational functions has a slant asymptote parallel to the line 𝑦 = 𝑥?
2
𝑥 +3 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 +𝑥 +5
I. 𝑓(𝑥) = II. 𝑔(𝑥) = III. ℎ(𝑥) = IV. 𝑘(𝑥) =
2𝑥 + 𝑥 + 6 2𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2 2𝑥 + 4 2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1

A) I only B) II only C) III only D) I and II only E) III and IV only

𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐬: Topic 1.7 Rational Functions and End Behavior Created by Bryan Passwater
Worksheet A: (Topic 1.7) Rational Functions and End Behavior Name:
Directions: For each of the following, determine if the given rational function has a horizontal asymptote. If it does,
write the equation of the horizontal asymptote.

3x 2 - 1 x3 + 2 x 2 + x + 4 5 x3 - 2 x 2 - 1
1. f ( x ) = 2. g ( x ) = 3. h ( x ) =
2 x2 + 5x + 7 5x2 + 7 x + 8 x4 - 6

Horizontal Asymptote: Y or N Horizontal Asymptote: Y or N Horizontal Asymptote: Y or N

If Yes, Equation: __________ If Yes, Equation: __________ If Yes, Equation: __________

(x - 3)
2
6 x3 + 2 x + 3
4. k ( x ) = 2 5. r ( x) =
( 2 x - 1)( 5 x + 6 ) 6. q ( x ) =
2

2 x - 11x + 4 ( x + 3)( x - 6 ) 3x3 + 4 x 2 + 7

Horizontal Asymptote: Y or N Horizontal Asymptote: Y or N Horizontal Asymptote: Y or N

If Yes, Equation: __________ If Yes, Equation: __________ If Yes, Equation: __________

( 2x + 3) ( x - 4 )
2
( 3x - 1) ( x - 2 )( 4 - x )
2 2

7. p ( x ) = 8. y= 9. s ( x) =
2 x 2 + 3x + 5 ( x + 3)
2
(x 2
+ 5) ( x - 2)

Horizontal Asymptote: Y or N Horizontal Asymptote: Y or N Horizontal Asymptote: Y or N

If Yes, Equation: __________ If Yes, Equation: __________ If Yes, Equation: __________

Directions: Write limit statements for the end behavior of the following rational functions.

( 4 x + 3)
2
2 x3 - 5x + 6 x2
10. y = 3 11. y= 12. y =
6 x + 10 x2 - 4 x - 12 ( 3x - 1)( 2 x + 5) ( x - 1)
3

Left: Left: Left:

Right: Right: Right:

������ : Topic 1.7 Rational Functions and End Behavior Created by Bryan Passwater
Directions: Write a limit statement describing the output values for the following graphs and verbal descriptions of the
input values.

13. The input values decrease without bound 14. The input values increase without bound

Graph of f ( x ) Graph of g ( x )

13. Limit Statement: _______________ 14. Limit Statement: _______________

15. The input values increase without bound 16. The input values decrease without bound

Graph of h ( x ) Graph of k ( x )

15. Limit Statement: _______________ 16. Limit Statement: _______________

������ : Topic 1.7 Rational Functions and End Behavior Created by Bryan Passwater
�����: (Topic 1.8) Rational Functions and Zeros

�� : A rational function is a function that is a ratio of two polynomial functions (think fractions).
2 −3
( )=
− 4 − 45
We explored polynomial inequalities previously (Topic 1.5), and we can utilize some of those concepts to help us
understand more about rational functions like ( ).

��� ���� � � � �
( )
Let ( ) = be a rational function where ( ) and ℎ( ) have no factors in common. Then, we know …
ℎ( )
1. ( ) has zeros when ( ) = 0.

2. ( ) is undefined when ℎ( ) = 0.

����: When solving rational inequalities, we need to identify the � �� and � � ��!

������ ��� � � �� �
1. Make sure the inequality has on the other side!
( )
2. Make sure ( ) = (Make sure you have a single rational function)
ℎ( )
3. Set ( ) = 0 and ℎ( ) = 0 to find values to include on the sign chart. (Make sure to factor!)
4. Create a sign chart with all values from �� .
5. Be careful to mark the values where ℎ( ) = 0 so that we � � include those values in our solution.
6. ��� �� in each interval to see if the values in the interval are ______ or ______.
7. �� �� the sign chart to answer the given inequality from the problem.

� : Be sure to write your answer in �� �� � � and think about the � � ��!

−2 −4
� : Solve ≥0 � : Solve <0
( + 6)( − 3) − 10 + 25

�����: Topic 1.8 Rational Functions and Zeros Created by Bryan Passwater
 2 4 +8
� : Solve >0 � : Solve ≤0
−3 +5

( − 1)( + 2) 1
� : Solve ≥0 � : Solve ≤0
−2 ( − 1)

� : The graph of the rational function is shown in the figure above. Use the graph to solve the
following inequalities.
a) ( )≤0 b) ( )>0 c) ( )≥1

�����: Topic 1.8 Rational Functions and Zeros Created by Bryan Passwater
Worksheet A: (Topic 1.8) Rational Functions and Zeros Name:
Directions: Find the zeros for the following rational functions.

1. y =
( x + 3)( x − 2 ) 2. y =
x2
3. y =
( x − 3)( x − 6 )
( x − 1)( x + 5) ( x − 1)( x + 2 ) ( x − 6 )( x − 2 )
1. Zeros: x = ________ 2. Zeros: x = ________ 3. Zeros: x = ________

x 2 − x − 20 x2 − 9 x 3 − 4 x 2 − 32 x
4. h ( x ) = 5. f ( x ) = 6. g ( x ) =
x 2 + x − 20 x 2 − 2 x − 15 2x2 + 7 x − 4

4. Zeros: x = ________ 5. Zeros: x = ________ 6. Zeros: x = ________

Directions: The graphs of several rational functions are given below. Use the graphs to solve the following inequalities.

Graph of f Graph of g Graph of h

7. f ( x )  0 8. g ( x )  0 9. h ( x )  0

Directions: Solve the following inequalities. Write your answers using interal notation.
x+2 x−3
10. 0 11. 0
x −1 x+5

𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐭 𝐀: Topic 1.8 Rational Functions and End Behavior Created by Bryan Passwater
Directions: Solve the following inequalities. Write your answers using interal notation.

−3 x
12. 0 13. 0
x −1 ( x − 4)
2

14.
( x − 1)( x + 6 )  0 15.
( 2 x − 3)( x + 4 )  0
x+2 x2

x2 − 9 x 2 − 3x − 10
16. 0 17. 0
x+2 x +8

x2 − 6x + 9 3x 2 − 2 x − 8
18. 0 19. 0
x2 + 1 x +1

𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐭 𝐀: Topic 1.8 Rational Functions and End Behavior Created by Bryan Passwater
𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐬: (Topics 1.9 − 1.10) Rational Functions − Vertical Asymptotes and Holes

𝐑𝐞𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐥: A rational function is the quotient of two polynomials.

𝑓(𝑥)
Rational Function: 𝑦 = where 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are both polynomials.
𝑔(𝑥)
Since we are dividing by a polynomial, rational functions have restrictions on their domain. We know that we
cannot divide by 0, so we must consider any 𝑥 values where 𝑔(𝑥) = 0, and restrict them from the domain.
These 𝑥 values will be the location of either a vertical asymptote or a hole in the graph.

Vertical asymptotes and holes both occur when the denominator of a rational function equals 0. So how can we
distinguish between the two when working with a rational equation?

𝐕𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐀𝐬𝐲𝐦𝐩𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐇𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬

A 𝐡𝐨𝐥𝐞 occurs when the factor in the denominator cancels out with factors in the numerator.
A 𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐬𝐲𝐦𝐩𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐞 occurs when a factor in the denominator cannot cancel out with factors in the numerator.

𝐇𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐕𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐀𝐬𝐲𝐦𝐩𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐬

(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2) The functions 𝑓

𝑓(𝑥) = The functions 𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1) and 𝑔 both have a
𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: and 𝑔 both have 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) vert. asymptote
𝑔(𝑥) = a hole at 𝑥 = 1. 𝑔(𝑥) =
2(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1) at 𝑥 = 1

𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡: 𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡:

The graph above has a vertical asymptote

The graph above has a hole at 𝑥 = 1
at 𝑥 = 1

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞

→ → → →

𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐬: Topics 1.9 − 1.10 Rational Functions: Vertical Asymptotes and Holes Created by Bryan Passwater
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟏: For each function below, determine the 𝑥 values of any holes or vertical asymptotes.
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) 1
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = b) 𝑦 = c) 𝑔(𝑥) =
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 5) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 4𝑥

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟐: Write a left and a right limit statement as 𝑥 approaches 2 for each of the following functions.

(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 4) (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 2)

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = b) 𝑔(𝑥) = c) ℎ(𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 1)

Left: Left: Left:

Right: Right: Right:

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟑: Write an equation of a rational function with the following limit properties.
a) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 b) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4
→ → → →

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞

→ → → →

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟒: Sketch a picture of a rational function that has the following properties.
a) 𝑓(𝑥) has a hole at 𝑥 = 1 b) 𝑔(𝑥) has holes at 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 3
As 𝑥 approaches 4 from the left, As 𝑥 approaches − 1 from the left,
𝑓(𝑥) increases without bound. 𝑔(𝑥) decreases without bound.
As 𝑥 approaches 4 from the right, As 𝑥 approaches − 1 from the right,
𝑓(𝑥) decreases without bound. 𝑔(𝑥) decreases without bound.

𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐬: Topics 1.9 − 1.10 Rational Functions: Vertical Asymptotes and Holes Created by Bryan Passwater
Worksheet A: (Topics 1.9 – 1.10) Vertical Asymptotes and Holes Name:
Directions: For each of the following rational functions, determine and label any values of x where the graph has a hole
or vertical asymptote.

1. f ( x ) =
( x − 1)( x − 5) 2. g ( x ) =
( x + 3)( x − 1) 3. h ( x ) =
( x + 4 )( x − 6 )
( x − 5)( x + 2 ) ( x − 3)( x + 1) ( x − 6 )( x − 6 )

( x − 8)( x + 2 )
2
x2 + x − 6 x2 − 1
4. k ( x) = 5. r ( x ) = 6. p ( x ) =
x ( x − 1)( x + 2 ) x3 − 4 x x2 + 1

Directions: For each of the following, write the left and right limit statements for f ( x ) as x approaches 3.

7. f ( x ) =
( x + 2 )( x − 6 ) 8. f ( x ) =
( x − 3)( x + 3) 9. f ( x ) =
−2
x −3 x ( x − 3) ( x − 3)
2

Left: Left: Left:

Right: Right: Right:

Directions: Write an equation of a rational function that has the following properties.

10. The graph of f has a hole at x = 3 and vertical asymptotes at x = 1 and x = −4 .

11. The graph of g has a hole at x = −1 , a vertical asymptote at x = 7 , and a zero at x = −2 .

12. The graph of h has a hole at x = 2 and x = 5 , a vertical asymptote at x = 0 , and a zero at x = 1 .

𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐭 𝐀: Topics 1.9 − 1.10 Rational Functions: VA and Holes Created by Bryan Passwater
Worksheet B: (Topics 1.9 – 1.10) AP Style MCQ- VA and Holes Name:

Graph of f
Directions: The rational function f is shown above and has a vertical asymptote at x = 4 , a hole at x = 6 , and a
horizontal asymptote of y = 5 . Use the graph of f to answer the following questions.

1. Which of the following limit statements about f is correct?

(A) lim f ( x ) = 4 (B) lim f ( x ) = 4 (C) lim- f ( x ) = ¥ (D) lim+ f ( x ) = ¥
x ®-¥ x ®¥ x ®4 x ®4

2. Which of the following limit statements about f is correct?

(A) lim- f ( x ) = 6 (B) lim+ f ( x ) = 6 (C) lim- f ( x ) = 5 (D) lim+ f ( x ) = 4
x ®4 x ®4 x ®6 x ®6

3. Which of the following limit statements about f is correct?

(A) lim f ( x ) = -¥ (B) lim f ( x ) = ¥ (C) lim f ( x ) = 5 (D) lim f ( x ) = 4
x ®5 x ®5 x ®-¥ x ®¥

4. Which of the following could be the equation for f ( x ) ?

(A) f ( x ) = -
( 5 x - 22 )( x - 6 ) (B) f ( x ) =
( 5 x - 22 )( x - 6 )
( x - 6 )( x - 4 ) ( x - 6 )( x - 4 )

(C) f ( x ) = -
( 5 x - 22 )( x - 4 ) (D) f ( x ) = -
( x - 6 )( x - 4 )
( x - 6 )( x - 4 ) ( 5 x - 22 )( x - 6 )

������ : Topics 1.9 − 1.10 AP Style MCQ: VA and Holes Created by Bryan Passwater
 Graph of g
5. The graph of the rational function g is shown above and has vertical asymptote at x = 3 , a hole at x = 5 , a zero at
x = 1 , and a horizontal asymptote of y = 1. Which of the following could be an expression for g ( x ) ?

(A)
( x - 3)( x - 5) (B)
( x - 1)( x - 5)
( x - 5)( x - 1) ( x - 5)( x - 3)

(C)
( x - 3)( x - 1) (D)
( x - 3)( x - 5)
( x - 5)( x - 3) ( x - 3)( x - 1)

6. Let h be a rational function whose graph has a hole at x = -4 and a vertical asymptote at x = −5 . Which of the
following could be an equation for h ( x ) ?

(A) h ( x ) =
( x + 4 )( x + 5 ) (B) h ( x ) =
( x - 2 )( x + 5)
( x + 4 )( x - 2 ) ( x + 4 )( x + 5)
( x + 4 ) ( x + 5) ( x + 4 )( x + 5 )
2 2

(C) h ( x) = (D) h ( x) =
( x + 4 )( x + 5 ) ( x + 4 ) ( x + 5)
2 2

7. The graph of k ( x ) =
( x - 1)( x + 3) has
( x + 3)( x - 2 )
(A) a vertical asymptote at x = 2 and a hole at x = -3 .
(B) a vertical asymptote at x = -3 and a hole at x = 2 .
(C) a vertical asymptote at x = 1 and a hole at x = -3 .
(D) a vertical asymptote at x = 2 and a hole at x = 1 .

������ : Topics 1.9 − 1.10 AP Style MCQ: VA and Holes Created by Bryan Passwater
8. The polynomial function f ( x ) has a zero at x = 1 with a multiplicity of two. The polynomial function g ( x ) has a
zero at x = 1 with a multiplicity of three, and the polynomial function h ( x ) has a zero at x = 1 with a multiplicity of
one. Which of the following rational functions has a hole at x = 1 ?

f ( x) h ( x) h ( x) g ( x)
(A) y = (B) y = (C) y = (D) y =
g ( x) g ( x) f ( x) f ( x)

9. Let r be a rational function with the following properties

lim r ( x ) = −5 lim r ( x ) = − ∞ lim r ( x ) = -1

x→4− x→2+ x ®¥

Which of the following could be an expression for r ( x ) ?

(A)
( x + 1)( x - 2 )
( x - 4 )( x - 2 )

(B)
( x + 1)( x - 4 )
( x - 4 )( x - 2 )

(C) -
( x + 6 )( x - 4 )
( x - 4 )( x - 2 )
5 ( x + 1)( x - 4 )
(D) -
( x - 4 )( x - 2 )

( x - 2 ) ( x + 3)( x - 5)
2 6

10. Which of the following statements about the graph of the rational function y= is correct?
( x - 2 ) ( x + 3)( x - 5)
3 2

(A) The graph has three vertical asymptotes and no holes.

(B) The graph has two vertical asymptotes and one hole.
(C) The graph has one vertical asymptote and two holes.
(D) The graph has no vertical asymptotes and three holes.

������ : Topics 1.9 − 1.10 AP Style MCQ: VA and Holes Created by Bryan Passwater
Notes: (Topic 1.11) Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions

f ( x)
Recall: Let h ( x ) = . If g ( c ) = 0 then h ( x ) has a vertical asymptote or a hole at x = c .
g ( x)

x2 − 4
Example 1: Let h ( x ) = . Write an equation for h ( x ) in factored form and find any values of x where
x 2 + 7 x + 10
h ( x ) has a hole or a vertical asymptote.

Factored form: h ( x ) =

Hole:

Vertical asymptote:

Example 2: Find the domain of h ( x ) from Example 1.

x 2 − x − 12
Example 3: Let k ( x ) = .
x3 + x 2 − 20 x

a) Write an equation for k ( x ) in factored form: _____________________________

b) Find any zeros of the function k ( x ) : _____________________________

c) Find any values of x where k ( x ) has a hole:_____________________________

d) Find any vertical asymptotes of k ( x ) : _____________________________

e) Find any horizontal asymptotes of k ( x ) : _____________________________

f) Find the domain of k ( x ) : _____________________________

g) Use a graphing calculator to help sketch the graph of k ( x ) .

Notes: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
Example 4: The graph of the rational function f ( x ) is shown above. Write an equation, in factored form, for f ( x ) .

Example 5: The graph of the rational function g ( x ) is shown above. Write an equation, in factored form, for g ( x ) .

Notes: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
Recall: Given a rational function, if the degree of the numerator is one greater than the degree of the denominator, then
the rational function has a slant asymptote.

x3 − 4 x x ( x − 2 )( x + 2 )
The function k ( x ) = = , graphed above, has a hole at x = 2 and a vertical asymptote of
x −x−2
2
( x − 2 )( x + 1)
x = −1 . The graph of k ( x ) does not have a horizontal asymptote, but k ( x ) does have the slant asymptote y = x + 1 .

Since the degree of the numerator (3) is one greater than the degree of the denominator (2), we knew that k ( x ) would
have a slant asymptote. To find the equation of a slant asymptote, we will use long division.

Long Division
𝑓(𝑥)
If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are polynomials, then = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥),
𝑔(𝑥)
where 𝑞 is the quotient, 𝑟 is the remainder, and the degree of 𝑟 is less than the degree of 𝑔.

Notes: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
 6x2 + x + 5
Example 6: Let h ( x ) = . Use long division to find an equation for the slant asymptote of h ( x ) .
2x +1

x3 + 4 x 2 − 12 x
Example 7: Let g ( x ) = . Find the equations for any asymptotes to the graph of g ( x ) .
x2 + 7 x + 6
Factored Form: ____________________________
Vertical Asymptotes: _______________________
Horizontal Asymptotes: _____________________
Slant Asymptotes: __________________________

2 x ( x + 4 )( x − 1)
Example 8: Let d ( x ) = . Which of the following about the graph of d ( x ) is correct?
x2 − 2x + 1
a) The graph of d ( x ) has one horizontal asymptote, one hole, and one vertical asymptote.
b) The graph of d ( x ) has one horizontal asymptote and two vertical asymptotes.
c) The graph of d ( x ) has one slant asymptote, one hole, and one vertical asymptote.
d) The graph of d ( x ) has one slant asymptote no holes, and one vertical asymptote.

Example 9: Sketch a picture of the rational function f ( x ) with the following properties:

1. lim f ( x ) = − 2. lim f ( x ) =  3. lim− f ( x ) = − 4. lim+ f ( x ) = −

x → x →− x →−1 x →−1

Notes: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
Pascal’s Triangle and the Binomial Theorem
Expanding expressions of the form ( a + b ) can be tedious. Let’s expand the expressions ( x + 3) and ( x + 3) .
n 2 3

( x + 3) = ( x + 3)( x + 3) =
2

( x + 3) = ( x + 3)( x + 3) =
3 2

What if we wanted to expand the expression ( x + 3) ? As you can imagine, this would be very tedious and time-
7

consuming using the method from above. Fortunately, there is a great mathematical property and tool to make this
process much easier for us!

The Binomial Theorem

n  n n  n  1 n −1  n  n
( a + b)
n
=   a n +   a n −1b1 +   a n −2b 2 + ... +  a b +  b
0 1  2  n − 1  n

At first glance, the binomial theorem may look intimidating and complicated. But, in reality, it is easy to use and
understand if you can remember a few important details:

1. When expanding a binomial expression, the “ a ” begins with degree n and “ b ” term begins with a degree of 0.

2. As we expand the binomial expression, the degree of “ a ” decreases by one each term while the degree of “ b ”
increases by one each term (until the “ b ” term has degree n ).

n n n

3. We can use Pascal’s Triangle to find the values of the coefficients   ,   ,   , ... in our expansion.
0 1 2

n
Note: The value of   corresponds with the 𝑟th element of the 𝑛th row in Pascal’s triangle.
r
The first number in each row is the 0th element of that row!

Notes: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
In the Pascal’s triangle above, the 5 th Row is circled. In the 5th row, the (first) number 10 has also been circled. The
5
circled 10 is the 2nd element of row 5 and   = 10 .
 2

n n n!
The notation r represents a “combination”, where  = .
   r  r !( n − r )!
You will NOT need to know this formula for the AP Precalculus Exam!
n
Additional notation:   = n Cr = C ( n, r )
r

Example 10: Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand ( x + 2 ) .

5

( x + 2)
5
=

Example 11: Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand ( 2 x − 1) .

4

Example 12: What is the coefficient of the term containing x when the expression ( x + 5 ) is expanded?
4 6

Example 13: What is the coefficient of the term containing x 3 when the expression ( x − 3) is expanded?
8

Notes: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
Worksheet A: (Topic 1.11) Polynomial and Rational Functions Name:
Directions: For each rational function below, use an equivalent representation to find the information requested.

x 2 + x − 12
1. f ( x ) =
x2 − 2x − 3
a) Write an equation for f ( x ) in b) Find any zeros of the function c) Find any values of x where
factored form. f ( x) . f ( x ) has a hole.

d) Find any vertical asymptotes of e) Find any horizontal asymptotes f) Find the domain of f ( x ) .
f ( x) . of f ( x ) .

g) Use a graphing calculator to help

sketch the graph of f ( x ) .

x3 − 9 x
2. g ( x ) =
x 2 + 2 x − 15

a) Write an equation for g ( x ) in b) Find any zeros of the function c) Find any values of x where g ( x )
factored form. g ( x) . has a hole.

d) Find any vertical asymptotes of e) Find any horizontal asymptotes of f) Find the domain of g ( x ) .
g ( x) . g ( x) .

Worksheet A: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
 𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝒓(𝒙)
3. A portion of the graph of the rational function 𝑟 is shown above. Write an equation, in factored form, for 𝑟(𝑥).

𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝒉(𝒙)
4. A portion of the graph of the rational function ℎ is shown above. Write an equation, in factored form, for ℎ(𝑥).

Worksheet A: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
Worksheet B: (Topic 1.11) Polynomial and Rational Functions Name:
Directions: Determine if the following rational functions have a horizontal asymptote, a slant asymptote, or neither.

2 x 2 − 3x + 5 2 x2 + 4 x + 7 x3 − 2 x + 5
1. f ( x ) = 2. r ( x ) = 3. h ( x ) =
5x2 − 6 6 − 5x 3x − 4

( x − 2 ) (3x 2 + 2 )
2
x 4 − 3x 2 + x − 9 x2 − x − 1
4. k ( x ) = 5. g ( x ) = 3 6. y=
2 x3 − x + 7 x + x2 − 2 x ( x + 1)( x − 5 )

Directions: For each rational function below, use long division to find the equation of the slant asymptote.

x2 − 6x + 7 2x2 − x + 4
7. f ( x ) = 8. g ( x ) =
x −1 x+3

x3 − 4 x 2 + 3x −1 2 x3 − x 2 + 1
9. h ( x ) = 10. k ( x ) =
x2 − 2 x + 5 x2 + x + 1

Worksheet B: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
Review A: (Topics 1.7 – 1.11) Rational Functions Name:
Directions: For each of the following rational functions, write limit statements to describe the left and right end
behaviors.

1. 2.

𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝒈(𝒙)

Left: ___________________ Left: __________________

Right: __________________ Right: _________________

2𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1 2𝑥(𝑥 − 3)
3. ℎ(𝑥) = 4. 𝑘(𝑥) =
3𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 7 (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 1)

Left: ___________________ Left: __________________

Right: __________________ Right: _________________

−2𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1 3(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 5)
5. 𝑟(𝑥) = 6. 𝑚(𝑥) =
5𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 3 (2𝑥 + 3)

Left: ___________________ Left: __________________

Right: __________________ Right: _________________

𝐑𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐞𝐰 𝐀: Topics 1.7 − 1.11 Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

Directions: Write a limit statement describing the output values for the following graphs and verbal descriptions of the
input values.

7. The input values decrease without bound 8. The input values increase without bound

𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝒈(𝒙)

7. Limit Statement: _______________ 8. Limit Statement: _______________

Directions: The graphs of the functions ℎ and 𝑘 are given below. Use the graphs to find the following limits.

𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝒉(𝒙) 𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝒌(𝒙)

9. lim ℎ(𝑥) = 10. lim ℎ(𝑥) = 13. lim 𝑘(𝑥) = 14. lim 𝑘(𝑥) =
→ → → →

11. lim ℎ(𝑥) = 12. lim ℎ(𝑥) = 15. lim 𝑘(𝑥) = 16. lim 𝑘(𝑥) =
→ → → →

𝐑𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐞𝐰 𝐀: Topics 1.7 − 1.11 Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

Directions: For each of the following, write the left and right limit statements for 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 1.
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 5) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4) −2(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1)
17. 𝑓(𝑥) = 18. 𝑓(𝑥) = 19. 𝑓(𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 1)

Left: Left: Left:

Right: Right: Right:

Directions: For each of the following rational functions, determine and label any values of x where the graph has a hole
or vertical asymptote.

(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 + 7)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 −𝑥
20. 𝑦 = 21. 𝑘(𝑥) = 22. 𝑟(𝑥) =
(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1

Directions: Solve the following inequalities. Write your answers using interal notation.

𝑥−3 (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 2)
23. ≤0 24. >0
𝑥+2 (𝑥 + 1)

𝑥 − 𝑥 − 12 −2𝑥(𝑥 − 3)
25. ≥0 26. <0
𝑥 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4)

𝐑𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐞𝐰 𝐀: Topics 1.7 − 1.11 Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

Review B: (Topics 1.7 – 1.11) Rational Functions

Directions: Determine if the following rational functions have a horizontal asymptote, slant asymptote, or neither.

2 x 2 - 3x + 1 x2 + x - 5 x3 + 4 x 2 + 5x - 6
1. f ( x ) = 2. g ( x ) = 3. h ( x ) =
x3 + 1 3x 2 - 2 x + 1 3x 2 - 7

4. k ( x ) =
-2 x 4 + 3x3 + 8 5. r ( x ) =
( 2 x + 1)( 3 x - 4 ) ( x - 1) ( 2 x + 3)
3 2

6. y =
x 2 - 6 x - 11 ( x + 3)( x - 1) ( x - 2) ( x + 4)
2 5

6
( x - 1) (x + 1)
4 2 2
9. y =
7. y= 8. y = x+3
-3x ( x - 8 )
2
5x2 ( x + 2 )

Directions: Solve the following inequalities. Write your answers in interval notation.

10.
x-2 ( x + 1) > 0
2
£0 11.
x+3
( x - 3)( x + 5)

-3 x ( x - 7 ) x 2 + 3x - 28
12. ³0 13. <0
( x + 2)
2
x2 - 9x

Review B: Topics 1.7 – 1.11 Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

Solutions by Ted Gott [email protected]
Directions: For each of the following rational functions, identify and label any values of x where the function has a hole
or vertical asymptote.

3x ( x - 6 )( x + 4 ) ( x - 3)( x + 2) ( x - 7 ) ( x + 1)
2
14. f ( x ) = 15. g ( x ) = 16. h ( x) =
( x - 1)( x + 4 ) ( x - 3) ( x - 8 )
2
2x ( x - 7)

x 2 - 4 x - 12 x2 - 9 ( x + 3) ( x - 5 )
5 3
17. k ( x ) = 18. r ( x ) = 19. y=
x 2 - 12 x + 36 x3 + x 2 - 6 x ( x + 3) ( x - 5 )
3 5

Review B: Topics 1.7 – 1.11 Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

Solutions by Ted Gott [email protected]
Directions: Write the equation of the horizontal or slant asymptote for each of the following rational functions.

x 2 + 4 x - 11 4 x3 + 13 4 x 2 - 3x + 5
20. f ( x ) = 21. g ( x ) = 22. h ( x ) =
3x 2 - 2 x + 3 2 x 4 - x3 - 9 x+2

x3 - 2 x 2 + 4 x - 1 2 x ( x - 4 )( x + 3) -3 x 2 ( x + 4 )
2
23. k ( x ) = 24. y = 25. y =
( x - 7)
3
x2 + x + 3 ( x + 1) ( x - 1)
2 3

Review B: Topics 1.7 – 1.11 Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

Solutions by Ted Gott [email protected]
 ����� � ( )

26. The graph of the rational function f is shown above. Which of the following could be an expression for f ( x )?

(A)
( x + 1)( x - 2 )
( x - 2 )( x - 5)

(B)
( x + 1)( x - 5)
( x - 2 )( x - 5)

(C)
( x - 1)( x + 5 )
( x + 2 )( x + 5 )

(D)
( x + 1)( x - 5)
( x - 1)( x - 2 )

27. The graph of the rational function k has a hole at x = 3 and a vertical asymptote at x = -2 . Which of the following
could be k ?

(A) k ( x ) =
( x - 3)( x - 2 )
( x - 3)( x + 2 )

(B) k ( x ) =
( x - 2 )( x + 2 )
( x - 3)( x + 2 )

(C) k ( x ) =
( x - 3)( x + 2 )
( x - 3)( x - 2 )

(D) k ( x ) =
( x - 3)( x + 2 )
( x - 2 )( x + 2 )
Review B: Topics 1.7 – 1.11 Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
Solutions by Ted Gott [email protected]
 ( x - 2 ) ( x + 1) .
3 2

28. Let g ( x) = Which of the following statements about g is correct?

( x - 2 ) ( x + 1)
2 4

(A) The graph of g has a vertical asymptote at x = 2 and a horizontal asymptote of y = 1.

(B) The graph of g has a vertical asymptote at x = -1 and a horizontal asymptote of y = 2 .

(C) The graph of g has a vertical asymptote at x = 2 and a horizontal asymptote of y = -1.

(D) The graph of g has a vertical asymptote at x = -1 and a horizontal asymptote of y = 0.

( x - 2)
5
- x5
29. Let h ( x ) = . Which of the following statements about the graph of h is correct?
3x 4

(A) The graph of h has a horizontal asymptote of y = .

1
3
5
(B) The graph of h has a horizontal asymptote of y = .
3

(C) The graph of h has a horizontal asymptote of y = - .

2
3
10
(D) The graph of h has a horizontal asymptote of y = - .
3
(E) The graph of h does not have a horizontal asymptote.

x2 + x - 6
30. Let r ( x ) = . Which of the following values of x are zeros on the graph of r ?
x3 - 5 x 2 + 6 x
(A) x = 2 only

(B) x = -3 only

(C) x = 0 and x = 3 only

(D) x = 0, x = 2, and x = 3

Review B: Topics 1.7 – 1.11 Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

Solutions by Ted Gott [email protected]
Notes: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions

Transformations of Functions
Transformation Geometric Result Example

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑘 𝑓 has a vertical translation of 𝑘 units

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 2

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) 𝑓 has a horizontal translation of −ℎ units

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 2)

𝑓 has a vertical dilation by a factor of |𝑎 |

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑓(𝑥)
Note: If 𝑎 < 0, 𝑓 is reflected over the 𝑥-axis.

𝑔(𝑥) = −2𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓 has a horizontal dilation by a factor of

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏𝑥)
Note: If 𝑏 < 0, 𝑓 is reflected over the 𝑦-axis.

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥)

Notes: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

The graph of 𝑓 is shown in the figure above. Use the graph of 𝑓 to answer the following.

Example 1: Find the domain and range of the function f ( x ) .

Domain: ______________ Range: ________________

Example 2: Let 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑓(𝑥 − 1) + 3.

a) Find the domain and range of 𝑔.

Domain: ______________ Range: ________________

b) The point ( 4, 2 ) on f ( x ) transforms to which point on the graph of g ( x ) ?

c) Find 𝑔(0).

d) How many solutions does the equation 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 have? Explain your reasoning.

e) On what intervals is g ( x ) increasing?

Notes: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

Example 3: Let ℎ(𝑥) = −2𝑓(𝑥 + 3) − 1.
a) Find the domain and range of ℎ.

Domain: ______________ Range: ________________

a) On what intervals is the graph of ℎ concave up?

b) On what intervals is ℎ increasing?

c) Find any solutions to the equation ℎ(𝑥) = 5.

𝑥 0 1 2 4 8 𝑥 0 1 2 4 8

𝑚(𝑥) 3 5 −12 𝑛(𝑥) −4 0 13

Example 4: The partially completed tables of values above represent the functions m ( x ) and n ( x ) , where
n ( x ) = −3m ( 2 x ) + 5 . Find the missing values in the tables above.

Notes: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

More Fun with Transformations

𝑓(𝑥) = −2(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 − 1)

The function 𝑓 is given above. Use the function 𝑓 to answer the following problems.

Example 5: Let 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥)

a) Find the zeros of 𝑔(𝑥).

b) On what intervals is 𝑔 < 0?

Example 6: Let ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑓(3𝑥).

a) Find ℎ(1).

b) On what intervals is ℎ ≥ 0?

c) What is the 𝑦-intercept of ℎ?

(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)
𝑟(𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4)
The rational function 𝑟 is given above. Use the function 𝑟 to answer the following problems.

Example 7: Let 𝑘(𝑥) = −4𝑟 −

a) Identify any 𝑥-values where the graph of 𝑘 has a vertical asymptote or a hole.

b) For which values of 𝑥 is 𝑘(𝑥) ≥ 0?

Notes: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

 𝑥 −2 0 2 4 6

𝑝(𝑥) 1 −1 0 3 7

The function 𝑝 is a cubic polynomial with selected values given in the table above.
Example 8: Let 𝑚(𝑥) = −3𝑝(𝑥 + 4)
a) Describe the transformations of 𝑝 that lead to the function 𝑚.

b) Name an 𝑥-value where the graph of 𝑚(𝑥) has a zero.

c) Find the average rate of change of 𝑚(𝑥) over the interval [0, 2].

d) Find the domain and range of 𝑚(𝑥).

e) For which 𝑥-value does 𝑚(𝑥) = 3?

The domain and range of the function 𝑛(𝑥) are [−6, 9] and [−8, 10), respectively. Additionally, 𝑛 is increasing on the
intervals [−6, 1] and [5, 9) and decreasing on the interval [1, 5].

Example 9: Let 𝑞(𝑥) = 4 − 2𝑛(5 − 𝑥).

a) Find the domain and range of 𝑞(𝑥).

b) On what intervals is 𝑞 increasing and decreasing?

Notes: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

Worksheet A: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Name:

1. Let 𝑔 be a function that is a transformation of the function 𝑓 such that 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥 + 2) + 5. Describe the
transformations of the function 𝑓 that result with the function 𝑔.

2. Let 𝑘 be a function that is a transformation of the function ℎ such that 𝑘(𝑥) = 4ℎ − 1. Describe the
transformations of the function ℎ that result with the function 𝑘.

3. Let 𝑟 be a function that is a transformation of the function 𝑝 such that 𝑟(𝑥) = −3𝑝(4𝑥). Describe the transformations
of the function 𝑝 that result with the function 𝑟.

4. Let 𝑛 be a function that is a transformation of the function 𝑚 such that 𝑛(𝑥) = 5 − 𝑚(−𝑥). Describe the
transformations of the function 𝑚 that result with the function 𝑛.

Directions: The table below gives values for a function 𝑓 at selected values of 𝑥. Use the table to answer 5 – 6.

𝑥 −20 −10 −5 0 2 4 6

𝑓 (𝑥 ) 8 −3 2 6 −4 −1 9

5. Let 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2𝑓 − 3. Find the following values.

(a) 𝑔(−10) (b) 𝑔(0)

6. Let ℎ(𝑥) = 4 − 𝑓 (𝑥 − 2). Find the following values.

(a) ℎ(2) (b) ℎ(4)

Worksheet A: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

7. The function 𝑘 is constructed by applying three transformations to the graph of ℎ in this order: a horizontal dilation by
a factor of 4, a vertical dilation by a factor of , and a vertical translation by 3 units. If 𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑎ℎ(𝑏𝑥) + 𝑐, find the
values of 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐.

Graph of 𝑓
8. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥), consisting of two line segments and a semicircle, is shown for −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3. Sketch a graph of
𝑔 on the same axes above where 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 − 2).

Graph of 𝑓
9. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥), consisting of two line segments and a semicircle, is shown for −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3. Sketch a graph of
ℎ on the same axes above where ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑓(𝑥 + 1).

Worksheet A: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

 Graph of 𝑓
10. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), consisting of two line segments and a semicircle, is shown for −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3. Sketch a graph
of 𝑘 on the same axes above where 𝑘 (𝑥) = −2𝑓 (𝑥) + 1.

Graph of 𝑓
11. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), consisting of two line segments and a semicircle, is shown for −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3. Sketch a graph
of 𝑝 on the same axes above where 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑓 (−𝑥).

Worksheet A: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

 Graph of 𝑓
12. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), consisting of two line segments and a semicircle, is shown for −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3. Sketch a graph
of 𝑚 on the same axes above where 𝑚(𝑥) = 𝑓 (2𝑥 ).

13. The domain of a function ℎ is −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7 and the range of ℎ is −6 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 0. Find the domain and range of 𝑔,
where 𝑔(𝑥) = 3ℎ(𝑥 − 2).

14. The domain of a function 𝑘 is 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 14 and the range of 𝑘 is −3 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2. Find the domain and range of 𝑟, where
𝑟(𝑥) = −2𝑘(2𝑥).

15. The domain of a function 𝑓 is −6 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 and the range of 𝑓 is −10 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 3. Find the domain and range of 𝑝,
where 𝑝(𝑥) = 5 − 3𝑓 2(𝑥 + 1) .

Worksheet A: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

Worksheet B: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Name:

1. Let 𝑘 be a function that is a transformation of the function ℎ such that 𝑘 (𝑥 ) = 2ℎ(3𝑥). Describe the transformations
of the function ℎ that result with the function 𝑘.

2. Let 𝑓 be a function that is a transformation of the function 𝑔 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥 − 2) + 4. Describe the
transformations of the function 𝑔 that result with the function 𝑓.

3. Let 𝑝 be a function that is a transformation of the function 𝑚 such that 𝑝(𝑥) = −𝑚 − 3. Describe the
transformations of the function 𝑚 that result with the function 𝑝.

4. Let 𝑟 be a function that is a transformation of the function 𝑛 such that 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑛(−𝑥) + 1. Describe the
transformations of the function 𝑛 that result with the function 𝑟.

5. The function ℎ is constructed by applying three transformations to the graph of 𝑓 in this order: a horizontal dilation by
a factor of , a vertical dilation by a factor of 5, and a vertical translation by −7 units. If ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑓(𝑏𝑥) + 𝑐, find the
values of 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐.

6. The function 𝑘 is constructed by applying three transformations to the graph of 𝑚 in this order: a horizontal dilation
by a factor of 3, a vertical dilation by a factor of , and a vertical translation by 8 units. If 𝑘 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑚(𝑏𝑥) + 𝑐, find the
values of 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐.

7. The function 𝑝 is constructed by applying three transformations to the graph of 𝑔 in this order: a vertical dilation by a
factor of 2, a reflection over the 𝑥-axis, and a horizontal translation by 4 units. If 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑐), find the values of
𝑎 and 𝑐.

Worksheet B: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

 Graph of 𝑓
8. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), consisting of two line segments and a semicircle, is shown for −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4. Which of the
following is the transformed graph for 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 1) + 2?
(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Worksheet B: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

 Graph of 𝑓
9. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), consisting of two line segments and a semicircle, is shown for −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4. Which of the
following is the transformed graph for 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥 + 2)?
(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Worksheet B: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

10. The function 𝑔 is constructed by applying three transformations to the graph of 𝑓 in this order: a horizontal dilation
by a factor of 4, a vertical dilation by a factor of 3, and a vertical translation by −7 units. Which of the following
equations relating 𝑔 and 𝑓 is correct?
(A) 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 4𝑓 (3𝑥) − 7
(B) 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑓(4𝑥) − 7
𝑥
(C) 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑓 −7
4
𝑥
(D) 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑓 +7
4

11. The function 𝑘 is constructed by applying three transformations to the graph of ℎ in this order: a horizontal dilation
by a factor of , a vertical dilation by a factor of 2, and a vertical translation by 4 units. Which of the following equations
relating 𝑘 and ℎ is correct?
1 𝑥
(A) 𝑘(𝑥) = ℎ +4
2 3
1
(B) 𝑘(𝑥) = ℎ(3𝑥) + 4
2
𝑥
(C) 𝑘(𝑥) = 2ℎ +4
3
(D) 𝑘(𝑥) = 2ℎ(3𝑥) + 4

12. The function 𝑝 is constructed by applying three transformations to the graph of 𝑚 in this order: a vertical dilation by
a factor of 5, a reflection over the 𝑥-axis , and a horizontal translation by −2 units. Which of the following equations
relating 𝑝 and 𝑚 is correct?
(A) 𝑝(𝑥 ) = 5𝑚 −(𝑥 + 2)
(B) 𝑝(𝑥) = −5𝑚(𝑥 − 2)
(C) 𝑝(𝑥) = −5𝑚(𝑥 + 2)
(D) 𝑝(𝑥) = 5𝑚 −(𝑥 − 2)

Worksheet B: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

Worksheet C: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Name:

����� � ����� �
1. The graph of = ( ), consisting of three line segments, is shown above for −3 ≤ ≤ 3. The graph of = ( ) is
the result of transforming the graph of . Which of the following gives the transformation from to ?
(A) ( ) = ( − 2) − 1
(B) ( ) = ( + 2) − 1
(C) ( ) = ( − 2) + 1
(D) ( ) = ( + 2) + 1

����� � ����� �
2. The graph of = ( ), consisting of three line segments, is shown above for −3 ≤ ≤ 3. The graph of = ( ) is
the result of transforming the graph of . Which of the following gives the transformation from to ?
(A) ( ) = (− )
(B) ( )=− ( )
(C) ( ) = ( − 1)
(D) ( ) = ( )−1

Worksheet C: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

 −2 0 1 3 −5 −3 −2 0

( ) 4 −3 −1 2 ( ) 6 −1 1 4

3. The tables above give values of and at selected values of . The graph of = ( ) is the result of transforming
the graph of . Which of the following could be the transformation from to ?

(A) ( ) = ( − 3) − 2
(B) ( ) = ( − 3) + 2
(C) ( ) = ( + 3) − 2
(D) ( ) = ( + 3) + 2

−3 0 2 4 3 0 −2 −4

( ) 1 5 0 −2 ( ) 2 10 0 −4

4. The tables above give values of and at selected values of . The graph of = ( ) is the result of transforming
the graph of . Which of the following could be the transformation from to ?
1
(A) ( ) = (− ) (B) ( ) = ( − 6) + 1 (C) ( ) = −2 ( ) (D) ( ) = 2 (− )
2

−2 0 2 4 −1 0 1 2

( ) 3 −4 2 0 ( ) 6 −8 4 0

5. The tables above give values of and at selected values of . The graph of = ( ) is the result of transforming
the graph of . Which of the following could be the transformation from to ?
1 1
(A) ( ) = (B) ( ) = (2 ) (C) ( ) = 2 (D) ( ) = 2 (2 )
2 2 2 2

Worksheet C: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

Directions: Use the information below for problems 6 – 9.

The function = ( ) has domain −4 ≤ ≤ 6 and range 0 ≤ ≤ 10.

6. The graph of = ( ) is the result of the transformation ( ) = 2 ( − 3) + 1. Which of the following gives the
domain of ( )?

(A) −7 ≤ ≤3 (B) −1 ≤ ≤9 (C) −3 ≤ ≤7 (D) −7 ≤ ≤ 13

7. The graph of = ( ) is the result of the transformation ( ) = 2 ( − 3) + 1. Which of the following gives the
range of ( )?

(A) −1 ≤ ≤4 (B) −3 ≤ ≤7 (C) 1 ≤ ≤ 21 (D) 3 ≤ ≤ 13

8. The graph of = ℎ( ) is the result of the transformation ℎ( ) = −3 (2 ) − 4. Which of the following gives the
domain of ℎ( )?

(A) −22 ≤ ≤8 (B) −8 ≤ ≤ 12 (C) −2 ≤ ≤3 (D) 0 ≤ ≤5

9. The graph of = ℎ( ) is the result of the transformation ℎ( ) = −3 (2 ) − 4. Which of the following gives the
range of ℎ( )?

(A) −34 ≤ ≤ −4 (B) 0 ≤ ≤5 (C) 0 ≤ ≤ 10 (D) −4 ≤ ≤6

10. The graph of = ( ) is the result of the transformation ( ) = 4 + 1. The point (2, −3) on the graph of
maps to which of the following points on the graph of ?
(A) (1, −11) (B) (1, −8) (C) (4, −11) (D) (4, −8)

11. The graph of = ( ) is the result of the transformation ( ) = −2 ( − 3) + 4. The point (4, 1) on the graph of
maps to which of the following points on the graph of ?
(A) (−4, 4) (B) (1, 2) (C) (7, −10) (D) (7, 2)

Worksheet C: Transformations of Functions Topic 1.12 Created by Bryan Passwater

Worksheet: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Name:

� −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 8 9

�(�) 0 1 3 −5 −1 7 −3 5 2 −2 −6

Selected values of the continuous function �(�) are shown in the table above. Use the values in the table to answer the
following.

1. Let �(�) = 3�(� + 2) − 1.

(a) Find �(1). (b) Find �(−2). (c) If �(�) = −7, ind �.

2. Let ℎ(�) = 5 − �(2�).

(a) Find ℎ(2). (b) Find ℎ(0). (c) Find ℎ (4).

3. Let �(�) be the function that results from applying three transformations to the graph of � in this order:
a horizontal dilation by a factor of 3, a re lection over the � axis, and a vertical translation by − 4 units.
(a) Find �(3). (b) Find �(−6). (c) If �(�) = �(�), ind �.

4. Let �(�) = �( �) + , where , , and are positive constants. The graph of � can be constructed by
1
applying three transformations to the graph of � in this order: a horizontal dilation by a factor of , a vertical
2
1
dilation by a factor of , and a vertical translation by 3 units.
2
(a) Find �(−2). (b) Find �(4). (c) If �(�) = 0, ind �.

Worksheet: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

 � −3 −1 0 1 3 4 6 9

�(�) −4 2 3 6 1 −1 −5 −2

Selected values of the continuous function �(�) are shown in the table above. Use the values in the table to answer the
following.

5. Let ℎ(�) = −2�(� − 3) − 5.

(a) Find ℎ(0). (b) Find ℎ(3). (c) If ℎ(�) = 5, ind �.

�
6. Let (�) = 2 + � .
3
(a) Find (3). (b) Find (−3). (c) Find (4).

7. Let �(�) be the function that results from applying three transformations to the graph of � in this order:
1
a horizontal dilation by a factor of , a re lection over the axis, and a vertical translation by 1 unit.
2
1 1
(a) Find �(−2). (b) Find the average rate of change of � over the interval − , .
2 2

8. Let (�) = �( �) + , where , , and are positive constants. The graph of can be constructed by
applying three transformations to the graph of � in this order: a horizontal dilation by a factor of 3, a vertical
dilation by a factor of 4, and a vertical translation by − 5 units.
(a) Find (3). (b) Find (−9). (c) If (�) = −9, ind �.

Worksheet: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

 � −5 −2 −1 2 3 4 6 12 15

ℎ(�) 6 1 0 −3 −2 2 8 11 9

Selected values of the continuous function ℎ(�) are shown in the table above. Use the values in the table to answer the
following.

9. Let ℎ(�) = 6�(� + 2) − 3.

(a) Find �(4). (b) Find �(0). (c) If �(�) = 2, ind �.

�
10. Let ℎ(�) = −2� .
2
(a) Find �(6). (b) If �(�) = 1, ind �.

(c) Put the following in order from least to greatest: �(−1), �(1), �(2).

11. Let ℎ(�) be the function that results from applying three transformations to the graph of in this order:
1
a horizontal dilation by a factor of , a vertical dilation by a factor of 2, and a vertical translation by − 4 units.
3
(a) Find (6). (b) Find (−3).

12. Let (�) = 2ℎ(� − 3) + 1

(a) Find (−2) ∙ ℎ(6). (b) Find ℎ(−5) . (c) Find (2) .

Worksheet: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and consists of three line segments.
13. Let �(�) = −2�(� + 1). Sketch the graph of �(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and consists of three line segments.
14. Let ℎ(�) = �(2�) − 3. Sketch the graph of ℎ(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and consists of three line segments.

Worksheet: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

15. Let �(�) = 2�(� − 2) − 1. Sketch the graph of �(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and consists of three line segments.
16. Let �(�) = 1 − �(2�). Sketch the graph of �(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and consists of three line segments.
17. Let ℎ(�) = �(� − 2) + 3. Sketch the graph of ℎ(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.

Worksheet: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and consists of three line segments.
18. Let �(�) = 2�(� + 1). Sketch the graph of �(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and consists of three linear pieces and a point at (4, 3).
19. Let �(�) = 2�(� + 3) − 1. Sketch the graph of �(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and consists of three linear pieces and a point at (4, 3).
20. Let ℎ(�) = �(2� − 2) − 4. Sketch the graph of ℎ(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and consists of three linear pieces and a point at (4, 3).

Worksheet: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

21. Let �(�) be the function that results from applying three transformations to the graph of � in this order:
a vertical dilation by a factor of 2, a re lection over the axis, and a vertical translation by − 1 unit. Sketch
the graph of �(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and consists of two linear pieces, a semi-circle, and a point at (2, −1).
22. Let �(�) = −�(2�). Sketch the graph of �(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and consists of two linear pieces, a semi-circle, and a point at (2, −1).
23. Let ℎ(�) = �(−�) + 2. Sketch the graph of ℎ(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.

Worksheet: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and consists of two linear pieces, a semi-circle, and a point at (2, −1).
24. Let �(�) be the function that results from applying three transformations to the graph of � in this order:
1
a horizontal dilation by a factor of , a re lection over the � axis, and a vertical translation by 2 units. Sketch
2
the graph of �(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and has the domain [−3, 3] and the range [−5, 3].
25. Let �(�) = �(� + 2) − 1. Sketch the graph of �(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and has the domain [−3, 3] and the range [−5, 3].
�
26. Let ℎ(�) = 1 − � . Sketch the graph of ℎ(�) on the same axes as �(�) above.
2

Worksheet: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

The graph of �(�) is shown in the figure above and has the domain [−3, 3] and the range [−5, 3].
1
27. Let �(�) = −3�(2�) + 1. 28. Let �(�) = �(� + 3) − 4.
2
Find the domain and range of �(�). Find the domain and range of �(�).

29. The graph of �(�) has zeros at � = −2, 0, and 3. Find the zeros of the following functions.
1
(a) �(�) = 2�(� − 4) (b) ℎ(�) = − �(2�) (c) �(�) = −5�(3� − 2)
3

30. The graph of �(�) has the vertical asymptote � = −2 and horizontal asymptote = 3. Find the vertical and
horizontal asymptotes of the following functions.
� 1
(a) �(�) = 2�(� + 1) − 3 (b) ℎ(�) = 4 − 3� (c) �(�) = �(4 − 2�) + 3
5 2

31. The graph of �(�) is continuous where lim �(�) = 4 and lim �(�) = −∞.
→ →
(a) If �(�) = −2�(� + 7) + 5, ind lim �(�) and lim �(�).
→ →

(b) If ℎ(�) = −�(−�), ind lim ℎ(�) and lim ℎ(�).

→ →

32. The graph of �(�) has the vertical asymptote � = 5 and horizontal asymptote = −3. Find the vertical and
horizontal asymptotes of the following functions that result from transforming the graph of �.
(a) The graph of � results from applying the following transformations to graph of � in this order:
vertical dilation by a factor of 3, re lection over the � axis, re lection over the axis, and a horizontal translation
by − 3 units.

Worksheet: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

(b) The graph of ℎ results from applying the following transformations to graph of � in this order:
horizontal dilation by a factor of 2 and a horizontal translation by 4 units.

33. Let �(�) = � + 4� + 1. Write an equation of the following functions that are transformations of �(�).
(a) �(�) = 3�(�) − 7 (b) ℎ(�) = −2�(�) + 2 (c) �(�) = �(� − 2)

�
(d) �(�) = � +3 (e) �(�) = 2�(� + 1) − 5 (f) (�) = −�(−�)
2

�−1
34. Let �(�) = . Write an equation of the following functions that are transformations of �(�).
(� + 2)(� − 3)
�
(a) �(�) = �(� + 4) (b) ℎ(�) = −2� (c) �(�) = �(4 − �)
3

35. Let �(�) = 2� − 3. Write an equation of the following functions that are transformations of �(�).
(a) �(�) = �(2� − 3) + 2 (b) ℎ(�) = 4�(�) + 1

Worksheet: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

(c) �(�) results when the graph of � has a horizontal dilation by a factor of 3, followed by a horizontal translation
by − 5 units, and a vertical translation by 2 units.

Worksheet: (Topic 1.12) Transformations of Functions Created by Bryan Passwater

Notes: (Topics 1.13 – 1.14) Modeling Functions and Applications

The idea of modeling (also called regression) is a major component of the AP Precalculus curriculum and will be
revisited throughout the course. These topics will utilize the graphing calculators heavily and often include context.

In Unit 1, we will work with regression models for polynomial functions (linear, quadratic, cubic, and quartic) and for
rational functions.

Building Regression Models on the Graphing Calculator

Building a regression model on the graphing requires two steps:
1. Entering the data to be modeled
2. Selecting the regression model

Step 1: Press the “stat” button on the TI – 84 and select “1: Edit…” from the menu.

Enter the data into the lists with L1 = 𝑥 and L2 = 𝑦

Step 2: In the “stat” menu, arrow to the right to the “CALC” menu.
Select the desired regression model.

Note: There are 2 linear regression options: 4: LinReg (𝐚𝒙 + 𝐛) and 8: LinReg (𝐚 + 𝐛𝒙).
These two options are essentially equivalent – consider option 8 (AP Stats)

Use 𝐋𝟏 for Xlist: and 𝐋𝟐 for Ylist:

(𝐋𝟏 and 𝐋𝟐 are in blue above the “1” and “2” buttons: Press “2nd” and then “1” or “2”)

Tip: For Store RegEQ:, enter 𝐘𝟏. (Press “alpha” and then “trace” to select 𝐘𝟏)

Notes: Function Models and Applications Topics 1.13 – 1.14 Created by Bryan Passwater
 𝑡
4 5 6 8 12
(age in weeks)
𝑊(𝑡)
4.2 4.4 4.8 5.1 5.7
(weight in kg)

Example 1: The age (in weeks) and weight (in kilograms) of 5 randomly selected babies from a particular pediatrician’s
office are listed in the table above.

A linear regression 𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 can be used to model these data, where 𝑦 is the predicted weight of a baby (in kg) that is
𝑥 weeks old.

a) Write the equation of the linear model for these data.

Enter data in L1 and L2 Select 8: LinReg (a + b𝑥) Enter L1, L2 and Y Get regression equation

𝐋𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐑𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐌𝐨𝐝𝐞𝐥: 𝑦 =

b) Using the linear model from part a), what is the predicted weight (in kilograms) of a baby that is 10 weeks old?

Tip: You can quickly find values of

functions that are saved in Y from the
home screen on the calculator.

c) The weight of a sixth baby is 5.3 kg. Using the model from part a), what is the age (in weeks) of this baby?

Notes: Function Models and Applications Topics 1.13 – 1.14 Created by Bryan Passwater
Residuals

When we use a model to predict values, we expect our model to produce values reasonably close to the actual values, but
our models are not expected to result in exact values generally. The difference between an actual value and the value
predicted by a model is called a residual.
𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐮𝐚𝐥𝐬
Residual = Actual Value − Predicted Value
Residual = 𝑦 − 𝑦

𝑡
4 5 6 8 12
(age in weeks)
𝑊
4.2 4.4 4.8 5.1 5.7
(weight in kg)

Example 2: Using the model found in Example 1, what is the residual of the baby that is 5 weeks old? Interpret the
meaning of this value in the context of this problem.
Actual Value:
Predicted Value:
Residual:

Interpretation:

Example 3: Using the model found in Example 1, a baby that was 7.5 weeks old had a residual of −0.7 kg. What was
the actual weight (in kg) of the 7.5 week old baby?

Example 4: Sketch the residual plot for the five data points in the table.

Notes: Function Models and Applications Topics 1.13 – 1.14 Created by Bryan Passwater
Residual Plots on the TI-84
Important: To create a residual plot, you must have already entered the data and calculated the regression model.

Step 1: You will need to press the “2nd” and then the “𝒚 =” buttons to open the “statplot” menu.

Turn the plot “On” and

Choose “1: Plot1…Off”
select the first plot type.

Step 2: We need “Xlist: L1” and “Ylist: RESID”, so we need to change “Ylist:” from “L2” to “RESID”.

Arrow down to “Ylist:” and

The “Plot1” options should
press “2nd” and “stat”.
look like this:
Select “7: RESID”

Step 3: Graph the residual plot: Press “Zoom” and then “9: ZoomStat”.

“Zoom” is a great to help create Select “9: ZoomStat” when

Our residual plot:
an appropriate viewing window. working with data.

Notes: Function Models and Applications Topics 1.13 – 1.14 Created by Bryan Passwater
 𝑥 0 0.4 0.9 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.9 3.4

𝑦 5 10.6 15.4 17.1 18.0 16.5 10.2 2.8

Example 5: The table above provides data for 8 ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦).
a) Which function type best models the data in the table: linear, quadratic, cubic, or rational? Explain your answer using
characteristics from the data in the table.

b) Write the equation of the regression model for the data in the table.

x 0.3 1.6 3.2 4.7 7.1 8.8 10.3

y 0.9 3.3 4.9 5.7 6.5 7.0 7.1

Example 6: The table above provides data for 7 ordered pairs ( x, y ) .

a) (i) Using a logarithmic regression, construct a natural logarithmic function model f for y as a function of x .
Write an expression for f ( x ) in the form f ( x ) = a + b ln x , where a and b are constants.

(ii) The residual plot is provided below. What are the coordinates of the labeled point R on the residual plot?

(iii) Does the residual for the point R indicate that the model f underestimates or overestimates the value of y at
this x-value ? Use the residual value to explain your reasoning.

Notes: Function Models and Applications Topics 1.13 – 1.14 Created by Bryan Passwater
Worksheet A: (Topics 1.13 – 1.14) Modeling and Applications Name:

𝑡
0.1 0.5 0.9 1.5 1.9 2.3 2.6
(in seconds)
𝐻(𝑡)
1.4 5.7 8.4 9.6 8.4 5.6 2.5
(in meters)

1. Justin Tucker, the kicker for the Baltimore Ravens, is considered one of the greatest kickers in NFL history. On a
recent kickoff, the height of the ball, in meters, was measured for selected times. This data is shown in the table above.
a) Based on this situation and the data presented in the table, would a linear, quadratic, or cubic function be most
appropriate to model this data? Give a reason for your answer.

b) Find the appropriate regression function to model these data.

c) Using the model found in part b, what is the predicted height of the football, in meters, at time 𝑡 = 1.3 seconds?

𝑡
0 1 13.5 19 26.5 31.5 35
(months)
𝐴 (𝑡 )
87.58 124.15 164.61 185.97 152.60 122.42 90.98
(in $)

2. The price of Amazon stock fluctuates over time. On December 6, 2019, one share of Amazon stock was $87.58. The
table above gives the price of one share of Amazon stock, in dollars, for selected times 𝑡, the number of months after
December 6, 2019.
a) Based on the data presented in the table, would a linear, quadratic, or cubic function be most appropriate to model this
data? Give a reason for your answer.

b) Find the appropriate regression function to model these data.

c) Using the model found in part b, what is the predicted price of one share of Amazon stock when 𝑡 = 16 months (April
6, 2021)?

d) The actual price for one share of Amazon stock on April 6, 2021 (𝑡 = 16) was $168.61. What is the residual for this
value?

Worksheet A: Models and Applications Topics 1.13 – 1.14 Created by Bryan Passwater
 𝑡
0 1 2 3 5
(years)
𝑅 (𝑡 )
1.5 2.5 1.9 0.5 4.5
(in %)

3. The Federal Funds Rate is the targeted interest rate that commercial banks use when lending or borrowing money for
each other. This rate is set by the US Federal Reserve and had a large impact on the entire population. When the Federal
Funds Rate increases, the interest rates banks charge for personal loans, car loans, home mortgages, etc… will also
increase. The table above gives the Federal Funds Rate, in percent, for selected times 𝑡, where 𝑡 is the number of years
since 2018.

a) The data in the table can be modeled by the cubic regression function 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑. Write the equation of
this cubic regression function.

b) Based on the model found in part a, what is the predicted Federal Funds Rate for the year 2026 (𝑡 = 8)?

c) The highest Federal Fund Rate in US history was 20% in 1980. Based on this information and the answer found in
part b, do you think the cubic regression model found in part a is useful in predicting rates into the future? Explain your
reasoning.

𝑡
0 10 22 30 37
(years)
𝑁(𝑡)
12.4 21.8 20.4 19.3 22.6
(in quadrillion BTUs)

4. The function 𝑁 represents the total natural gas consumption in the United States, in quadrillions of BTUs, in a given
year. The table above gives values of 𝑁 for selected values of 𝑡, measured in years since 1960.

a) The data in the table can be modeled by the cubic regression function 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑. Write the equation of
this cubic regression function.

b) Based on the model found in part a, what was the predicted natural gas consumption for the US, in quadrillions of
BTUs, for the year 1967 (𝑡 = 7)?

Worksheet A: Models and Applications Topics 1.13 – 1.14 Created by Bryan Passwater
 𝑡
0 4 7 13 17 22 25
(years)
𝐹 (𝑡)
23 28 30.5 36 42 47 50
(in %)

5. In 1988, only 24% of primary care doctors in the UK were women. Since that time, the percentage of female primary
care doctors has consistently been increasing. The function 𝐹 represents the percent of primary care doctors that were
women in a given year, where 𝑡 = 0 represents the year 1988. The table above gives values for 𝐹 at selected values of 𝑡.
The function 𝐹 can be modeled by the linear regression function 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants.
a) Based on the data presented in the table, explain why a linear regression model for 𝐹 is appropriate.

b) Find the equation of the linear regression model 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏.

c) Using the model found in part b, what is the predicted percentage of female primary care doctors in the UK for the year
2021 (𝑡 = 33)?

d) In 2021, the women accounted for 55% of all primary care doctors in the UK. What is the residual for this value?

Worksheet A: Models and Applications Topics 1.13 – 1.14 Created by Bryan Passwater