HISTORY OF THE

MODERN ARCHITECTURE

Jurgen Tietz

Julian Calvo Garcia 1st A2

PROFESSOR: CARLOS MARIA FERNANDEZ
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ARCHITECTURE AT THE TURN OF THE CENTURY (1890-1910)

The arrival of the Enlightenment in the 18th century brought about political and cultural
changes as a result of the emergence of new rationalist ideals. These changes represent the fall
of the Ancien Régime, expressed in the French Revolution and the American Declaration of
Independence. The subsequent Industrial Revolution led to the development of new
architectural expressions such as the Arts and Craft movement, which was born in England at
the hands of William Morris and proposed a return to the medieval artisan tradition and later
modernism.

This industrial development caused a great expansion

of the cities that needed to house the large masses of
people that the factories brought with them. The
development also led to the use of new materials in
construction such as glass, iron and concrete, which
were reflected in buildings such as the Cristal Palace
and the Eiffel Tower. These constructions marked the
starting point towards modernity.

Modernism was born at the beginning of the 20th century as a result of the search for a new
artistic style, different from all previous ones, which would integrate the concerns of the
architects of the time. The innovative character, reflected in the use of new materials such as
glass, iron and concrete, the inspiration in plant forms from nature and the commitment to
functionality, made this style successful in Europe, where it obtained different formulations
such as Art Nouveau in France, Modern Style in England or Jugendstil in Germany.

The main European cities such as Brussels, Paris, Barcelona, Darmstadt, Glasgow and Vienna
were transformed at the beginning of the 20th century by new and different modernist
concepts of architecture, thanks to the contributions of architects such as Victor Horta, who is
responsible for the Hotel Tassel; Hector Guimard, architect of the Paris metro; Antoni Gaudí,
who developed his modernist work in Spain, mainly in Catalonia; Henry van de Velde, the main
promoter of Jugendstil; Mackintosh, who brought modernism to Scotland through his work;
and Otto Wagner, who modified the metropolis of Vienna with buildings such as the Postal
Savings Bank.

Special mention should be made of the work of the Czech Adolf Loos. This modernist theorist
managed to translate his theories into concrete projects based on sobriety and functionality,
the elimination of all types of ornamentation and the configuration of luxurious interiors. He
mainly developed his work in Vienna, where he designed, for example, the residential and
commercial building of the Goldman & Salatsch tailoring firm.

But without a doubt one of the precursors of the modernist movement, especially in the United
States, is Frank Lloyd Wright, who left behind him a true architectural direction in his country.
Influenced by Sullivan, his mentor and friend, Wright became a world reference thanks to
works such as “Fallwater,” the offices of the Johnson Wax Company in Wisconsin, and the
Guggenheim Museum in New York.
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THE FIRST MODERNS (1910-1920)

The end of the cultural splendor of the 19th century that arose after the French Revolution
concluded with the start of World War I.

In this climate, the Deutscher Werkbund was founded in Germany in 1907 by architects such as
Hermann Muthesius and Peter Beherens, which aimed to reform German craftsmanship by
taking advantage of industrial development. This institution had a great impact on German
architecture until 1933 and meant the end of Jugendstil, which had a more historicist and
artisanal character. The most important works from this period are the "Glaspabillon" by Bruno
Taut, made by the German glass industry, and the shoe last factory of the Fagus factory in
Alfeld an der Leine by Adolf Meyer and Walter Gropius, characterized by their complete
functionality and lack of ornamentation. However, in Europe, modern architecture was not as
clearly evident as in the buildings of the Deutscher Werkbund and was mixed with historicist
forms.

New construction materials such as concrete bring advantages and represent the development
of architecture. The Centennial Pavilion in Wroclaw by architect Max Berg illustrates how
concrete can form a 65-metre hall without the need for columns.

In parallel to modernism, until 1930 a

neoclassical trend continued to predominate,
which served as inspiration for architects such as
Edwin Lutyens, who developed part of his work in
India for the British Empire, Heinrich Tessenow of
a more neoclassical nature, or the German Peter
Behrens, who built
numerous buildings, many of them for the
German firm AEG, with a neoclassical tendency
and great functionality. It also served as
inspiration for later generations such as Le
Corbusier, Mies van der Rohe or
Gropius.

At the beginning of the 20th century another artistic trend appeared: expressionism. It
originated in painting and was quickly taken to the field of architecture, translating into the use
of brick and glass to achieve maximum expressiveness and animation. In the Netherlands, the
Amsterdam School emerged, which reflected the expressionist trend in the figures of its
founders: Johann Melchior, De Klerk and Pieter Kramer. Together they built the House of
Navigation, which represented pure expressionism thanks to the number of ornaments it
collected. In Germany, Expressionism began with the Glaspabillon of Bruno Taut, initiator of
the movement and predecessor of Erich Mendelsohn, who built the Einstein Tower, very
innovative for its time. Another great representative of German expressionism was Fritz Höger,
whose main works include the Casa de Chile.

Pictorial cubism had an impact on the work of Prague architects such as Josef Gocár and Josef
Chochol, who broke down their architecture into basic geometric forms such as
 4
the cube, the cone and the circle. The most important works of this movement are the Black
Madonna department store and Hodek's apartment house, both in Prague.

In Italy, at the turn of the century, he was accompanied by a new innovative style, unique in
Europe, called Futurism. The first manifestations occurred in painting, poetry and sculpture, but
were brought to architecture by Antonio Sant'Elia, who proposed a design for a modern city
that was never built.

THE INTERNATIONAL STYLE (1920-1930)

World War I managed to destroy the traditional world order. As a result, powers such as
Germany and Russia saw their power diminish and Europe was plunged into a political, social
and economic crisis. Given the situation, an architectural model was adopted that would
resolve the social problems of access to housing, while ignoring historicist ornaments.

Holland, unaffected by the First World War, saw the birth of De Sijl in 1917, a compositional
movement inherited from Frank Lloyd Wright and Mondrian's painting, far removed from
tradition and inspired by geometric forms, in the Cubist style. Gerrit Thomas Rietveld
translates the ideas of the De Stijl group, made up of architects such as Jacobus Johannes,
Pieter Oud and Jan Wils, into built architecture. Rietveld built the Shröder House, revolutionary
for its time, which had an almost industrial-style façade and completely customizable interiors.

At the same time, the Bauhaus was born in

Germany, which meant the modernization of
art. This movement attempts to reshape all
the arts. Founded by Walter Gropius in 1919
and directed by Meyer and Mies van der
Rohe, it became a school for generations of
artists who revolutionized art through
technical development, in addition to laying
the foundations of what we know today as
industrial design. This technique was put into
practice to solve the housing problem that
plagued post-war Germany. The policy of
building cheap houses led architects such as Shauron, Gropius, Taut and Mies van der Rohe to
transform cities such as Berlin and Frankfurt with large housing developments aimed at the
lower classes.

The Soviet revolution and political changes made possible the birth of a new current of Russian
art, constructivism. The precarious economic situation of the Soviet Union meant that most
major architectural projects remained on paper. This is the case of Tatlin's Monument to the
Third International or the stepladder at Lissitzky's Nikitskie Gate
 5
in Moscow. Only Melnikov's Moscow Rusakov Workers' Club could be translated into built
architecture.

In Italy, however, there was no tradition of modern architecture, but the arrival of fascism
thanks to Benito Mussolini made modern architecture begin to form part of the system.
Rationalism appears, spreading throughout northern Italy, embodied by the Novocomun
tenement house and the Casa del Fascio by Giuseppe Terragni; and from 1935 onwards it gives
way to the monumental and rigid neoclassicism of Piacentini.

These new modernist currents came together in exhibitions and conferences such as the
Weissenhofsiedlung and the CIAM, where architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Jacobus
Johannes, Gropius, Le Corbusier and Taut from various backgrounds coined a style later known
as the International Style.

URBAN PLANNING IN THE 20TH CENTURY (1850-1930)

The Industrial Revolution drove millions of people to the cities in the early 19th century, thus
initiating a rural exodus that caused overpopulation in these new economic centres. The cities
that still had a medieval structure suffered an intense demographic increase. To address the
problem, urban planning measures for social planning appeared in the mid-19th century.
Innovative plans then appeared to accommodate the large social masses, such as Cerdá's
expansion in Barcelona, the
expansion of New York, the Paris
expansion project led by Georges
Eugène Haussmann, or Ebenezer
Howard's idea of a garden city. All
these examples of urban expansion
were pioneering in their time and are
still part of our lives today.

NORTH AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE

(1920-1940)

A new architectural typology appears in the United States: the skyscraper. Designed and
conceived to house offices, department stores and residences, they were a symbol of economic
power. One of the cities where this typology is most developed is Chicago, which after the fire
of 1871, saw the city rebuilt with buildings that disappear into the sky. With an almost Gothic
historicist style, skyscrapers such as the Woolworth Building or the Chrysler Building became
neo-Gothic cathedrals of consumption. The new architectural type arrived in Europe with the
competition for the Chicago Tribune project, which awakened the modern sense for the
construction of later skyscrapers such as Raymond Hood's McGraw Hill Building.
 6
European influence appeared in the United States from 1920
onwards, replacing the neo-Gothic language. This influence
can be seen in the work of the Europeans Shindler and
Neutra, who designed private homes such as the Lovell
Beach House or the Lovell Health House comparable to the
European homes of Le Corbusier or Mies van der Rohe.

Around 1925, following the International Exhibition of

Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris, the Art Deco
movement was born. Inspired by Cubism, Expressionism and
technical machinery, it promoted a revolution in world art
that spread from Europe to the United States, reflected in
buildings such as the Chrysler Building, the Empire State
Building and the Rockefeller Center in New York. The crisis of
1929 saw a decline in architectural demand, which saw
ambitious projects left behind until the arrival of the New Deal, promoted by President
Roosevelt to combat the precarious situation, which would mark the beginning of the triumphal
march of the United States as the most important industrial nation in the world.

ARCHITECTURE AND POWER (1930-1945)

After the end of World War I, a new architectural typology developed, aimed at paying homage
to the fallen heroes of the war and characterized by monumentalism: commemorative
architecture. Walter and Johannes Krüger build the Tannenberg National Monument.

The growing nationalist boom that Europe experienced at

the end of the 1920s and during the 1930s led to the
emergence of dictatorial regimes such as those of Franco,
Mussolini and Hitler. These ideals fueled differences with
the nations with communist policies, beginning the Second
World War.
World War, which will produce millions of deaths and
displaced people.

The traditionalist and monumentalist architectural style is used to put it at the service of the
State. Large buildings such as Albert Speer's New Reich Chancellery and many religious
buildings such as Speer's Cathedral of Light are built.

An important event was the celebration of the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1937, where
modernist designs such as the Spanish pavilion by Sert could be seen, but above all, pavilions in
a simplified classicist style such as the Palais de Chaillot were built.
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GLOBALIZATION OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE (1945-1960)

With the end of World War II, the world was divided into
two: the eastern part, made up of communist countries
such as the Soviet Union, and the western part, made up
of capitalist countries, with the United States at the
forefront, who were the protagonists of the so-called
Cold War, which resulted in a continuous race to
dominate the international scene.

In the eastern zone, a "pastry style" of a futuristic and

functional character was widespread until Stalin's death,
but the economic problems suffered by the Soviet bloc in
the early eighties forced the construction of standardized
buildings with no architectural value. However, in the western zone the international style of
modernity re-emerged from 1945 onwards.

Thus, the international style that emerged in the 1920s was brought to the United States by
exiled architects such as Walter Gropius and Mies van der Rohe, who built buildings such as
the Harvard Graduate Center, in a modern style closely linked to the tradition of the German
Bauhaus, or some of Mies van der Rohe's skyscrapers, such as the Seagran Building,
characterized by their use of materials such as glass and steel.

Mies van der Rohe was a well-known German architect born in Germany in
1886. The influence of the German architect Schinkel led him to become
interested in 19th century classicist architecture. He built the neoclassical-
inspired German Embassy in St. Petersburg. He
became director of the Bauhaus in its last period,
until it finally disappeared in 1933. During World
War II he was exiled in Chicago,
The fondness for these materials arouses
where he built skyscrapers such as the twin towers on Lake Shore
Drive in Chicago and the Seagram Building in New York, where glass
and steel formed the structures. On his return to Germany, he used
the same techniques to build the Neue Nationalgalerie of the Berlin
Cultural Forum, a building of great classical elegance.
enormous interest in contemporary architects such as Philip Johnson and Charles Eames, which
is reflected in the Glass House, where glass completely encloses the structure. Glass and steel
also became the main support of American modernist skyscrapers, such as the UN Building,
designed by Le Corbusier, and in other buildings where horizontality takes precedence over
verticality, such as the General Motors research laboratories by Eero Saarinen.

Later, Europe absorbed the constructive influence of glass and steel from the United States,
reflected in the Rodorve Town Hall (Denmark) and the Hunstanton School in Norkfolk.
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In the 1950s, architecture tended to become more sculptural thanks to the contributions of
Frank Lloyd Wright, with the Salomon Guggenheim museum in New York, and Le Corbusier,
with the Unité d'habitation in Marseille and the Notre-Dame-du-Haut, very far from the glass
skyscrapers that were being built at the time.

The great architectural projects of Le Corbusier and

Niemeyer deserve special mention. In 1951, Le Corbusier
began the construction of a new city in India: Chandigarh,
as Edwin Lutyens had done previously with New Delhi.
Niemeyer, on the other hand, began construction of
Brasilia in 1956, designed for 500,000 inhabitants, a
quarter of the real population, which meant an overflow of
infrastructure.

URBAN PLANNING IN THE 20TH CENTURY (1930-2000)

The problem of solving the conditions of overpopulation in cities continued throughout the
20th century and concerned architects such as Garnier, who in 1904 proposed a model of an
industrialised city planned down to the last millimetre. It was characterized by an abundance of
green areas and industrial housing blocks. This type of social order was the foundation of
modernity.

Later architects such as Le Corbusier

managed to put these ideas into practice, as
can be seen in the homes he built for the
Voisin Plan, where he housed three million
inhabitants in buildings of up to sixty floors.
Other notable architects include Oscar
Niemeyer, who modified the city of Brasilia
with buildings such as the Congress in the
shape of an inverted dome.

Nowadays, city councils no longer lead the development of cities, and these are exposed to the
action of private investors, who dominate a market marked by high construction costs.

VISION AND REALITY (1960-1970)

The sixties represented the social movement against the traditional values of a Western world
characterized until then by discrimination and repression. During this period, socialist theories
contrary to the capitalist economy appeared and South American countries such as Cuba or
Mao Tse-tung's China adopted a communist system that guaranteed social equality and
eliminated private property. These communist systems, contrary to capitalism, were the
subject of disputes with countries such as the United States.
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During this period, a new architectural trend called brutalism appeared, the aim of which was
to leave the construction principles visible to the viewer, thus allowing them to discover how
the buildings functioned. To achieve this, they discard all types of coating, converting raw
concrete into the main material. This trend was developed by architects such as Owen Luder
Partnership, Le Corbusier, who built the Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts for Harvard
University in Cambridge, and Louis I. Khan.

The Scandinavian Louis I. Khan is considered a

master of the treatment of light and is the author of
buildings characterized by geometric shapes and
openings to the exterior, such as the Yale University
Art Gallery, the Margaret Esherick House in
Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania, and the Kimbell Art
Museum in Fort Worth, Texas. Although the project
that crowns Khan's extensive architectural career is
the Parliament of Dhaka (Bangladesh), whose body
is formed by eight cubes surrounding a main core in the form of a cylinder.

The work of the Finnish architect Alvar Aalto is also very notable, as he was, from 1930 to the
1970s, the leading representative of architecture in his country. His work represents a
modernity that is not limited to unadorned white cubes but with the help of natural elements
and light achieves unparalleled spaces such as the Paimio Sanatorium, nestled in nature and
oriented completely towards the south, seeking the well-being of all patients. Other notable
projects of his work include the Säynätsalo Town Hall, the Villa Mairea in Noormarkku and his
most important mature work: the Finnish Pavilion in Helsinki.

New architectural typologies appear, such as airports, which were renovated to accommodate
the growing number of users, such as the TWA terminal at JFK airport. Kennedy in New York
and Dulles Airport in Washington designed by Eeron Saarinen.

Pavilions intended to house museums and major

events of general interest were also studied, and
impressive self-supporting roofs began to appear
that had practically no supports, such as the Berlin
Philharmonic by Hans Scharoun, the Sydney Opera
House by Jorn Utzon, the impressive pavilion built
for the 1964 Tokyo Olympics by Kenzo Tange or
the
Palazzo del Lavoro by the engineer Pier Luigi
Nervi, characterized by the radial supports of the roof that form a unit with it.

Another architectural theme of the period is the buildings intended to house offices, such as
the administrative building of the Ford Foundation in New York, designed by Kevin Roche and
John
 1
Dinkeloo, which uses glass and a large interior garden to achieve an architecture open to the 0
outside.

The restoration of historic buildings becomes another topic of debate among theorists of the
time in terms of establishing a style of action. Carlo Scarpa admits that the ideal would be to
respect the historical strata, but to restore following the patterns of the time. An example of his
theory is the remodeling of the Castel Vecchio in Verona.

HIGH-TECH AND POSTMODERNITY (1970-1980)

The seventies represented the triumph of technology

for the world. Technology is beginning to surround
our lives. An example of this is the arrival of man on
the moon and the subsequent space race between
the two superpowers: the United States and the
Soviet Union. To this end, they begin to build the
ramps and launch structures necessary to continue
the space adventure.

These technical advances envelop architecture and

buildings such as the Centre Pompidou in Paris by Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano appear,
which shows its futuristic-style steel superstructure to the observer. Its ventilation system,
lifting system (escalators), evacuation system (fire stairs) and supporting elements remain
visible, imitating the brutalism of the 1960s.

Richard Rogers strengthened his contemporary architectural line with the construction of the
Lloyd's Building in London, a futuristic building that follows the line of the Centre Pompidou.

Another representative of architecture imbued with technique is Norman Foster, a prestigious

English architect who designed the Bank of Hong Kong and Shanghai, where structural
elements such as pillars become the main theme of the building, or the remodelling of the
Berlin Parliament.

This technique was put to the service of sport and advertising, and commercial spaces began to
be built, such as BEST supermarkets, and large roofs for sports stadiums that hung over nothing
to protect spectators from inclement weather. The design of the roof of the Munich Olympic
Stadium by Frei Otto or the construction of the Tokyo Olympic Stadium by Kenzo Tange are
clear examples of the application of the technique in this field.

Kenzo Tange was a prestigious Japanese architect of the fifties, sixties and seventies who
became the protagonist of structuralism. As an example, he designs the Shizouka Press and
Radio Society building, which rises to a height of 57 metres on a surface area of less than 170
square metres. This construction represents the interconnection of architecture with
advertising. He also began a development plan for the city of Tokyo, which would go from
infrastructure to buildings, without following a logical order.
He proposes to raise these infrastructures above the old city, thus freeing the city from traffic. He later
undertook other projects such as the construction of Tokyo City Hall.

In the 1970s, new architectural trends emerged that represented a return to traditional historical forms of
construction and decoration with ornaments, the intention of which was not to return to pre-modern 1
1
positions, but to present an alternative to modernity. This new framework includes works such as the
Vanna Venturi House by the American Robert Venturi, which combines a rigorous pediment with an
expressive façade to represent the typical suburban house. Another great representative of
postmodernism is Charles Moore with his Piazza d'Italia project where he recreates the charms of Italy in a
square. It is a historicist project loaded with ornamentation, an example of speaking architecture that
forgets functionality.

From 1980 onwards, postmodern architecture, which

returned to the column as a configuration method, became
popular in Europe. The main representatives are the Spaniard
Ricardo Bofill, with his enormous housing blocks such as the
Walden residential complex in Barcelona, and Philip Johnson,
who made his name with the American Telephone and
Telegraph building in New York, which was inspired by the first
American skyscrapers.

OVERCOMING BORDERS (1980-1990)

The beginning of the 1980s was marked by the inequalities between a Western world in a state of euphoria
and the Eastern communist world, mired in a deep economic crisis. The Soviet Union and the United States
agreed to military disarmament, thus ending the Cold War.

This well-being of the Western world is reflected in newly

constructed buildings such as museums and educational
centres that will attract thousands of visitors. Paris, California
and Frankfurt are seeing the birth of new museums in
postmodern styles that blend with their interior art, such as
the Getty Museum in California, the Quai d'Orsay in Paris, the
Museum für Kunsthandwerk in Frankfurt or the renovation of
the Lovre in Paris by New Yorker Leoh Ming Pei, who
introduced an "ultra-modern" glass pyramid in contrast to the
baroque style of the main building.

At the end of the eighties a new architectural style appeared: deconstructivism, promoted by architects
such as Frank O. Gehry or Peter Eisenman. HE
characterized by fragmentation, non-linear design process and interest in manipulating the surface ideas of
structures that are used to distort some of the elementary principles of architecture such as the structure
and the building envelope. The most representative works are the California Aerospace Museum and the
commercial building of the Nationale Nederlanden, by Frank O. Gehry.
12
In Italy, the beginning of the decade began with the return of the rationalist tradition that had been in
force in this country since the 1920s, although in this phase with a character of monumentality and rigor.
Aldo Rosi is the top representative with the Hotel Duca or the
Apartments on Kochstrasse in Berlin.

In Japan, a similar line to that followed in Ticino (Switzerland) is followed, based on the use of basic
geometric elements such as the circle, the square or the rectangle, to obtain mainly functional solutions.
Mario Botta and Tadao Andao are the main architects of this line.

LOOKING TO THE FUTURE (1990-2000)

The nineties began with the fall of the Berlin Wall that had separated Germany since 1961. This was the
beginning of a false period of international confidence and security, which was later marred by numerous
nationalist and ethnic conflicts.

In this context of rising prices, buildings marked by standardisation and normalisation are being
developed. Therefore, large architectural constructions take a backseat, although they begin to benefit
from new techniques,
such as computer-assisted drawing, which has been used to develop
exuberant high-tech constructions such as Jean Nouvel's Galeries
Lafayette, Santiago Calatrava's Alamillo Bridge or the Vitra Fire
Service Building by Iraqi architect Zaha Hadid in the neo-
expressionist style. These constructions are characterized by their
monumentalism and by the break with previous styles.

Simplicity is another theme that is developed in this period and

architects such as Herzog & de Meuron opt for cubic constructions,
such as the stone house, of great seriousness and simplicity that
culminate with traditional finishes. Other architects such as Álvaro Siza are close to this simple style and
their works also opt for cubic forms, such as the Portuguese pavilion at Expo 98 or the Porto School of
Architecture.

In a more radical line, completely removed from the simplicity of forms, appears the work of Daniel
Libeskind, which is characterized by its revolutionary constructions, such as the Jüdisches Museum, where
a work loaded with meaning and enormous complexity can be observed.
At the end of the 1990s, architecture moved towards models that respected nature and allowed it to take
maximum advantage of its natural resources. It is the union of architecture and ecology. To achieve this
union and make the most of resources, details of placement, distribution or coatings must be taken into
account, which allow heat and sunlight to be used. Thomas Spiegelhalter's Ecohouse would be an example
of these constructions. 13

FIRST DECADE (From 2001 to today)

The new millennium brings new computer technologies that are applied
to architecture to build true icons that will go down in history, such as the
Guggenheim Museum by architect Frank Gehry. This cubist-style building
covered in titanium has become a symbol of the identity of the city of
Bilbao. Other buildings such as the new Olympic stadium in Beijing by
Herzog & de Meuron, the Kunsthaus in Graz or the Swiss Re Tower in
London by Norman Foster have achieved their initial objective: to become
global icons serving as tourist attractions.

Globalization envelops the world, contributing to commercial and cultural

exchange and endangering the cultural roots of the regions. To avoid the cultural loss of an area,
architectural trends appear that are based on the use of native materials and forms, such as those
developed by the architects Baumschlager & Eberle in their houses or Brückner & Brückner, who use
granite brought from a nearby quarry to build a house, saving on transportation costs.

Sustainability is becoming more important at this time and architecture is focusing on energy saving. It is
built to achieve energy-efficient buildings like Werner Sobek's R128 residential building in Stuttgart, which
does not need energy to be inhabited.

Social architecture represents the level of development of metropolises, which is why interest in building
large residential complexes appeared at the end of the 19th century. For this reason, many urban
developments have been built in recent years to meet the needs of an increasingly demanding society.
 MOST RELEVANT ART AND
ARCHITECTURE OF THE LAST
25 YEARS

Julian Calvo Garcia 1st A2

PROFESSOR: CARLOS MARIA FERNANDEZ
INTRODUCTION:

The purpose of this work is to take a brief look at the architecture and art of the last 25 years with the aim
of analysing their repercussions for the future.

Today's architecture is moving away from traditional models and styles, and architects are opting for
innovative designs, almost all of them functionalist and combining several different styles. In the last
decade, architecture has merged with technology to create ambitious projects that have become symbols
of cities and countries. An example of this could be the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, or the Petronas
Towers in Malaysia.

Together, a brief summary is made of what art in general has produced in these last two decades, touching
on the musical panorama, with the work of the band Queen; sculpture, in the hands of the sculptor Manolo
Valdés or literature, represented in the work of JR. Rowling: Harry Potter.
GUGGENHEIM
MUSEUM
Technical data sheet:

- Author: Frank O. Gehry

- Location: Bilbao, Spain
- Completion date: 1997
- Purpose: To house a museum of
contemporary art

Notes:

The Guggenheim Museum is a contemporary art museum located in the city of Bilbao and designed by the
Canadian architect Frank O. Gehry. It opened in 1997 and has since become one of the five museums of the
Solomon R.
Guggenheim.

The building is located on the banks of the Bilbao estuary, in the Abandoibarra area, near the Príncipe de
Asturias bridge. The main characteristic of the complex is its construction from curvilinear and twisted
shapes, covered with limestone, glass curtains and titanium plates. It has a total area of 24,000 m², of
which 11,000 m² are intended for exhibitions, distributed in 19 galleries.

The way architect Frank O. works Gehry, based on free sketches and models that he literally transfers to
the computer, formally conditions the final result.

It received many critics, some unfavorable, such as that of Jorge Oteiza, who considered the public
expenditure required for its construction to be excessive; and others favorable, such as that of the
American architect Philip Johnson, who described it as "the greatest building of our times." However, most
of the criticism was overshadowed by the museum's worldwide success, which brought huge profits to the
city.

The Guggenheim Museum project also received the International Alcántara Bridge Award and the
European Museum of the Year award.

Comment:

Since its inauguration in 1997, the museum has received an average of one million visitors annually,
boosting and reactivating tourism and the economy in the region. Without a doubt, the popularity of the
museum today has made it a symbol of the Basque city. Its innovative design, so admired and so criticized
at the same time, positively enhances Bilbao's image at an international level.
PETRONAS
TOWERS

Technical data sheet:

- Author: Cesar Pelli

- Location: Kuala LumpurLumpur,
Malaysia
- Completion date: 1998
- Purpose: To house offices

Notes:

The Petronas Towers are the work of the famous Argentine architect César Pelli. Upon its completion in
1998, it became the tallest skyscraper in the world, at 452 metres high. In this way, it beat the Sears
building, which until then held the world record. Its construction took place in Kuala Lumpur, the capital of
Malaysia, and Pelli was inspired by the traditional Islamic architecture of the region.

The complex is modern thanks to the use of modern materials such as glass and concrete, but without
forgetting traditional Islamic culture. The 88-story towers are connected by an innovative hanging corridor
at a height of more than 200 meters.

Although they are built for business purposes, to house the offices of multinationals such as Petronas or
Microsoft, they quickly become the most identifiable symbol of the country. The reason is the union of
traditional Islamic architecture in an architectural typology as Western as the skyscraper.

Comment:

Today, the Petronas Towers are Malaysia's most recognizable symbol. The intention of showing the world
the economic and social well-being that the country was experiencing in the late nineties allowed the
development of this innovative project which, for five years, remained at the top of the ranking of tallest
buildings, only surpassed, in 2003, by Taipei 101.
EUROTUNNEL

Technical data sheet:

- Author: Transmanche Link Engineers

- Location: English Channel
- Completion date: 1994
- Purpose: To unite France with
England

Notes:

The Channel Tunnel is the tunnel that connects France and England across the English Channel. Its
construction was completed in 1994, when the passenger and freight transport service began.

The construction project was developed by Transmanche Link Ingenieros and consisted of two 7-metre
diameter tunnels reserved for rail transport and another smaller service tunnel. For the excavation they
use a large drilling rig, capable of digging in hard and soft rocks for 20 km without interruption. With a total
length of 55 km, of which 39 km are underwater, the cities of Calais and Folkestone can be reached in less
than 35 minutes.

Since its inauguration, a train for passenger transport has been in operation: the Eurostar and another train
for freight transport: the Shuttle. Thanks to these trains it was possible to go from Paris to London in two
and a half hours.

Comment:

From an engineering point of view, it was a great challenge, although it must be said that it is not the
longest underground tunnel in the world, but it is undoubtedly the one with the highest passenger traffic.

Since its opening, the number of users has decreased, calling into question the profitability estimates that
were anticipated before its construction, in which numerous private companies invested 16 billion euros.

Although it was a colossal work of engineering, its importance lies in the great communication possibilities
it offers to its more than 7 million users.
BURJ DUBAI

Technical data sheet:

- Author: Adrian Smith

- Location: Dubai, United Arab Emirates
- Completion date: 2010
- Purpose: To house offices and a hotel

Notes:

The Burj Dubai skyscraper is currently the tallest

skyscraper in the world. It is located in the Downtown
Burj Dubai district of the city of Dubai (United Arab
Emirates). It has a structural height of 818 meters, higher
than the 529 meters of Taipei 101. The project was
designed by Adrian Smith and cost $4 billion.

The building has 162 floors and occupies a total area of

344,000 m2. The shape of the base of the Burj Dubai is based on the geometric shape of the Hymenocallis, a
six-petaled white flower grown in the Dubai region and in India. This base is formed by a core from which
three main sections protrude, reaching different heights, from which the rest of the sections will be
staggered. Reinforced concrete and steel were used for its construction, located in the upper part and in
the foundation that reaches a depth of 50 meters. The façade was covered with glass panels that prevent
the interior temperature from rising.

Its construction is intended to house the first Armani hotel (on the first 39 floors), 700 luxury private
apartments (floors 45 to 108), a viewing platform (floor 123), an observatory (floor 124) and offices (the
rest of the floors up to floor 156).

The project, still in development, is scheduled to open on January 4, 2010.

Comment:

The main purpose of its construction is to turn the city of Dubai into a world-class tourist attraction. The
problem of being a new city with no historical attractions is intended to be solved thanks to impressive
structures, which require exorbitant investments and are on the edge of ethics, as is the case of the Palm
Islands residential complex, for which numerous artificial islands are built on the flat coast of the Persian
Gulf.

The possibility of building superstructures must be partially restricted to avoid cases such as those above,
where the natural environment is seriously compromised.
CCTV HEADQUARTERS

Technical data sheet:

- Author: Rem Koolhaas

- Location: Beijing, China
- Completion date: 2008
- Purpose: To house the offices of
the CCTV network

Notes:

CCTV's headquarters in Beijing was built for the 2008 Olympic Games to house studios, production
facilities, administration and even a hotel for the press.

The complex covers an area of 405,000 m2 and is located next to Beijing's Third Ring Road in the new
Central Business District.

The project designed by architect Rem Koolhass is based on two 230-metre-high L-shaped towers that
structurally support each other at the top. The structure of the building was a challenge for the engineering
contractors. They had to design a construction plan so that the two towers would form a continuous loop.

The towers were built on opposite diagonal corners with a base of 160 x 160 m joined by an L-shaped
podium. At the top both towers were joined by an L-shaped bridge parallel to the podium. A diagonal grid
exoskeleton system was placed on the external faces of the building to oppose the force of gravity and any
lateral forces. The building was designed by breaking Chinese building codes in exchange for such an
innovative result.

Comment:

These types of highly technically complex constructions pose major challenges for architects and engineers
who opt for attractive models that increase tourist appeal, even if this means reducing functionality. CCTV
Headquarters became one of the main symbols of China from the moment it was inaugurated.
SWISS RE
TOWER data sheet:
Technical

- Author: Norma Foster

- Location: London, England
- Completion date: 2004
- Purpose: To house the offices of the
Swiss Re Company in England

Notes:

The Swiss Re Tower, now called 30st Mary Axe,

is an office building located in the heart of
London's financial district.

The building was inaugurated in 2004 and was

designed by English architect Sir Norman Foster,
who built a functional complex 180 metres high.

The body of the building has a streamlined appearance, and is popularly known as “the pickle”. It is
characterized on the outside by a rhomboidal facade design and alternating translucent and bluish glass. Its
exterior glazing completely determines the interior temperature.

In 2007 the building was sold to the German group IVG Immobilien for £630m, although the insurance
company will continue to occupy half of the building.

In 2004, the building was awarded the Stirling Prize, awarded by the Royal Institute of British Architects and
the Architects Journal.

Comment:

This building stands out for its functionalism and the simplicity of its interior features. It is a modern
building that stands out in a traditional, historic setting, such as central London, where the contrast of
trends makes the final result even more admired. It would not be possible to understand the Swiss Re
Tower outside of a traditional urban environment like this one.
TOURING TORSO
Technical data sheet:

- Author: Santiago Calatrava

- Location: Malmö, Sweden
- Completion date: 2005
- Purpose: Residential

Notes:

Turning Torso is a 190-metre-high, 54-storey

skyscraper located in the Swedish city of Malmö.
It is the tallest residential building in Sweden and
the second tallest in Europe. It is the work of the
Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava and was
inaugurated in 2005, after four years of
construction.

The building, constructed of steel, glass and reinforced concrete, is structured into nine rotating cubes, at
the centre of which is the main structural element: a reinforced concrete core, 10.6 metres in diameter. Its
center corresponds exactly with the axis of rotation of the plants. The exterior of the building is clad in
glass and aluminum panels. Each of the cubes has six floors.

The building combines luxury homes and offices. The offices are located in the first two cubes while the
rest of the cubes house bedrooms.

The tower is inspired by a sculpture representing a human torso, which twists on itself, making a 90-degree
turn. Turning Torso is an example of Calatrava's "living architecture", in which anatomy and nature are the
architect's sources of inspiration.

This project made Calatrava the winner of the award for the best residential building in the world in 2005.

Comment:

One of the reasons for building the Turning Torso was to re-establish a recognisable skyline for Malmö
following the disappearance of the Kockum Crane in 2002, located less than a kilometre from the building's
current location. But the main concern of the local politicians who commissioned the project was to create
a symbol of the city's identity in the world. The main reason for its construction is to link Turning Torso to
Malmö, with the amenities and services it offers coming in second place.
LOUVRE PYRAMID
Technical data sheet:

- Author: Ieoh Ming Pei

- Location: Paris, France
- Completion date: 1989
- Purpose: Expansion of the
Louvre museum

Notes:

The Louvre Museum Pyramid is located

in the courtyard of the Louvre Museum in Paris. It was designed by architect Ieoh Ming Pei for the
museum's expansion. It was inaugurated in 1989 by the then French president, François Mitterrand.

With an international style, this glass and aluminium pyramid has a height of 21 m and a total of 666
transparent laminated glass panels, divided into rhombuses and triangles. The total weight of the structure
is 180 tons and the inclination of its walls, as with the Egyptian pyramids, is 51º. This pyramid is the main
and largest of the museum's glass pyramids, which includes another inverted pyramid underground.

The pyramid is built with the purpose of becoming the main entrance, increasing the exhibition space of
the museum and connecting the three main wings of the museum underground.

Comment:

Since its construction, the pyramid has been the subject of controversy due to the contrast in styles
between the modernity of the glass and the classicism of the museum, although it has also served as
inspiration for extensions to other museums.

The image of the Louvre Museum cannot be understood without the image of its pyramid, and this is due
to the fusion of museum and pyramid. Indirectly and contrary to other cases, the pyramid, together with
the museum, have become one of the most important symbols of Paris.
BEIJING NATIONAL STADIUM

Technical data sheet:

- Author: Herzog & DeMeuron

- Location: Beijing, China
- Completion date: 2008
- Purpose: Olympic Games

Notes:

The Beijing Olympic Stadium, also known as the “Bird’s Nest”, was built for the 2008 Olympic Games.

Following the selection of Beijing as the host of the 2008 Olympic Games, a tender was launched for the
construction of a future stadium to host track events. The Swiss Herzog and De Meuron won the
competition and designed a building based on a metal structure of impressive dimensions that would
completely surround the complex. More than 110,000 tons of steel were needed.

The stadium has a water collection system that purifies the water and uses it for irrigation and cleaning. It
also has tubes on the roof of the stadium that collect hot air and use it to heat the stadium in winter and
cool it in summer.

Its extraordinarily expressive construction consolidates the image of Swiss architects, elevating them to the
top of the list of the most innovative architects in the world.

It was inaugurated on 8 August 2008 on the occasion of the Opening Ceremony of the Olympic Games,
attended by 91,000 people.

Comment:

The Olympic Stadium typology is almost current, although it is true that in the 60s they were already
beginning to build venues intended to accommodate large crowds attending sporting events. One of the
first examples may be the Munich Olympic Stadium, built in 1972 by the architect Günter Behnisch, which
incorporates a plexiglass roof. Subsequently, improvements were introduced to increase user comfort,
until today, when users have all kinds of amenities.
BURJ AL ARAB HOTEL
Technical data sheet:

- Author: Tom Wright

- Location: Dubai, United Arab Emirates
- Completion date: 1999
- Purpose: Hotel

Notes:

The Burj Al Arab is a luxury hotel with a height of

321 meters, built by Tom Wright, being the
tallest hotel in the world and one of the most
representative hotel buildings.
It is located in the sea, on an artificial island
located 270 meters from the beach in the Persian
Gulf, which is connected to the mainland by a road.

It was officially opened in 1999. Its shape is inspired by a sailing boat and it is located in a remote area so
that its shadow does not cover the beach. At the highest point of the hotel there is a helipad.

The hotel is classified as seven stars, due to its truly exceptional features that set it apart from any other
hotel in the world. The Burj Al Arab has 202 double suites. The Burj Al Arab has nine restaurants, including
one located under the sea, offering an underwater view, and another located 200 meters high, allowing a
panoramic view of the city. The interior decoration of the building was carried out by Chinese designer
Khuan Chew.

Comment:

Its design is completely innovative and its location in the middle of the sea, on an artificial island, gives it
that exclusive feel that the hotel aims to have. Its construction is one of the many exuberant constructions
currently underway, which will soon turn the city of Dubai into a major destination for visitors.
Architecturally it is worth mentioning, since the use of modern techniques makes it possible to solve
problems that were previously inconceivable, such as the correct support of the structure (more than 300
metres) on the artificial island.
STAR WARS

Technical data sheet:

- Author: George Lucas

- Location: United States
- Completion date: 1977-2005
- Genre: Cinema

Notes:

Star Wars is the title of a fictional saga created by

American director George Lucas, consisting of six films:

- A New Hope (1977)

- The Empire Strikes Back (1980)
- Return of the Jedi (1983)
- The Phantom Menace (1999)
- Attack of the Clones (2002)
- Revenge of the Sith (2005)

The series became a popular and financial success from its inception and allowed Lucas to create an entire
film empire made up of several companies that revolutionized subsequent cinema, especially in terms of
special effects.

Over the next few years, the Star Wars universe continued to expand in the form of books, comics, and
video games. Two decades after the release of the first, a new film trilogy was released, a prequel to the
previous one.

Comment:

Cinema was born at the beginning of the 20th century and since then its number of followers has
increased. Cinema would soon be considered the seventh art and many films wanted to find a place in
movie theaters.

Today, the situation is similar, except that there is greater competition. It was in this context that the Star
Wars saga emerged at the end of the 1970s, which would represent a technological revolution in the film
industry by introducing the first special effects. This is where the importance of this collection lies for the
future of cinema. What would movies like Matrix be without the special effects previously introduced by
George Lucas in his films?
A NIGHT AT THE OPERA

Technical data sheet:

- Author: Queen
- Location: United Kingdom
- Completion date: 1975
- Genre: Music

Notes:

A Night at the Opera is the fourth album by the British rock band Queen, released in 1975, famous for
having the hits "Bohemian Rhapsody" and "You're my Best Friend", as well as well-known songs by the
group such as "Love of My Life", "Death on Two Legs", "Prophet's Song", "I'm in Love With My Car" and
May and Taylor's version of the British anthem.

The album was recorded by EMI in 1975, and was later reissued by the American record company
Hollywood Records, which managed to sell millions of copies worldwide.

Queen was a rock band formed in 1970 in London by guitarist Brian May, singer Freddie Mercury, drummer
Roger Taylor and bassist John Deacon. The band stood out for its musical diversity, vocal harmonies and
the incorporation of audience participation during its live performances. They are considered pioneers in
the development of hard rock and heavy metal, incorporating elements of glam rock, progressive rock, folk,
blues, pop and even reggae. Their performance at the Live Aid concert in 1985 was voted the greatest rock
performance of all time in a music poll.

Comment:

From a musical point of view, it is worth highlighting the movement that took place in the seventies and
eighties, where musical bands such as Queen, the Beatles or U2, revolutionised the musical scene thanks to
their impressive stage performances combined with the active participation of the public. This new way of
understanding music led the recording industry to reach impressive levels, as millions of people were
buying the typical vinyl records. This was the starting point of a business that is currently in decline.
HARRY POTTER

Technical data sheet:

- Author: JK Rowling
- Location: United Kingdom
- Completion date: 1997-2007
- Genre: Literature

Notes:

Harry Potter is a series of fantasy novels written by British

author J. K. Rowling, which describes the adventures of
the young wizard's apprentice Harry
Potter and his friends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, during the seven years they spend at Hogwarts
School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The plot focuses on the fight between Harry Potter and the evil wizard
Lord Voldemort.

Since the release of the first novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone in 1997, the series has
achieved immense popularity, critical acclaim and commercial success around the world. By December
2007, more than 400 million copies of the seven books had been sold, and they have been translated into
more than 65 languages by publishers such as Bloomsbury Publishing and Salamandra.

The success of the novels has led to them being adapted into a film, the Harry Potter brand being one of
the most successful in the world, with profits close to 15 billion dollars, and Rowling being the first writer in
history to be among the 10 highest-paid people in the world.

Comment:

Nowadays the world of literature is in fashion. Numerous publications come out every year with the aim of
becoming one of the greatest Best Sellers in history.

In the past, writers and literary figures could not live off their work because it did not provide the necessary
income. Literature was understood by writers as their entertainment. However, nowadays writers can live
comfortably thanks to the income from their publications.

The influence that the Harry Potter saga leaves for posterity is the possibility of making reading interesting
at an early age, where reading is far from our priorities.
THE LADY OF MANZANARES
Technical data sheet:

- Author: Manolo Valdes

- Location: Madrid, Spain
- Completion date: 2003
- Genre: Sculpture

Notes:

The Lady of the Manzanares is an urban sculpture located in Madrid. The work was created in 2003 by the
Valencian artist Manolo Valdés.

Its bronze and steel structure measures 13 meters high and weighs approximately 8 tons.

It is located at the highest point of the Manzanares Linear Park, a 35-hectare garden area crowning the
summit of the artificial hill of La Atalaya, which was raised, as a viewing point, on a pyramidal platform,
designed by Ricardo Bofill. It represents the head of a woman, with her face facing north, that is, towards
the urban area of Madrid. It is dedicated to the Manzanares River.

In 2005, a lighting system was inaugurated, consisting of 24 projectors, whose shades change with each
season.
THE HEAD

Technical data sheet:

- Author: Clare Woods

- Location: United Kingdom
- Completion date: 2004
- Genre: Painting

Notes:

The Head is one of the best-known works by the English artist Clare Woods.

A possible common denominator, extractable from the personal proposals of current painters, is a certain
almost narrative abstraction, which houses, beneath the worked surface of the canvas, particular,
subjective and specific stories, with the aim of disseminating them through this graphic medium.
LITERATURE:

Google images

Atlas of Contemporary Architecture. Publisher: Loft, 2007

www.wikipedia.org

www.parra-romero.com

www.wikiarquitectura.com
THE MODERN MOVEMENT

Julian Calvo Garcia 1st A2

PROFESSOR: CARLOS MARIA FERNANDEZ
 2

THE MODERN MOVEMENT

The Modern Movement appeared in the first decades of the 20th century, and represents a break with
previous compositional forms. The modern movement took advantage of the benefits offered by new
materials such as reinforced concrete, steel and glass, and is characterised by its orthogonal plans and
sections and the absence of decoration on the facades, but not its interiors, which tended to be bright and
open. Although the origins of this movement date back to the end of the 19th century, its best examples
appeared from the 1920s onwards, thanks to architects such as Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, Mies van der
Rohe and J. J. Oud. This movement was also called International Style after the modern architecture
exhibition held in New York in 1932, after which Hitchcock and Philip Johnson wrote: “International Style:
Architecture since 1922”. Although important buildings of this style continued to appear after World War II,
in the last decades of the 20th century new movements have been recognised, successors of the modern
movement.

Beginnings of the movement

During the last years of the 19th century and the first years of the 20th century, movements arose that
began to question the traditional historicist styles that surrounded the Fine Arts schools. One of the most
important was the Arts & Crafts movement, characterized by simple architectural forms and little
decoration. Despite these beginnings of modernity, Arts & Crafts architects, such as Philip Webb, defended
artistic professions in the face of industrialization.

The use of new architectural materials, instead of traditional ones, began at the beginning of the century
with the Perret brothers in France and Louis Sullivan of the Chicago School, known for skyscrapers with a
reticulated structure of steel and iron, such as the Wainwright Building built in 1890. At the same time as
Sullivan, Frank Lloyd Wright appeared, one of the great architects of the 20th century, who innovated with
new architectural typologies such as his "prairie houses", located near Chicago and inspired by the Arts &
Crafts movement. Fallingwater is one of his most outstanding works from this period, and in it certain airs
of modernity can be noted. Adolf Loos's position was more radical. He led a harsh attack on architectural
ornamentation, especially the decorative excesses of Art Nouveau, and designed buildings such as the
Steiner House in Vienna (1910), characterized by its austerity.

Industrial architecture developed from the innovations of the Deutsche Werkbund, made up of artists,
craftsmen and architects and founded in Munich in 1907 to contribute to the growing German industry. Its
members included Walter Gropius, Peter Behrens, the creator of the AEG turbine factory, Henry van de
Velde and Hermann Muthesius. Muthesius advocated extending architecture to mass production
processes, and opposed the inclusion of the Expressionists in the Cologne Werkbund, who promoted a
style based on traditional practices. The Expressionists were supported by Gropius and Van de Velde.

From 1915 onwards

World War II caused devastation that had to be resolved, as in the case of Belgium, by replacing the
destroyed buildings with other low-cost accommodation. This circumstance was taken advantage of by the
young Swiss architect Charles Édouard Jeanneret, also known as Le Corbusier, to create buildings with a
reinforced concrete structure and three horizontal bodies, supporting the two upper bodies on square
 3

pillars, allowing the load of its walls to be lightened and opening up the necessary openings.

Le Corbusier was also a lover of painting and together with Amédée Ozenfant he founded the Purism
movement, creating still lifes that combined science, represented by the use of Cubist techniques, with a
classical sense of harmony. This synthesis of modernity and classicism was a constant throughout Le
Corbusier's work. In his book Towards an Architecture (1923) he called for the compositional rigor of
classical buildings and the generalization of a new language based on the aesthetics of machines. In the
aforementioned book, he explains that the challenge for modern architects was to construct buildings
according to new technological models.

By 1923, Le Corbusier had already formulated the principles that characterized his constructions
throughout the 1920s. The construction of the Schröder House in Utrecht (Holland), the work of architect
Gerrit Rietveld, was a major architectural event in 1924. Like Le Corbusier, Rietveld was associated with
avant-garde artistic movements. He was a member of De Stijl, founded in Leiden in 1917 by the architect JP
Oud and the painters Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian. The independence of shapes, rectangular and
primary colors, is evident in the Schröder house. The building is also characterized by the correct
integration between architecture and ornamental details, including furniture. Another notable feature of
the building is its asymmetrical articulation based on orthogonal planes.

The influence of De Stijl extended beyond Holland, reaching the Bauhaus in Weimar, Germany, in the early
1920s. The Bauhaus was a school of architecture, art and design founded by Walter Gropius in 1919 and
directed towards artisanal rather than industrial work. In 1922 a radical change in the school's orientation
began, caused mainly by the influence of Van Doesburg. The most significant manifestation of this was the
construction in 1925 of the new headquarters of the school in the city of Dessau, the work of Gropius, who
managed to unite the modernist principles of expressive simplification, pure volumes without
ornamentation and large glass facades to compose one of the most important achievements of the modern
movement.

While the Bauhaus flourished under Gropius's leadership, other groups played a prominent role in the
evolution of German architecture. This is the case of architects such as Bruno Taut, known for his “glass
pavilion” built for the Werkbund exhibition in Cologne in 1914; and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who was
director of the Bauhaus from 1930 onwards. Although Mies van der Rohe experimented with
expressionism in his early days, after the First World War,

World War participated in the rationalist tendency. During this period, he directed the Wiessenhof
exhibition in 1927, outside Stuttgart, and was in charge of the construction of the German pavilion for the
Barcelona International Exhibition of 1929. This exhibition, organised by the Deutscher Werkbund, features
well-known buildings such as Mies's own apartments and the villas of Le Corbusier, J. J. P. Oud and Hans
Scharoun. Oud designed houses with simple, geometric volumes, while Le Corbusier, motivated by his
personal preferences, designed white, cubic shapes supported on pillars and topped by landscaped
terraces.

Le Corbusier, as he had done before with his residential buildings, devised a novel project for the League of
Nations building in Geneva. His architectural genius was recognized by many avant-garde architects, and
was one of the factors that led to the creation, from 1928, of the International Congresses of Modern
Architecture (CIAM). The CIAM, whose last meeting was in Dubrovnik (Croatia) in 1956, served above all to
 4

reach a consensus on the principles of the new architecture, which had been adopted by numerous
architects of different nationalities.

An important event in this process was the architecture exhibition held in 1932 at the Museum of Modern
Art in New York. It hosted leading European architects and also attracted prominent Japanese and
American architects. Among the Japanese architects, the figure of Mamoru Yamada stands out, while
among the American attendees were George Howe, Richard Neutra and, above all, Frank Lloyd Wright,
who, despite keeping his distance from the industrial aesthetics of the modern movement, adopted the
new international architectural language. The exhibition also featured some Scandinavian architects, such
as the Swedish architect Erick Gunnar Asplund and the Finnish architect Alvar Aalto.

From the 1930s onwards

The rise of totalitarianism in Europe, especially Soviet Stalinism and German National Socialism, halted the
evolution of modern architecture in these countries. However, Italian fascism adopted this architectural
trend as an expression of the new social order, thus allowing the construction of such significant rationalist
buildings as the Casa del Fascio in Como (1932-1936), the work of the architect Giuseppe Terragni. In
contrast, German Nazism closed the Bauhaus in 1933, forcing Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius into
exile in the United States in 1937.

The Nazi regime sought a classical and monumental style for the reconstruction of German cities, while the
modern movement leaned towards a different form of urban planning. During the interwar period, Le
Corbusier carried out a series of preliminary projects for the construction of an ideal modern city, divided
into various zones dedicated to different social purposes. According to this plan, people would live in
residential skyscrapers separated by extensive green areas. These designs culminated in 1933 with the
Charter of Athens, promulgated by CIAM. Although he never saw his urban planning ideas come to fruition,
his influence even reached Brazil with the construction of the city of Brasilia, inaugurated in 1960.

Among Le Corbusier's major projects is the unité d'habitation in Marseille, built after World War II. The
building, a residential block of enormous proportions, served as inspiration for many subsequent projects,
also concerned with the issue of space and high-density housing occupation. To the traditional
architectural forms in his work, such as pilotis and landscaped terraces, the unité d'habitation adds an
expressive emphasis that initiates a new stage in his career. Thus, in the Capitol of Chandīgarh (India), Le
Corbusier evolved towards an emotive architecture called brutalism (béton brut, exposed concrete in
French), with which he included himself in the critical current of the modern movement and definitively
moved away from the International Style.

In the second half of the 20th century

Le Corbusier's late works had a major influence on architects such as James Stirling and Peter and Alison
Smithson, who developed the new brutalism in Britain; and Kenzo Tange in Japan. At the same time, Philip
Johnson applied the International Style to his own home, a steel and glass container known as the Glass
House. The influence of Mies van der Rohe is also evident in the large office blocks built in the United
States and Europe during the 1950s and 1960s. Notable examples were those built by Skidmore, Owings &
Merril, as well as the Seagram Building in New York, a majestic dark glass skyscraper built by him in 1957.
 5

During the 1960s, a young generation of architects, including Peter Eisenman, John Hejduk and Richard
Meier, designed cubic buildings inspired by rationalist architecture. From 1960 onwards, the modern
movement entered into crisis, while the International Style, its least ideological current, lost notoriety in
the face of new trends: postmodernism, high-tech and deconstructivism. However, the principles of the
modern movement continue to be fundamental references in contemporary architecture.