1.

Characteristics Of Living
Organisms
Characteristics of living organisms
Every living organism have certain traits that it needs to be demonstrating in order for it to
classify as “living”. There are 7 characteristics that we need to go through. If even a single
one of these characteristics are not present in an organism, then it not alive.

1. Movement – An action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change

of position or place
2. Respiration – The chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient
molecules and release energy for metabolism
3. Sensitivity – The ability to detect or sense stimuli in the internal or external
environment and to make appropriate responses
4. Growth – Permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell
number or cell size or both
5. Reproduction – The processes that make more of the same kind of organism
6. Excretion – Removal from organisms of the waste products of metabolism
(chemical reactions in cells including respiration), toxic materials, and
substances in excess of requirements
7. Nutrition -Taking in of materials for energy, growth and development; plants
require light, carbon dioxide, water and ions; animals need organic compounds
and ions and usually need water

Concept and use of classification system

Organisms can be classified into groups by features that they share. Classification
systems aim to therefore classify groups of organisms in a systemic way, in order to
reflect their evolutionary relationships.

Before the advance of technology and science, classification was traditionally based on
morphology and anatomy. Basically this means that if certain organisms “looked” similar
and shared similar features, then they would be classified under the same umbrella. But it
is important to understand that now, we can more accurately classify organisms by
analyzing their DNA (rather than look at appearance alone). Organisms which share similar
DNA base sequences and protein amino acid sequences are more likely to be closely
related.

Every organism has a scientific name. The binomial system is an internationally

agreed system in which the scientific name of an organisms is made up of two
parts (Genus & Species). The Genus is a generic term used in the classification of
living organisms or binomial nomenclature and species is a group of organisms
that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring.

For example: Homo sapiens

It is important to understand here that Homo represents the genus and is always starts in
capital letters. Sapiens is the species and is all lower case and in italics.

Features of organisms
All organisms are made of cells. Although the cellular structure may be different depending
on the type of organism, there are certain things that are universally shared across every
single organism:

• Cytoplasm
• Cell membrane
• DNA
• Ribosomes
• Enzymes

Now, we can actually organize every single organism into 5 main categories called
“kingdoms”. Here are the 5 kingdoms that you need to know:

• Animal (i.e. Lion)

• Plant (i.e. Tree)
• Fungus (i.e. Yeast)
• Prokaryote (i.e. Bacteria)
• Protoctist (i.e. Marimo)
You need to know the features of these 5 kingdoms so that for a given example of an
organism, you can determine the kingdom it belongs in. Here is a simple table to help you.

Now that we understand the features of the 5 kingdoms, we can actually branch further.
The syllabus wants you to understand how to classify different “types” of animals and
plants. In the animal kingdom, animals they can further be classed as vertebrates (with
backbone) or invertebrates (no backbone).

In the plant kingdom, plants can be classed into either flowering plants or ferns. The table
below (Oxford Revision Guide 2018) demonstrates the further classification of both the
animal and the plant kingdom.
Dichotomous keys
A dichotomous key is a tool that allows the user to determine the identity of items in the
natural world, such as trees, wildflowers, mammals, reptiles, rocks, and fish. Keys consist
of a series of choices that lead the user to the correct name of a given item.

For example, use the key to answer the question

 1. Wings present ……………………………………… Go to 2
Wings absent ……………………………………….. Go to 3
2. One pair of wings visible ………………………………. A
Two pairs of wings visible …………………………….. B
3. Three pairs of legs …………………………………………. C
Two pairs of legs …………………………………………… D

Since this insect has wins, and has two pairs visible, the answer is B!

2. Organisation Of An Organism
Cell structure and organisation
First of all, all organisms are mode of cells. They are like the lego blocks of life. The
syllabus wants you to know how to draw a basic animal and plant cell, label its structures,
and also explain the functions of each of the structures too.

At a very basic level, please refer to the diagram was below. The plant cell has everything
that an animal cell has, plus some added structures which are in green text. The functions
of each of these structures will be discussed further down the page.
So all cells have a cell membrane which is what allows or disallows certain things entering
and exiting the cell. The nucleus contains genetic information (DNA) and the cytoplasm is
a jelly-like substance in which everything else in the cell is suspended in. The
mitochondrion is the “power house’ of the cell and the reason for this name is due to the
fact that respiration occurs here. Plants have some extra structures such as cell walls (to
support the cell) and chloroplasts for photosynthesis. You will learn more about these in
future topics. Plants also have a permanent vacuole, whereas animal cells have small
temporary ones.

Whilst the above diagram but be sufficient for the core syllabus, the extended course
wants you to know two extra structures:

• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

• Ribosomes

The RER is basically a set of tubular membranes near the nucleus which have ribosomes
studded onto it, and the ribosomes are then used for protein synthesis.

These ribosomes can either be found on the RER (as mentioned before) but it can be found
free in the cytoplasm as well. If you are comfortable with the first diagram, take a look at
this one!
Structure & function summary

• Cell membrane – Selective control of what goes in and out of the cell
• Nucleus – Carries genetic material (DNA)
• Cytoplasm – Jelly like substance in which chemical reactions take place
• Vacuole – The vacuole has many functions
• Stores/isolates harmful material
• Stores small nutrients
• Maintains water balance
• Structural support for plant cells via turgor pressure
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum – Studded with ribosomes
• Ribosomes – Site of protein synthesis
• Mitochondria – Site of aerobic respiration (cells with high metabolism rates
will need lots of these to offer sufficient energy)
• Cell wall – Structural support for plant cells
• Chloroplast – Site of photosynthesis in plant cells

Levels of organisation
There are levels of organisation that you need to be aware of. As we discussed before, the
smallest unit of a living thing is a cell. So that’s a good place to start. A group of cells are
called tissues, a group of tissues are called organs, and a group of organs are then called
organ systems. Take a look here:

• Cell – The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism

• Tissue – Group of cells with similar structures working together to perform a
shared function
• Organ – Structure made up of a group of tissues, working together to perform
specific functions
• Organ system – Group of organs with related functions, working together to
perform body functions

Now some cells have structures that help them with their particular function. There are a
couple of these examples that CIE wants you to know:

• Ciliated cells
• Root hair cells
• Xylem vessels
• Palisade cells
• Nerve cells
• Red blood cells
• Sperm and egg cells

Each of the things above will naturally be covered in more detail in other topics in the
syllabus and therefore will not be covered here.

Size of specimens
In the lab, a lot of biology is done under a microscope. For example, we can’t exam the
cells of a human tissue with our naked eyes, right? Therefore, the purpose of the
microscope is to magnify our specimen so that it appears bigger for us to be able to
actually see.

Naturally, the CIE syllabus wants you to be able to perform basic equations regarding
magnification, the image size (of the specimen) and the actual size (of specimen). Please
memorize the following equation:
In an exam, they will always give you 2 out of the 3 factors in the equation and tell you to
find the missing one. Just apply the formula above and it will be a walk in the park!

3. Movement In And Out Of Cells

Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration to a
region of their lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their
random movement.

The constant random movement of particles (and their kinetic energy) allows diffusion to
occur. Ultimately this means that particles will spread out.
It is also important to understand that diffusion is quite often how molecules move in and
out of our cells through the cell membrane.

For example, the diagram below demonstrates a cell surrounded by nutrients (red dots).
We can see that on the left, there are a lot more nutrients outside the cell than inside the
cell.

By diffusion, the nutrients will diffuse into the cell (from higher to lower concentration)
until the number of nutrients inside and outside the cell are balanced.
There are certain factors that affect the rate of diffusion:

• Surface area
• The larger the surface area, the higher the rate of diffusion. This is
because more molecules at a given time will be diffusing.
• Temperature
• The higher the temperature, the higher the rate of diffusion. This is
because molecules are faster and have more kinetic energy with
higher temperatures.
• Concentration gradients
• The higher the concentration gradient, the higher the rate of
diffusion.
• Distance
• The shorter the distance, the higher the rate of diffusion. This is
quite self-explanatory. The shorter the distance the particles have to
move, the quicker the process is going to be.

Osmosis
Concept of osmosis

Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of high water potential
(dilute solution) to a region of low water potential (concentrated solution) through a
partially permeable membrane.

Think of osmosis as the diffusion of water across a partially permeable membrane. When
we are talking about water, we cannot use the term ‘concentration’ anymore because a
concentration denotes the amount of substance dissolved in water.

Because water cannot be dissolved in water, we need to use another term instead: Water
potential.

• For a very dilute solution, because it has a lot of water, it has a high water
potential.
• For a very concentrated solution, because it has less water, it has a low water
potential.
So lets apply this concept to osmosis. Refer to this diagram:
The left-hand side of the beaker has less solutes dissolved so therefore the solution is
more dilute (or less concentrated) compared to the right-hand side.

Under normal circumstances, the sugar themselves will diffuse across from RHS to the
LHS via diffusion (as we talked about earlier). However, the sugar molecules are too large
to pass through the partially permeable membrane, and therefore cannot diffuse.

Water molecules however can pass by freely through the membrane. The molecules will
travel from the region of high-water potential to low water potential so therefore in this
case, water will move from the RHS to the LHS via osmosis.

Osmosis in plant & animal cells

Cell membranes are partially permeable so cells absorb or remove water via osmosis.

Consider these scenarios:

1. Adding cell into pure water / dilute solution

• There will be higher water potential outside the cell than inside the
cell and therefore water will move in to the cell
• As water enters the cells they become ‘turgid’
• An animal cell can burst if too much water enters
• A plant cell has support from its cell wall and therefore
will most likely maintain its turgidity without bursting
2. Adding cell into concentrated solution
• There will be higher water potential inside the cell than the outside
and therefore water will move out of the cell
• As the water moves out, cells become ‘flaccid’
• An animal cell can become crenated if too much water is
lost
• A plant cell can become plasmolyzed if too much water is
lost. This is when the cytoplasm shrinks due to the loss
of water but the cell wall fails to shrink due to its tough
structure. The cytoplasm eventually tears away from the
cell wall.
Active transport
Active transport is the movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of
lower concentration to a region of higher concentration using energy from respiration.

Active transport is used in cases where diffusion or osmosis cannot be relied upon. For
example, what if a cell wanted to absorb extra nutrients from outside the cell despite
having a higher concentration of those nutrients inside the cell? Diffusion wouldn’t work
because the concentration gradient is going the opposite way. These situations are
encountered frequently in:

• Plant root hairs

• Villi epithelial cells

Active transport uses energy to oppose the concentration gradient and forcefully transport
molecules against it. Here is a simple diagram to help you visualize how it all works:
In the cell membranes of all cells, there are certain embedded protein molecules that carry
out this process. The protein basically ‘captures’ the molecules from one side of the cell,
and it changes shape in a way to transport the captured molecules to the other side of the
cell. Energy (from respiration) is required to alter the protein shape (referred as ATP in the
diagram).

4. Biological molecules
Biological molecules
Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are used as a source of
energy for the body. There are three types of carbohydrates: Monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

• Monosaccharides (i.e., glucose) are the simplest form of sugars. They are a
single unit and they cannot be broken down any further to make a simpler
sugar.
• Disaccharides are literally two monosaccharides joined together.
• Polysaccharides are large chains of monosaccharides joined together
 • Starch is a polysaccharide made of large chains of glucose
• Glycogen is another polysaccharide made of large chains of glucose
• Cellulose is a polysaccharide made of large chains of glucose

Fats/oils

Fats are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The oxygen content is lower than in
carbohydrates. Fats have various purposes in the body:

• Source of energy. In fact, they have two times higher energy content than
carbohydrates!
• Heat insulation
• Myelin sheath formation
• Cell membrane formation

Fats are made up of three fatty acid units attached to a single unit of glycerol:
Proteins

Proteins are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur or
phosphorus. They are extremely important to the body and serve many different functions.
here are a few:

• Growth
• Tissue repair
• Cell membrane formation
• Source of energy

Proteins are made of long chains of amino acids chemically bonded to each other. There are
about 20 different amino acids that are found in the human body. Different combinations of
these amino acids will give rise to different proteins.

For example, each of the different colored circles represent a different amino acid. They are
joined in a specific sequence as shown below:

It is really important to understand here that the final 3D structure of a protein is derived
from the specific interactions between amino acids that are joined in the protein chain.

The sequence of amino acids in the chain therefore creates the final shape of the protein,
and the shape is what gives the protein its function.

This diagram below represents how a single chain of amino acids eventually turn into a
complex 3D protein structure with a specific function.
For example: Consider amino acids A B C D and E. The hyphens represent a chemical bond
between the amino acids.

Protein 1: A-B-C-D-E
Protein 2: A-C-B-D-E

In the example above, protein 1 has amino acids A through to E joined in order. Protein 2 on
the other hand, has a slightly different amino acid sequence. Just from this slight
difference in amino acid order, protein 2 will be completely different from protein 1 in terms
of its function and structure. This is super important for you to understand.
Food testing
We can test for starch, monosaccharides, proteins, and fats in a given sample via the
following tests:

• Starch test [Starch test]

• Add a few drops of iodine solution
• Blue/black coloration means starch is present

• Benedict’s test [Monosaccharide test]

• Add equal amount of benedicts solution into a solution of food and
boil gently
• A colour change (from blue) signifies presence and quantity of
monosacchrides

• Biuret test [Protein test]

• Add an equal amount of sodium hydroxide to a solution of food and
mix
• Add a few drops of 1% copper sulphate
• A violet color signifies the presence of protein

• Emulsion test [Fat test]

• Dissolve food in ethanol and pour the solution into a clean tube of
water
• White emulsion signifies the presence of fat
DNA structure
As you may already know, genetic information is stored inside our DNA. Whilst you do not
need to go into full depth with this, CIE wants you to understand the generic structure of a
DNA molecule:

So first of all, a DNA has a double helix structure whereby two strands are coiled together.
Each strands have chemicals called bases. The double helix is held together via pairs of
bases that are attracted to each other from one strand to the other.

Bases will always pair up in the same way. Adenine (A) will always pair with Thymine (T).
Cytosine (C) will always pair with Guanine (G). The diagram above demonstrates this
pairing (i.e. green is always bonded to purple and pink is always bonded to blue).

Water
CIE wants you to understand the importance of water. Indeed, water is essential to the
human body for many things. One of these things being the fact that water is an important
solvent. This means that nutrients and wastes can be dissolved in water so that it can be
transported around the body. Moreover, majority of our chemical reactions inside our bodies
are controlled by enzymes. Enzymes cannot work unless it is in solution (i.e. in the
presence of water).

5. Enzymes
Enzymes
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of chemical reaction and is not changed
by the reaction itself.

An enzyme is a biological catalyst that catalyzes many important reactions inside an

organism (such as respiration) and therefore necessary to sustain life.

How enzymes work is more easily shown through a diagram. Take a look below:

Firstly, a substrate is a substance that an enzyme acts on. It is important to understand

that enzymes are very specific, and the reason for their specificity lies in their active sites
– a region of an enzyme that binds to a particular substrate. The shape of the active site of
an enzyme is complementary to only one specific substrate.

As demonstrated in the diagram, the green substrate has a shape that pairs impeccably
with the shape enzyme’s active site. As the enzyme binds with the substrate, an enzyme-
substrate complex is formed. The reaction then occurs on the enzyme and the enzyme-
product complex is formed. The products eventually leave the enzyme.

Enzyme activity VS Temperature & pH

There are certain factors that can impact enzyme activity. The two of which CIE wants you
to know is temperature and pH. But before getting into the details, you need to know that
all enzymes have an optimum temperature and an optimum pH. These are certain
temperatures or pH in which a particular enzyme works best in, and it can vary between
different enzymes.

For any given enzyme, if the conditions stray too far from the optimum, then denaturation
can occur. This is when extreme non-ideal conditions (i.e. high temperatures or very
low/high pH) causes chemical bonds in the enzymes to break apart. This results in the
change in shape of the enzyme’s active site. Remember, the active site has a very special
shape and it fits only one specific type (and shape) of substrate. An alteration in active
site will therefore cause the enzyme to lose function.

Temperature and enzyme activity

Low temperatures reduce the rate of chemical reactions in general. This is because
molecules need to collide with one another and have enough energy for a reaction to occur.
In low temperatures, molecules are traveling at lower speeds (less energy) and therefore
the rate of successful collisions are lower. Moreover, even when collisions do occur, the
molecules may have insufficient kinetic energies to begin with, and therefore the reaction
may not occur. Enzyme activity is therefore low in low temperatures. It is important to
note however, that low temperatures do not denature enzymes.

Higher temperatures generally increase the rate of chemical reactions. Molecules are
faster and have more kinetic energy. This means that rate of successful molecular
collisions are higher,and most molecules will have sufficient energy required for the
reaction. However, temperatures that are far beyond the optimum temperature of the
enzymes can start to denature it, and reduce enzyme activity as a result. Most enzymes
have an optimum temperature of approximately 37 degrees in the human body, and start
getting denatured at above 50 degrees.
pH and enzyme activity

The optimum pH of an enzyme can vary. Pepsin is an enzyme found in the stomach’s acidic
conditions and therefore made to work best in a pH of approximately 2. Amylase on the
other hand, is found in saliva (more neutral conditions) and therefore has an optimum pH
of 7. Very high or very low pH’s can denature these enzymes if it deviates too much from
their optimum.
 6. Plant Nutrition
Photosynthesis
Background

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw

materials using energy from light:

Chlorophyll is where photosynthesis happens. It transfers light energy into chemical energy
for the synthesis of carbohydrates (i.e. glucose).
The glucose is then either converted to sucrose for transport around the plant or starch for
storage.

Glucose is too reactive to be transported around the plant on its own. There it has to be
converted to sucrose first.

It is the same story with storage. Glucose cannot be stored due to its reactivity, so
therefore it must be converted to starch first.

Limiting factor

The term limiting factor is something present in the environment in such a short supply
that it restricts life processes.

For instance, if there was a shortage of carbon dioxide but all other raw materials were in
abundance, then carbon dioxide would be the limiting factor for photosynthesis. If there
was a shortage of chlorophyll, then that would become the limiting factor instead.

Investigations
Necessity of chlorophyll, light, and carbon dioxide

The equation for photosynthesis shows that chlorophyll, light, and carbon dioxide (and
water) are required, otherwise it won’t work… But can we prove it? We sure can.

In a nutshell, what we need to do is get a functioning plant and deprive it of each of these
factors individually and prove that the plant stops photosynthesizing when these factors
are absent.

The way to do that is pretty simple. First of all, we are going to de-starch all our plants by
leaving the plants in the dark for 48 hours. During this period the plants will be unable to
photosynthesize and therefore use up all its starch for respiration. This means that in the
beginning of our experiments, all plants (test and control) will have absolutely no starch in
them.
This means that after the experiment, if we do a starch test (iodine test) and we find
starch is present, it would indicate that photosynthesis had occurred.

It is to note however that we can’t just add iodine onto a fresh leaf and expect results.
First of all, we need to break the leaf so that iodine can seep in to begin with. Moreover,
we need to remove the chlorophyll to decolourize the leaf so that the colour change from
iodine is easier to see. So here are the steps we need to take:

• Boil the leaf in water

• Kills the leaf to make it permeable
• Boil the leaf in ethanol
• Chlorophyll dissolves and the leaf decolours
• Rinse the leaf in water
• Spread the leaf out on a white tile
• Add iodine solution

To investigate the effect of light on photosynthesis, we need to partially cover the leaves
of the plant and leave it under sunlight. The covered areas will be deprived of light whereas
the rest will be exposed. A starch test is then carried out after a few hours. The results
should show that the covered areas have a negative starch test (i.e. no photosynthesis)
whereas the exposed areas have a positive starch test.
To investigate the effect of carbon dioxide on photosynthesis , we place a test plant in a
container with a carbon dioxide absorber (i.e. sodium hydroxide) and a control plant
without the absorber. The absorber will remove the carbon dioxide.

A starch test is then carried out after several hours. The results should show that the test
plant has a negative result whereas the control plant has a positive one.

To investigate the effect of chlorophyll on photosynthesis , we need to use a plant with

variegated leaves. This means some parts of the leaf have chlorophyll whereas other parts
do not (and are whiter thus).

After several hours, a starch test is carried out. The results should show that parts of the
leaf without chlorophyll will show negative results whereas the parts that do have
chlorophyll will show a positive result.
Effect of light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature on rate of
photosynthesis

You need to be aware of a couple of different graphs. They are quite simple so don’t worry.

• Graph 1: Rate of photosynthesis increases with light intensity until it plateaus.

The graph plateaus because something else becomes the limiting factor (i.e.
carbon dioxide). This means that even with a stronger light intensity, there may
not be enough carbon dioxide to make the rate of photosynthesis even faster.
• Graph 2: Rate of photosynthesis increases with increasing carbon dioxide
concentration. Again, at a certain point the graph will plateau. In this case, the
light may become the limiting factor.
• Graph 3: The rate of photosynthesis increases with temperature until the graph
reverses and eventually drops down to zero. This is because high temperatures
will denature enzymes that are required for photosynthesis.
Leaf structure
You need to know the structure of a leaf, and how this structure is adapted for
photosynthesis.

We will go through the functions of each of the structures in the diagram above:

• Cuticle – Made of wax which waterproofs the leaf

• Upper epidermis – A barrier against disease organism. The cells are thin and
transparent to allow light to enter the leaf.
• Palisade mesophyll – Main site of photosynthesis. Cells are long and packed
with chloroplasts to trap light energy. They receive carbon dioxide via diffusion
from air spaces in the spongy mesophyll
• Spongy mesophyll – Cells are spherical and loosely packed. They contain
chloroplasts but not as many as the palisade layer. Loose packing creates air
spaces and this allows gas exchange (i.e. carbon dioxide to the cells, and
oxygen from the cells)
• Vascular bundle – Contains xylem and phloem. Xylem vessels bring water and
minerals to the leaf. Phloem vessels transport sugars and amino acids away
from the leaf to the rest of the plant (translocation)
• Lower epidermis – Acts as a protective layer. It contains the stomata
 • Stomata – These are gaps in the underside of the leaf, surrounding by a pair of
guard cells. The guard cells control whether the stoma is open or closed. It is
through stomata that carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf and oxygen diffuses
out. Water vapour is also lost through this structure in transpiration.

Mineral requirements
There are two important mineral requirements for plants that you need to be aware of.

Firstly, nitrate ions are important for plants as they are used in building amino acids
(which eventually become proteins). A nitrate ion deficiency would slow down the growth
of the plant, the stem would weaken. Lower leaves will turn yellow-ish and the upper
leaves will become pale green as they die off.

Secondly, magnesium ions are required to make chlorophyll. If a plant has a magnesium ion
deficiency then they will lack chlorophyll. Leaves turn yellow from the bottom of the stem
upwards and plant growth will slow down due to reduced photosynthesis.

7. Human Nutrition
Diet
Balanced diet

A balanced human diet contains all essential ingredients in the correct proportions

There are certain factors that affect diet such as:

• Age – Children require more protein per kg of body weight than adults
• Gender – Males generally use more energy than females
• Activity – Higher levels of physical activity will increase demand for nutrients
• Pregnancy – Higher demands for nutrients in order to supply fetus with energy
for development
• Breast feeding mother – Higher requirements for vitamin and water
Malnutrition

Malnutrition is the lack of a balanced diet such as deficiencies, excesses or imbalances in

a person’s intake of nutrients.

Malnutrition can lead to consequences such as:

• Obesity (excessive nutrients)

• Starvation (insufficient nutrients)
• Coronary heart disease (excessive saturated fat and cholesterol)
• Kwashiorkor (too much carbohydrates, too little protein)
• Constipation (lack of fibre)

Essential nutrients
Alimentary canal
Useful definitions

• Ingestion – Taking in of substances e.g. food and drink into the body through
the mouth
• Egestion – Passing out of food (as faeces) that has not been digested or
absorbed via the anus
• Mechanical digestion – Break down of food into smaller pieces without
chemical change to food molecules
• Chemical digestion – Break down of large insoluble molecules into small,
soluble molecules
• Absorption – Movement of chemically digested food molecules through the
small intestine walls into the blood
• Assimilation – Movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body
where they are used and become a part of the cells

Structure and function

Mouth

This is the location of ingestion. Mechanical digestion of food occurs as we chew on it with
our teeth. Chemical digestion occurs due to amylase enzymes in our saliva which break
down starch into maltose. Esophagus

Round clumps of food (boluses) are passed down the esophagus via peristalsis from the
mouth to the stomach.

Peristalsis is the contraction and relaxation of the esophagus wall muscles which creates
a wave-like motion that pushes the food down the canal.

Stomach

Mechanical digestion occurs as the stomach walls squeeze the food to liquefy it.

Gastric juices contain pepsin (a protease) which chemically digests proteins. It also
contains hydrochloric acid which kill bacteria, but also maintains an optimum acidic pH for
pepsin.

Pancreas

The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum.

The juice contains a large variety of different enzymes involved in the chemical digestion of
food.

• Proteases break down proteins

• Lipases break down lipids
• Amylases break down carbohydrates

Most enzymes in the pancreatic juice have an optimum pH of around 7. The pH of

pancreatic juice is slightly alkaline, and this is to neutralize the acidity of the food coming
from the stomach.
Duodenum

This is the first part of the small intestine. It receives pancreatic juice which contains
enzymes for the chemical digestion of food.

Ileum

This is the second part of the small intestine. The inner walls have finger-like extensions
called villi which massively increases the surface area for nutrient absorption.

Liver

The liver produces a substance called bile which is stored in the gal bladder.

Bile has the function of emulsifying fat into droplets to increase the surface area for
lipases to come and digest them.

Bile is also basic which assists in neutralizing the acidity of the food coming from the
stomach.

Colon

This is the second part of the large intestine. The main function of the colon is to reabsorb
water from undigested food and also bile salts to return back to the liver.

Rectum

The rectum stores faeces until it is egested

Anus

Muscles control egestion of feces

Cholera infection

Cholera bacteria releases toxins which cause chloride ions to be secreted into the small
intestine. This causes the osmotic movement of water into the gut, and leads to diarrhea.

NOTE: Diarrhea is defined as the loss of watery faeces

Diarrhea can be treated using oral rehydration therapy. It involves drinking water with
modest amounts of sugar and salts, specifically sodium and potassium.

Mechanical digestion
Types of human teeth

Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking food into smaller pieces, and our teeth
serve exactly that function!

There are four types of teeth:

• Molar
• Located at back of mouth
• 4 or 5 cusps
• 2 or 3 roots
• Used for chewing and grinding food
• Pre-molar
• Behind canines
• 2 cusps
• 1 or 2 roots
• Used to tear and grind food
• Canine
• On either side of incisors
• More pointy than incisors
• Used to bite pieces of food
• Incisor
• In front of the mouth
• Chisel shaped
• Used to bite off food pieces
Structure of human teeth

Dental decay

• Dental decay is caused by bacteria which is present on the surface of our

teeth.
• The bacteria and food deposits form a layer called plaque.
• Bacteria in plaque feed on sugars which produce acid that dissolves the
enamel, resulting in a hole.
• As the hole deepens it may eventually reach the nerves which result in pain i.e.
tooth ache.
Proper dental care

• Avoid sugary food so that bacteria cannot make acid

• Regular cleaning to remove plaque
• Use floss to remove trapped food
• Visit the dentist regularly for treating early decay and removal of thick plaque

Chemical digestion
Chemical digestion involves breaking down large, insoluble food into smaller soluble
nutrients that can be absorbed and used by the cells.

Chemical digestion is carried out by enzymes. A lot about chemical digestion has already
been covered above in regards to the alimentary canal, and what enzymes are found
where.

Summary of enzymes that you should be aware of:

Remember, the acidic pH of the stomach is maintained by hydrochloric acid which also kills
bacteria via denaturing their enzymes.
The alkaline conditions of the small intestine is maintained by pancreatic juice and bile.
The bile also has the function of emulsifying fats into droplets to increase the surface area
for digestion

Absorption
After large food molecules get digested by enzymes, the small soluble
nutrients diffuse into the small intestine walls and then into the blood.

Sometimes the concentration of nutrients i.e. glucose may be higher in the blood than in
the small intestine. In such cases diffusion cannot be relied upon. Instead, active
transport is used for absorption.

Absorption is defined as the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall
of the intestine into the blood. It can either be done through diffusion or active transport.

The inner walls of the small intestine have finger-like structures called villi which greatly
increases the surface area of absorption.

Structure of a villus
 • Blood vessels/capillaries
• Absorbs glucose and amino acids by diffusion
• Lacteal
• Absorbs fatty acids and glycerol
• Epithelial lining
• One cell thick to increase diffusion rate
• Microvilli increase surface area even further

8. Plant Transport
Xylem and phloem
Function

The transport system in plants is mainly made of the xylem and phloem tissue.

• Xylem tissue transports water, mineral ions, and solutes from the roots to the
leaves.
• Phloem tissue transports nutrients from the leaves to the rest of the plant.

Structure

You need to be able to recognize the xylem & phloem in three different parts of the plant:
leaf, stem, and root

Leaf
Stem

Root

Water uptake in roots

Root structure:
Water, mineral ions, and other nutrients are absorbed into the plants via the roots.

Root hair cells are cellular extensions which drastically increase the surface area for
absorption.

Waters moves from the soil into the xylem via osmosis.

Pathway of water through a plant

Movement in the root

Water in the soil is absorbed into the root hair cells via osmosis. It then makes its way
through the root cortex, across the endodermis, and into finally into the xylem.

Movement in the xylem

Water moves up the xylem due to a combination of factors that include: transpirational
pool, root pressure, and cohesion.
Transpirational pool is when water leaves the leaf via transpiration and therefore results
in negative pressure at the top of the plant.

Root pressure is when water is absorbed in the roots via osmosis resulting to positive
pressure at the bottom of the plant.

A column of water is drawn up the plant from low to high pressure. Water molecules ‘stick
together’ due to cohesion allowing the entire column of water to be drawn.

Water movement in the xylem is much like water movement in a straw. When you stuck on
the top end of the straw it reduces pressure compared to the bottom of the straw. A
column of liquid is therefore drawn from low to high pressure. The liquid column sticks
together due to cohesion.

Movement in the leaf

Water enters the leaf through the vascular bundle and can move directly into palisade or
spongy mesophyll cells to be used for photosynthesis.

Otherwise, water evaporates into the air spaces in the spongy mesophyll layer, where they
diffuse out via the stomata. We call this transpiration.

Transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of water vapor from leaves via the stomata.

Once water enters the leaf via the xylem vessels of the vascular bundle, it travels to the
mesophyll cells to be used in photosynthesis.

Some water remains on the surfaces of these mesophyll cells and evaporate into the air
spaces of the spongy mesophyll layer. Water vapor diffuses out of the leaf via the
stomata.

Factors that affect transpiration rate are:

 • Temperature
• Higher temperatures result in faster moving molecules and therefore
increases diffusion rate, which in turn, increases transpiration rate
• Humidity
• Higher humidity results in a lower concentration gradient and thus
reduces diffusion rate, which in turn, reduces transpiration rate

Translocation
Translocation is the movement of sucrose and amino acids in the phloem from the source
to the sink.

• Source is the region of production

• Sink is the region of storage OR where they are used in respiration or growth

Some parts of the plant may act as a source and sink at different times during the plant
life.

• Leaves are the source most of the time but can become a sink in periods of
growth i.e., after autumn when plants growth their leaves again

9. Animal Transport
Circulatory system
The circulatory system is a system of blood vessels with a pump and valves to ensure one way flow of
blood.

• Single circulation means blood passes through the heart only once i.e. fish
• Double circulation means blood passes through the heart twice i.e. mammals

Double circulation is advantageous because it maintains a higher blood pressure compared to a single
circulation system.
Blood flow around the body
All mammals (including humans) have a double circulatory system of blood flow.

1. Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium (RA)

2. Deoxygenated blood enters the right ventricle (RV)
3. Deoxygenated blood is pumped by the RV to the lungs to become oxygenated
4. Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium (LA)
5. Oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle (LV)
6. Oxygenated blood is pumped by the LV to the rest of the body
7. Body cells use the oxygen and cause the blood to become deoxygenated
8. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart and the cycle repeats (step 1)

It is very important to understand these steps now so that it makes life easier when we
dive deeper into the heart structure later.
Heart structure and function
Structure of the heart

It is extremely important you familiarize yourself with the different structures of the heart
and the direction of blood flow through it

Vena cava → Right atrium → Atrioventricular valve → Right ventricle →

Semilunar valve → Pulmonary artery → Lungs →Pulmonary vein → Left atrium
→ Atrioventricular valve → Left ventricle → Semi-lunar valve → Aorta → Body
→ Vena cava
Functions of the different structures

Atrium

The right and left atrium contracts to pump blood into the right and left ventricles respectively

Ventricles

The right ventricle contracts to pump blood to the lungs (to become oxygenated).

The left ventricle contracts to pump blood to the rest of the body. It has a thicker wall than the right
ventricle because it needs to pump blood further, and therefore needs more force.

Atrioventricular valves

The aterioventricular valves separate the atrium and ventricles on both sides of the heart.

These valves prevent the backflow of blood, thus ensuring a one way flow of blood from the atria to
the ventricles.

Semilunar valves

Semilunar valves are found within the pulmonary arteries and the aorta. They prevent the backflow of
blood and ensures unidirectional blood flow in the arteries.

Pulmonary artery

The pulmonary artery carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs

Pulmonary vein

The pulmonary vein carries blood from the lungs to the left atrium

Aorta

The aorta is a large artery which carries blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body
Vena cava

The vena cava is a large vein which carries deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart (right
atrium)

Septum

The septum is a thick muscular wall which separates the right and left side of the heart. This
separation is important to ensure that oxygenated and deoxygenated blood does not mix.

Activity of the heart

Physical activity increases heart rate
Heart rate is the rate at which the heart beats. The most common way to measure heart rate is by
measuring the pulse rate.

The pulse rate is exactly equal to the heart rate, as the contractions of the heart cause the
increases in blood pressure in the arteries that lead to a noticeable pulse.

Physical activity increases the energy demand in muscles such as the arms and legs. With an
increased rate of respiration, blood must be travel quicker to the muscles to supply them of
oxygen/nutrients whilst also removing waste products such as carbon dioxide. The heart rate
therefore increases to meet these demands.

Electrocardiogram (ECG)
An electrocardiogram is a device which can track heart activity. It can accurately measure pulse rates
via the opening and closing of heart valves.

Details regarding the electrocardiogram is not required

Coronary heart disease
What is coronary heart disease

So far we know that the heart functions as a pump which delivers blood to the rest of the body.
However, the heart muscles themselves also need a blood supply because they too, are respiring
muscles.

The coronary artery is the very important artery which provides the heart muscles with blood.

Coronary heart disease is when the coronary artery becomes blocked, leading to blood (and oxygen)
starvation in the heart muscles. This leads to a heart attack.

Causes

Blockage of the coronary artery begins by the narrowing of the artery due to cholesterol build up on the
inner walls.

Total blockage can occur when a blood clot gets ‘stuck’ in these narrow arteries.
Risk factors

There are certain factors that increase the risk of an individual developing coronary heart disease:

• Poor diet
• Stress
• Smoking
• Genetics
• Age
• Gender

Treatment with medications

Blood thinning medications are used to reduce the chances of a blood clot forming

Treatment with surgery

• Stents are a tube shaped device which is placed inside the coronary arteries to physically
hold it open
• Angeioplasty is a stent with a balloon which can be inflated once the stent is inserted to
even further increase the diameter of the artery
 • Bypass is the process of making a separate ‘new’ artery to allow for an alternative blood
path that the heart can use to receive blood (rather than relying only on the coronary
artery)

Blood vessels
Blood vessels are a tubular structures carrying blood through the tissues and organs. Starting from
the heart, the pathway of blood is as follows:

[HEART] → Artery → Arteriole → Capillary → Venule → Vein → [HEART]

You do not need to know all the details of the below diagram. Just concentrate on the
arrangement of the vessels i.e. how the artery branches out into arterioles which branch
further into capillaries. Also notice how capillaries join to form venules which join further to
become the vein.
Arteries

Arteries take blood away from the heart. They have several important structural features:

• Thick muscular walls to withstand blood being carried at high pressures

• Narrow lumen which expands as blood pulsates through to maintain blood pressure
• Valves absent since high blood pressures prevent back flow

Arterioles

Arterioles are smaller branches of an artery. They eventually branch further to form capillaries.

• Arterioles have muscular/elastic walls that can constrict & dilate in order to regulate
blood flow.

Capillaries

Capillaries are fine branching blood vessels that form a network between the arterioles and venule.
They allow for the nutrient & waste exchange between the blood and the tissues of the body. The
features of capillaries are as follows:

• Walls are one cell thick to allow for quick diffusion of diffuse rates of nutrients/wastes
• Luman has a diameter of just one RBC to allow blood cells to pass closely to the walls
for faster diffusion rates
• Valves are absent since the narrow capillary lumen ensures unidirectional blood flow

Venules

Venules are small vessels formed from the joining of the capillaries. Venules combine to establish a
vein.

Veins

Veins take the blood towards the heart. Their structural features are as follows:

• Thin walls with little muscle & elastic fibres (thick muscles not required since blood is
carried at low pressure)
• Large lumen to reduce blood flow resistance
• Valves present to prevent blood back flow

Shunt vessels

Shunt vessels are blood vessels that connect blood directly from the arterioles to the venules. This
allows for an alternative route for blood flow (i.e. blood bypasses the capillaries).

Like arterioles, shunt vessels have walls that can construct & dilate in order to regulate blood flow.
Tissue fluid

Tissue fluid is the fluid which bathes most body tissues.

The fluid is the mode of nutrient & waste exchange between the blood and respiring tissues.

For example:

• Waste products (such as carbon dioxide) from cells diffuse into the tissue fluid first
before diffusing in the blood
• Nutrients (such as glucose) diffuse into the tissue fluid first before diffusing into the
cells

Tissue fluid is produced by leakage of certain substances from blood capillaries, and drained out by the
lymphatic vessels of the lymphatic system.
Details of tissue fluid production and drainage are NOT required. Just understand that
blood capillaries LEAK tissue fluid and the tissue fluid is DRAINED by lymphatic vessels.
The tissue fluid inside lymph vessels are called LYMPH.

The lymphatic system is composed of lymphatic vessels which carry “lymph” and lymph nodes which
produce lymphocytes for immunity.

Blood
Blood is a mixture of several components such as:

• Red blood cells (RBCs)

• White blood cells (WBCs)
• Platelets
• Plasma

Plasma

Blood plasma makes up about 50% of the blood. It is a yellowish liquid that carries the other blood
components such as RBCs/WBCs/platelets.

Red blood cells

Red blood cells contain hemoglobin which binds to oxygen for transportation around the body.
White blood cells

White blood cells are part of the immune system that helps to destroy foreign organisms such as
bacteria.

There are two types of white blood cells that you need to be aware of:

• Phagocytes are types of WBCs which engulf and digest pathogens via phagocytosis
• Lymphocytes are WBCs which produce antibodies

More will be learnt about phagocytosis and antibodies in the next chapter

Platelets

Platelets are substances that form blood clots which is a protective mechanism to prevent blood loss
during an injury.

At the site of damage, platelets immediately stick together and release chemical signals which
attract other nearby cells and clump them together.

A series of of chemical reactions take place. Fibrinogen is converted into fibrin and this forms a thread
which traps RBCs to establish a thick clot. The clot seals off the site of damage.

10. Diseases And Immunity

Pathogen and disease
A pathogen is defined as a disease causing organism. Each pathogen has a uniquely
shaped ‘marker’ on the surface of their membranes called antigens.
It is very important to understand that antigens are very specific in shape. Every pathogen
is unique because they have differently shaped antigens on their cell surfaces!

A transmissible disease is a disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one host
to another. The pathogen can be transmitted through direct contact (i.e. blood/body fluids)
or indirect contact (i.e. contaminated food/air/animals/etc.)

Body defenses
In order to protect ourselves from pathogens and disease, our body has several protective
mechanisms in place.

Mechanical barriers

Mechanical barriers act as a physical obstruction in order to prevent pathogens from

entering our body. For example:

• Skin
• Nose hairs

Chemical barriers

Chemical barriers are chemical substances in the body which help to trap or destroy
pathogens. For example:

• Mucus
 •Traps bacteria that enters the respiratory system via air. The mucus
is then beat upwards by the cilia and pushed up to the mouth.
• Stomach acid
• The acidity kills pathogens that enter our digestive system via the
food we eat.

Cellular barriers

Cellular barriers are the protection offered by the cells of our immune system, which take
part in combating against pathogens and disease. For example:

• Lymphocytes (which produce antibodies)

• Phagocytes

Antibodies and phagocytes will be covered in detail below

Cellular barriers
Phagocytosis

Phagocytosis is the mechanism by which phagocytes digest pathogens.

The steps of phagocytosis is as follows:

• Phagocyte extends itself and engulfs the pathogen

• Pathogen becomes trapped in a vesicle called phagosome
• Other vesicles containing digestive enzymes fuse with the phagosome
• Enzymes digest the pathogen
Antibodies

Function

Antibodies are proteins produced by cells called lymphocytes.

They bind to the antigens on pathogens and can either:

• Destroy the pathogen directly

OR
• Alert phagocytes for destruction via phagocytosis

Remember, each pathogen has a uniquely shaped antigen on their cell surfaces. Therefore,
for a particular antibody to aid the destruction of a certain pathogen, the shape of the
antigen must be ‘fit’ or be ‘complementary’ to the shape of that particular antigen!

In the example below, only antibody A can ‘lock’ onto antigen A and therefore aid its
destruction. Antibody B cannot due to the fact that it does not have a complementary
shape to antigen A.
Production

Antibodies are produced by lymphocytes. Lymphocytes have receptors in their cell

membranes that have a complementary shape to a certain antigen.

Lets consider lymphocyte A which have receptors that have a complementary shape to
antigen A.

When a lymphocyte A comes across a pathogen with antigen A on its cell surface, their
receptors can recognize the antigen and activate lymphocyte A.

The activated lymphocyte A then produces antibodies that have the same shape as their
receptors, meaning that these antibodies can lock onto antigen A and destroy them.

Activated lymphocytes also produce memory cells, which are long-lived cells that remain in
the blood even after the infection is over. They have the ability to rapidly produce the
original antibodies if it were to come across the same pathogen/antigen again.
Vaccination
Vaccination is a treatment with a vaccine to evoke immunity to a certain antigen.

The vaccination process

The process of vaccination is as follows:

 • A harmless variant on a certain antigen is introduced to the body i.e. via
needle
• Immune response is triggered and activate lymphocytes produce antibodies
and memory cells to fight against the antigen variant
• Therefore if the real antigen/pathogen eventually makes its way inside the
body, there are pre-established antibodies/memory cells which can rapidly fight
against it.

Controlling the spread of disease

Herd immunity is the idea that if most people of a population is immune to a disease, then
the population becomes significantly resistant to the spread of that disease.

In other words, if majority of the population is immunized, it protects the people that are
not.

Other consideration for controlling the spread of disease is as follows:

• Personal hygiene
• Food hygiene
• Waste disposal
• Sewage treatment

Passive immunity
Passive immunity is a short-term defense again a pathogen by antibodies transferred from
one individual to another (rather than making their own).

For example, children benefit from the antibodies present in the mother’s breast milk.

Autoimmune disease
Some diseases are caused by the immune system targeting and destroying friendly body
cells.
Type 1 diabetes is an example of an autoimmune disease whereby immune cells attack
insulin producing beta cells in the pancreas.

11. Gas Exchange In Humans

Respiratory system
The respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures
used for gas exchange.

Gas exchange (in humans) is the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream, and
the elimination of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the lungs.

The air enters the nasal cavity and makes it’s way down the trachea and into the
lungs. The trachea branches into bronchi, which branches further into bronchioles.

The trachea is surrounded by cartilage which strengthens and supports the trachea.

The rib cage (not shown in the diagram) surrounds the lungs and its contents. It acts as a
protective barrier and plays a vital role in inhalation and exhalation.
At the end of the bronchioles we find alveoli which is the gas exchange surface of the
human respiratory system. The alveoli is the site at which oxygen is exchanged for carbon
dioxide.

The alveoli have an extremely large surface area for gas exchange, and are surrounded by
numerous capillaries to allow good ventilation with air.

Inhalation and exhalation

Inhalation allows the body to obtain oxygen from air, and exhalation allows the excretion
of carbon dioxide.

To understand how inhalation and exhalation works, it is important to understand the

concept of thoracic volume i.e. the volume of the thorax.
Thoracic volume and air pressure

Air will always move from higher air pressure to lower air pressure.

• When the thorax volume increases it reduces the air pressure inside the thorax
(below atmospheric pressure). Air therefore travels into the body i.e. inhalation
• When the thorax volume decreases it increases the air pressure inside the
thorax (above atmospheric pressure). Air therefore travels out of the body i.e.
exhalation

Thorax is the part of the body of a mammal between the neck and the abdomen

The volume of the thorax is dependent on two factors:

• Position of the rib cage

• Position of the diaphragm

Inhalation

During inhalation, the thoracic volume increases to make the air pressure in the thorax to
fall below atmospheric levels, and thus forcing air into the body.

This increase in thoracic volume is due to:

 • Contraction of external intercostal muscles which cause the ribs to move up
and out
• Contract of diaphragm which causes the dome-shape to flatten

Exhalation

During exhalation, the thoracic volume decreases to make the air pressure in the thorax
above atmospheric levels, and thus forcing air out of the body.

The decrease in thoracic volume is due to:

• Relaxation of intercoastal muscles causing the rib cage to move down and in
• Relaxation of the diaphragm resulting in the original dome-shaped appearance

Air composition
The air composition of inspired and expired air is different. Inspired air has more oxygen,
whilst expired air has more carbon dioxide (for obvious reasons of respiration). Nitrogen
remains constant as our bodies cannot make use of nitrogen gas.

The limewater test can confirm the elevated presence of carbon dioxide in expired air. It is
a clear liquid which turns milky when it reacts with carbon dioxide. Blowing into limewater
with a straw will indeed cause it become milky.

Physical activity on breathing

With physical activity both the rate and depth of breathing increases.

Exercise means body cells respire more rapidly. More carbon dioxide is produced as a result
and the increased carbon dioxide concentration in the blood leads to an increase in blood
acidity i.e. decreased blood pH.

The brain detects the increased blood acidity and signals for the increase in breathing rate
and depth to allow carbon dioxide to be excreted quicker. It also of course allows oxygen to
get to respiring cells faster as well.