T9a Series Resonance

PROJECT Name: _____________________________

1.1 Resonance in Series Circuits

When an inductor is connected in series with a capacitor, the magnetic energy absorbed by the inductor in one part
of the a.c. cycle, is transferred over to be electrostatically stored by the capacitor in another part of the cycle, which
in turn returns the energy to the inductor as the a.c. cycle moves on. This pendulum like to-ing and fro-ing of energy
within the circuit is referred to as resonance and produces some interesting side effects.
A series circuit is in resonance when XL = XC
When XL = XC, there is no measurable reactive component, because they negate each other thus the circuit is
virtually purely resistive.
In this situation:-
Impedance (Z) = Resistance
Power Factor = Unity
Current = Maximum
At resonance Where
X L = XC f O = Resonant frequency
1 L = Inductance in Henries
2 fL
2 fC C = Capacitance in Farads.
Transposed for frequency
1
fO
2 LC

1.2. Problems with resonance in series circuits

When resonance occurs, the voltages across the coil and the capacitor may become quite high, which can stress the
insulation on these devices to breaking point.
When resonance occurs, the only component limiting the current in the circuit is the resistive component, and if this
has a low value, a large current can flow which can cause damage by overheating.

1. The current in an a.c. circuit that has resistance and 3. Resonance occurs in an RLC series circuit when the:
inductance in series will: a. capacitive reactance equals the inductive
a. lag the applied voltage by an angle between 0 reactance
and 90 degrees b. inductance and capacitance are equal
b. lead the applied voltage by an angle between c. impedance is a maximum
90 and 180 degrees d. power is a minimum.
c. always be in phase with the applied voltage
d. none of the above. 4. If a series resonant circuit with a low value of
resistance is connected to an a.c. supply, a problem
2. When resonance occurs in a series circuit, the may occur with:
impedance is equal to the: a. the supply voltage being excessive
a. inductive reactance b. insufficient capacitor current
b. capacitive reactance c. a resulting low power factor
c. total resistance d. insulation failure of the capacitor.
d. total reactance.
5. If a series RLC circuit is operating at resonance, the
current is:
a. determined by capacitive reactance only
b. maximum
c. minimum
d. determined by inductive reactance only

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6. A series circuit consists of an inductor of 0.1 henry and a 20 microfarad capacitor. Calculate the resonant frequency
of the circuit.

7. A 240 V series circuit has a resistance of 4 ohms, an inductance of 0.2 henry and capacitance of 50 microfarads.
Determine:
a. the frequency required to produce resonance
b. the current at resonant frequency
c. the voltage drop across each component of the circuit

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 T9b Parallel Resonance

PROJECT Name: __________________________________

2.1. Resonance in parallel a.c. circuits

Resonance occurs in a parallel a.c. circuit when;
- the inductive reactance XL = the capacitive reactance XC
The combination of similar values of XL and XC connected in parallel makes an infinite impedance, and so at
resonant frequency, the combination presents an open circuit to the supply current.
Current does circulate between the capacitor and the inductor however, which may cause damage by
overheating the components.
An RLC parallel circuit operating at resonance will exhibit the following conditions:-
- Impedance will be maximum
- Impedance will equal the resistance
- Power factor will be unity
- Current will be minimum for a constant voltage.
With pure capacitance in parallel with pure inductance, and no resistance, the following equation can be used to
determine the resonant frequency:-
1
fO Hz
2 LC
If a parallel branch of resistance is present in the circuit (not examinable):-
1 L
fO R 2 Hz
2 C

1. When resonance occurs in a parallel circuit, the 4. If a parallel circuit is operating at resonance, the
impedance is equal to the: circuit impedance is:
a. inductive reactance a. a minimum
b. capacitive reactance b. determined by capacitive reactance only
c. total resistance c. a maximum
d. total reactance. d. determined by inductive reactance only.

2. Resonance occurs in an RLC parallel circuit when 5. Increasing the capacitance of a capacitor
the: connected in parallel with a resistor will cause the
a. capacitive reactance equals the inductive a.c. supply current to:
reactance a. increase
b. inductance and capacitance are equal b. decrease
c. impedance is a minimum c. lag the applied EMF
d. power is a minimum d. be at unity power factor.

3. If a parallel RLC circuit is operating at resonance, 6. The current values in the parallel branches of an
the supply current is: a.c. circuit may be added together numerically to
a. determined by capacitive reactance only obtain the total current if the:
b. maximum a. current lags the voltage by the same angle
c. minimum in each branch
d. determined by inductive reactance only. b. true power of each branch is the same
c. current in each branch is the same
d. apparent power of each branch is the
same.
7. A 0.15 henry inductor and a variable capacitor are connected in parallel across a 100 volt, 100 hertz supply.
Calculate the value of capacitance to give resonance.

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 T9c HARMONICS

PROJECT Name: ____________________________

1. Linear and non Linear Loads

All electrical loads can be broadly classified into two groups.
- Linear loads
- Non linear loads
1.1. Linear loads
Linear loads have a stable opposition to the supply voltage. This means that when they are
supplied with a sinusoidal voltage, the current that results has a sinusoidal pattern of the same
frequency. A resistor is an example of a linear load.

Electrical Principles 2nd Ed, CENGAGE Learning, Phillips P

1.2. Non Linear loads

Non Linear loads have an unstable opposition to the supply voltage. They are unstable in the sense
that as they operate, their ohmic opposition to the circuit voltage is constantly changing. One
typical example is an electronic ballast which limits the circuit current by switching it on and off in
short bursts. The current that results does not have a sinusoidal shape.

Electrical Principles 2nd Ed, CENGAGE Learning, Phillips P

2. Harmonic Frequencies
The building blocks of any wave shape are sine waves of varying frequencies and amplitude.
In many wave shapes, the building block frequencies are just multiples of what is called a
fundamental frequency.
The fundamental frequency for ac supply systems in Australia is a 50 Hz sine wave.

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 If a load on the system distorts this fundamental frequency in any way, then the shape of the
distorted wave can be analyzed in terms of harmonics.
- If a fundamental 1st harmonic wave is 50 Hz, then a 2nd harmonic wave is 100 Hz, and a 3rd
harmonic wave would be 150 Hz.
Any order of harmonic present combines with the fundamental frequency to produce a uniquely
distorted wave.
Harmonics are classified into odd (3rd 5th…) and even (2nd 4th…), and in turn produce symmetrical or
non symmetrical outcomes on the system.
Even harmonics tend to cancel each other, but odd harmonics tend to add to one another.
Below is an example of 5th harmonic distortion

Electrical Principles 2nd Ed, CENGAGE Learning, Phillips P

3. Electrical loads that distort the sinusoidal wave by introducing harmonics

Gas discharge lighting: – arcing in the lamp in combination with the iron core in the ballast.
Rotating machines: - as the magnetic core goes into saturation at the peak of the sine wave, the
ohmic opposition of the motor changes, thus distorting the current wave.
Semiconductor power control devices : diodes, transistors, silicon controlled rectifiers and
triacs, distort the current wave as they chop pieces out of the sine wave.
Induction heaters: generate high frequency magnetic pulses in metallic loads, where again the
magnetic saturation of the metallic load provides a non linear response.
Arc Equipment: Like arc furnaces and arc welders
Switched Mode Power Supplies: These types of power supplies are found in computers, displays,
printers, fax machines. Rapid switching of current causes high levels of harmonics.

4. Problems caused by harmonics

If the distorted waveform produces an rms value of > 0.707 then it will result in more heat in the
resistance of wiring systems, and windings in motors and transformers causing deterioration in the
insulation.
Large discharge lighting installations connected across a three phase supply create a harmonic
problem peculiar to the neutral conductor supplying the installation, in that 90% of the neutral
current may be odd harmonic current, which if not factored in to determine the size of the neutral
may result in a badly overheated neutral.
Harmonics due to their higher frequencies can cause interference in microprocessor control signals.
Harmonics distortion can cause damage to capacitors as their reactance decreases with higher
frequencies.
Energy metering can become inaccurate as harmonics distort the summation fluxes being induced
into the aluminium disc.
Less sophisticated tong testers are unable to identify harmonics, but newer types that are designed
to measure true rms values will include the higher frequencies.

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5. Symptoms of harmonics
Overheated neutral on balanced 3 loads
Hot and noisy transformers
Induction motors running hot
Output capacitors of UPS’s fail frequently
Low power factor
Circuit breakers nuisance tripping
Hum in telecommunication lines

6. Ways of reducing harmonic problems

Use power supplies fitted with internal harmonic suppression and power factor correction
Add line reactors at sources of harmonic currents to reduce size of harmonics.
Balance harmonic loads
De rate cables and equipment.
Utilize a delta connection on 3 transformer configurations.

7. See Section 6 of the Service Rules for practical information on harmonics

Questions.

1. What is the difference between a linear and non linear load?

2. What is the fundamental frequency for a.c. supply systems in Australia.

3. If the fundamental frequency is 60 Hz, what would be the fifth harmonic?

4. What happens as the iron core of a motor is working that harmonically distorts the current wave?

5. How does the way a switched mode power supply works distort the current wave?

6. What basic problem do odd harmonics cause for a neutral cond

7. What advantage is there in owning a clamp tester that can read true rms.

8. What would you suspect if a circuit breaker kept tripping, but the circuit load was rated at less than the
circuit breaker rating

9. How would you reduce the harmonic distortion resulting from a power supply?

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