STRAIGHTFORWARD REVIEW CHEMISTRY

FAMILIAR FLAT CHEMISTRY

REVIEWED NOTES

Still have glitches or weedy in the subject?

Respite term assistance / Holiday Program.

Contact and Book Senior Tutor

Duty station : Pajule Home

Booking : +𝟐𝟓𝟔 (𝟎)𝟕𝟕𝟑 𝟗𝟏𝟓 𝟗𝟖𝟑

𝟕𝟓𝟓 𝟗𝟔𝟑 𝟕𝟏𝟓
Email : [email protected]

Objective : helping you understand Fundamental

Principles of the subject.

© 2015 RUBANGAKENE FELIX GEOFREY

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 1

 IN THE NAME OF GOD MOST GRACIOUS & MERCIFUL,

PERSEVERANCE:
I pledge this book to my parents Mr.P’Ochure Michael Ocaya & Mrs.Ocaya
Christian Akumu the late (RIP) for continued love, moral, financial, & spiritual
assistance rendered to me since childhood and throughout my life to-date.

There are those special people in this world who give & give without taking
who offer without asking for much in return, I dedicate this book to the best of
them.
MAY THE ALMIGHTY FATHER REWARD ALL OF YOU
ABUNDANTLY.

ACKNOWLEGEMENTS:
I am grateful to my parents for whatever they have rendered to me. And
I am also so grateful to my special and beloved wife Tutor Bridget Baseke.

Work of this nation is by no means a single person’s effort. It has been a result
of many kind and helpful people who have willingly assisted me whenever
approached.

I am also glad to my prodigious teachers, Mr. Otto Stephen, Mr.Obala Peter,

Okello Charles Waliky & Mr.Kilama Stephen of Sir Samuel Baker School,
who awkward to take me thought the impenetrable maze of science to make
me appreciate it to the point of producing work of this nature.

I am also particularly grateful to senior Chemist Mr. Otto Stephen for the
tireless efforts, advice & guidance he accorded to me during the writing of this
book so as to reach this customary.
Am grateful to him for keeping everything going while I am off in my academic
pursuance and university.
More so I am grateful for his sharp tabloid eye.

I can’t forget to move a show of hands of cheers to my colleagues, Dr.Oyo

Benedict & Dr.Bongomin Felix of Gulu University, Mr. Keith Obot &
Mr.Onen Tony of St. Mary’s College Kisubi, Mr.Wokorach Godfrey of St.
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 2
Joseph’s College Layibi for the support and advice they rendered to me when I
was carrying out research on the subject.
To my prior apprentices of Lira Integrated Senior Secondary School,
Principally Adopo Julius was my greatest instigators.

PREAMBLE:
In this era of scientific advancement, Chemistry becomes unavoidable.

This book is intended for use in secondary especially advanced level.

It will facilitate both the teachers and the students to focus intensively on each
practical.
It contains detailed scientific approaches, experiments, explanations and
illustrations.

Revision questions and Answers are provided topic by topic meanwhile UNEB
sample questions are also provided.
These questions are intended to form the basics of interactions between
teachers and students or student discussion groups.
To emphasize this, the simplified language and approach used in this book
aims at making chemistry as a subject easy to understand, straight forward,
attractive friendly to students.
This book has been developed in line with the most recent developments of
Uganda national curriculum center teaching syllabus and UNEB syllabus.
It is therefore of great pro to all secondary schools most especially those
which may not be able to afford a wide range of text books for use by their
teachers, students & the discussion groups.
The trial queries are intended to enhance group dialogue for students,
reference questions are for exams & seminars.
We hope that the student who follows the layout of this paperback will in the
end have got enough familiarity in enabling a wide range of questions in
exams.
The students will be fully prepared to both mock and UNEB examinations.
We have a vision as most students will turn as scientists to meet the ever
increased demand for science graduate in various technical castigation of
medicine, agriculture & forestry.

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 3

INTRODUCTION:
Inorganic chemistry is the study of chemical substances other than carbon compounds
(Hydrocarbons) and their derivatives.
Inorganic chemistry gives a relative factual information concerning modes of preparation,
manufacture, properties and uses of other inorganic chemicals.
Golden tips:
The study of inorganic chemistry explains the specific characteristics, similarities,
differences and trend in observation.
Periodic Table
The original form of the periodic table was first put forward by Mendeleev in 1869 when
he arranged the known elements in the order of their relative atomic masses.
The elements fall into 8 vertical groups numbered from I-VIII and horizontal rows of
elements are known as periods which 7 are numbered 1-7.
Those periods containing 8 elements are known as short periods and the others as long
periods
The elements in any one vertical group have similar chemical and physical properties
Therefore the properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic number which is
Periodic table.
Periodic table: is a list of all the elements, in order of increasing atomic number, giving their
names and symbols.
Importance points to notes in a periodic table:
 When arranged in this order, the elements show periodicity: elements with similar
properties appear at regular intervals. So the list is set out with these similar
elements together, in the numbered columns.
 The columns are called groups, and numbered 0 to 7.Note where group 0 is.
 The rows are called periods. They too are numbered 0 to 7.
 The heavy zigzag line above separates metals from non-metals, with the non-metals
to the right.
Golden tips on the groups:
 The group number tells you how many electrons there are in the outer shell of the
atoms. The atoms of Group 1 elements have one outer shell electron. The atoms of
Group 2 elements have two, and so on.
 The outer-shell electrons are also called valency electrons. And their number
dictates how the elements behave.
 So all the elements in a group have similar properties.
 The atoms of the Group 0 elements have full outer shells. This makes them
unreactive, hence periodic table’s elements are sub divided in to four groups
namely:
 s-block elements, p-block elements, d-block elements & f-block elements.

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 4

 1. Define what is meant by the following terms?
 s-Block elements: these are elements which have got their outer most electrons in s-
sub energy level; they are mostly elements in Group 1, Group 2 & only Helium in
Group 0.I.e elements with atomic no 1 to 88.
 p-Block elements: these are elements which have got their outer most electrons in p-
sub energy level; they are mostly elements starting from Group 3 to the rest of the
remaining elements in Group 0.I.e elements with atomic no 5 to 118.
 d-Block elements: these are elements which have got their outer most electrons in d-
sub energy level; they are mostly all the transitional metal elements i.e elements
with atomic no 21 to 111.
 f-Block elements: these are elements which have got their outer most electrons in f-
sub energy level; they are mostly called inner transitional metal elements, why?
Because they have 3d orbital partially filled energy levels. Their properties are
determined by electrons in the three outer most sub energy level i.e. s, p, d & f.they
are also called Lanthanides and Actinides.
 Some of the groups have special names:
Group 1 - the alkali metals Group 7 – the halogens Group 0 – the noble gases.

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 5

 2. Describes how the electrons of an atom are arranged (distributed) in the energy
levels, sub shells and orbitals.
Electrons lie outside the nucleus and occupy energy levels. The number of energy
levels an atom should have depends on the number of electrons present in the atom.
Energy levels are numbered as they move away from the nucleus.

Within each energy level, there are sub energy levels or sub shells designated as s, p, d &
f.which differ in energy.
In a given energy level there is only one s-sub energy level and the energy of s-sub energy
level is greater than the any other sub energy levels of p,d & f;why?
Because:

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 6

  The s-sub energy level is closer to the closer to the nucleus than the other
sub energy levels hence strongly attracted by the nucleus, leading to high
energy.
 The s-sub energy level screens the other sub energy levels of p, d & f from the
nucleus attraction hence they have less energy.
 The s-sub shell has 1 orbital and takes up 2 electrons.
 The p-sub shell has 3 orbitals and takes up 6 electrons.
 The d-sub shell has 5 orbitals and takes up 10 electrons.
 The f-sub shell has 7 orbitals and takes up 14 electrons.
Golden tips:
 The 1st energy level n = 1 has 1 sub shell given as 1s
 The 2nd energy level n = 2 has 2 sub shells given as 2s,2p
 The 3rd energy level n = 3 have 3 sub shells given as 3s,3p,3d
 The 4th energy level n = 4 have 4 sub shells given as 4s,4p,4d,4f
 The 5th energy level n = 5 and beyond have 4-subshells.
Golden tips:
 An orbital can accommodate a maximum of two
electrons with opposite spins ie.
 Electron 1st occupies each orbital singly 1st with
parallel spins before pairing starts.
 Half-filled orbital’s are thermodynamically VERY
stable.i.e p3, d5 & f7.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION:

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 7

The order of increasing energy of the orbitals is then read off by following these arrows,
starting at the top of the first line and then proceeding on to the second, third, fourth lines,
and so on. This diagram predicts the following order of increasing energy for atomic
orbitals.
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p <4s < 3d <4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p...

The 4ft principal quantum number ms (electron spin quantum number) has the valence of
+½,-½ which are the two possible values of ms.meaning that there are two electrons

spinning in opposite directions in an orbital.i.e an orbital is occupied by two electrons.

Therefore:
s-sub energy level is filled by 2 electrons. d-sub energy level is filled by 10 electrons.
p-sub energy level is filled by 6 electrons. f-sub energy level is filled by 14 electrons

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 8

Attentions please Boys & Women:
But because of overlapping then, the abnormal filling of the orbital is as shown below
which is not right:

The right order is below:

3. What are the meaning of the followings s<p<d<f?

 s stands for sharp  d stands for diffuse
 p stands for principal  f stands for fundamental

9
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 4. State and explain the principle rules for filling electrons of an atom arranged in the
energy levels, sub shells and orbital’s in their ground states.

Rules for filling electrons

Rule 1: Aufbau Principle:

10
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
The electrons in the ground state occupy orbital’s in order of the orbital energy levels. The
lowest energy orbital’s are always filled first.
e.g. for 3 Li

1S 2S
Rule 2: Pauli Exclusion Principle.

This states that an orbital cannot contain more than two electrons and then ONLY if they
have opposite spins.
e.g. 3 Li

1S 2S
Rule 3: Hunds Rule
This states that the orbital’s of a sub shell must be occupied singly first and with parallel
spins before they can be occupied in pairs.
e.g. 7 N

11
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 1S 2S 2P

1S22S22P3
Rule 4:
Electrons in degenerate orbital’s which are singly occupied have parallel spins
The order of filling in the electrons in atoms is:
The order of filling is 1s, 2s, 2p,3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p,5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f,5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d,7p.
As the periodic table of the elements is built up by adding the necessary electrons to match
the atomic number, the electrons will take the lowest energy consistent with the Pauli
Exclusion Principle. The maximum population of each shell is determined by the quantum
numbers and the diagram at left is one way to illustrate the order of filling of the electron
energy states.
For a single electron, the energy is determined by the principal quantum n number and that
quantum number is used to indicate the "shell" in which the electrons reside. For a given
shell in multi-electron atoms, those electrons with lower orbital quantum number l will be
lower in energy because of greater penetration of the shielding cloud of electrons in inner
shells. These energy levels are specified by the principal and orbital quantum numbers
using the spectroscopic notation. When you reach the 4s level, the dependence upon orbital
quantum number is so large that the 4s is lower than the 3d. Although there are minor
exceptions, the level crossing follows the scheme indicated in the diagram, with the arrows
indicating the points at which one moves to the next shell rather than proceeding to higher
orbital quantum number in the same shell.
The electron configuration for any element may be found by clicking on that element in the
periodic table. The first exception to the above scheme that is encountered is chromium,
where the fifth 3d electron state is occupied instead of the second 4s state.

12
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
Filling of Electronic States
- Usual filling sequence:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 6d10 5f14
- consider potassium (K): the 4s shell is filled before the 3d shell because of the stronger
binding of the 4s electrons
- the transition elements have electrons in the 3d or 4d sub shells respectively
- the lanthanides (rare earths) have identical 5s2 5p6 6s2 configurations and differ by the
number of electrons in the in the 4f shell
- the actinides have identical 6s2 6p6 7s2 configurations and differ only in the 5f and 6d
electrons
- for both lanthanides and actinides the chemical properties are dominated by the outer s
and p electrons and thus result in very similar properties for all of them
Hund's Rule
When filling electrons in any sub shell spins first remain unpaired in every quantum state
and have parallel spin.
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
The Aufbau Principle, Pauli Exclusion, Degenerate Orbitals, and Hund's Rule.
The electron configuration of an atom describes the orbitals occupied by electrons on the
atom. The basis of this prediction is a rule known as the Aufbau principle, which assumes
that electrons are added to an atom, one at a time, starting with the lowest energy orbital,
until all of the electrons have been placed in an appropriate orbital.
Examples:
A hydrogen atom (Z = 1) has only one electron, which goes into the lowest energy orbital,
the 1s orbital. This is indicated by writing a superscript "1" after the symbol for the orbital.
H (Z = 1): 1s1
The next element has two electrons and the second electron fills the 1s orbital because
there are only two possible values for the spin quantum number used to distinguish
between the electrons in an orbital. He (Z = 2): 1s2
The third electron goes into the next orbital in the energy diagram, the 2s orbital.
Li (Z = 3): 1s2 2s1
The fourth electron fills this orbital. Be (Z = 4): 1s2 2s2
After the 1s and 2s orbitals have been filled, the next lowest energy orbitals are the three
2p orbitals. The fifth electron therefore goes into one of these orbitals.
B (Z = 5): 1s2 2s2 2p1
When the time comes to add a sixth electron, the electron configuration is obvious.
C (Z = 6): 1s2 2s2 2p2
However, there are three orbitals in the 2p sub shell. Does the second electron go into the
same orbital as the first, or does it go into one of the other orbitals in this sub shell?
To answer this, we need to understand the concept of degenerate orbitals. By definition,
orbitals are degenerate when they have the same energy. The energy of an orbital depends
on both its size and its shape because the electron spends more of its time further from the
nucleus of the atom as the orbital becomes larger or the shape becomes more complex. In
an isolated atom, however, the energy of an orbital doesn't depend on the direction in

13
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
which it points in space. Orbitals that differ only in their orientation in space, such as the
2px, 2py, and 2pz orbitals, are therefore degenerate.

An orbital diagram uses boxes to designate individual orbitals, and a group of boxes to
designate sub shells.
An arrow pointing up (↑) stands for an electron spinning in one direction, and an arrow
pointing downward (↓) indicates an electron spinning in the opposite direction.
Golden tips;
Orbital diagram indicates the number of unpaired electrons in an atom. The presence of
unpaired electrons is detected experimentally by the behavior of a substance when placed
in a magnetic field. Hence two terms arises:
 Diamagnetism  Para magnetism
Diamagnetism: is the property of repulsion by a magnetic field.
Para magnetism: is the property of attraction to a magnetic field.
Notes:
The atoms of paramagnetism substances contains unpaired electron WHILE those of
diamagnetism substances contains paired electrons.
Using;
The three stated principles that have been given the electron configurations of the ground
states of most atoms can be estimated.
Electrons fill degenerate orbitals according to rules first stated by Friedrich Hund. Hund's
rules can be summarized as follows.
 One electron is added to each of the degenerate orbitals in a sub shell before two
electrons are added to any orbital in the sub shell.
 Electrons are added to a sub shell with the same value of the spin quantum number
until each orbital in the sub shell has at least one electron.
Orbital diagram:
The electronic configurations tend to hide some information about the number of electrons
in any outer orbital.

14
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
Examples: Z configuration spin of p electrons
The Coulomb repulsion between electrons gives rise to Hund's rule. Electrons with the
same spin in the same sub shell must have different magnetic quantum numbers ml which
has different spatial distributions minimizing the overlap and thus the Coulomb energy.
- Ferromagnetism of the 3d metals iron (26Fe), cobalt (27Co) and nickel (28Ni) is a
consequence of Hund's rule. 26Fe:1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Examples:
The 2p-sub shell consists of three 2p-orbitals ie 2px, 2py and 2pz, Hence its capacity is 6
electrons. If we use an orbital diagram, a choice a rises about where to place the electrons.
When the time comes to place two electrons into the 2p sub shell we put one electron into
each of two of these orbitals. (The choice between the 2px, 2py, and 2pz orbitals is purely
arbitrary.) C (Z = 6): 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1
The fact that both of the electrons in the 2p sub shell have the same spin quantum number
can be shown by representing an electron for which s = +½ with an arrow pointing up and
an electron for which s = -½ with an arrow pointing down.
The electrons in the 2p orbitals on carbon can therefore be represented as follows.

When we get to N (Z = 7), we have to put one electron into each of the three degenerate 2p
orbitals.
N (Z = 7): 1s2 2s2 2p3
Because each orbital in this sub shell now contains one electron, the next electron added to
the sub shell must have the opposite spin quantum number, thereby filling one of the 2p
orbitals.

O (Z = 8): 1s2 2s2 2p4

The ninth electron fills a second orbital in this sub shell.

F (Z = 9): 1s2 2s2 2p5

The tenth electron completes the 2p sub shell.

Ne (Z = 10): 1s2 2s2 2p6

15
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
There is something unusually stable about atoms, such as He and Ne, which have electron
configurations with filled shells of orbitals. By convention, we therefore write abbreviated
electron configurations in terms of the number of electrons beyond the previous element
with a filled-shell electron configuration. Electron configurations of the next two elements
in the periodic table, for example, could be written as follows.
Na (Z = 11): [Ne] 3s1 Mg (Z = 12): [Ne] 3s2
Principal quantum number, n where n= 1,2,3,4 etc

16
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
This denotes the principal quantum energy shell in which the electron in an atom is found.
Within the principal quantum energy shell there are shells but the total number of
electrons that can occupy any principal quantum shell is given by 2n2
PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER:
The Quantum Characteristics of an Electron.
The Bohr Theory gave the four electron shells K, L, M& N the quantum number n, whereby:
n equals 1,2, 3& 4respectively. These numbers represented the increasing energy levels of
the shells.
However, an atomic spectrum shows that the lines representing transition metal elements
between these quantized energy levels are in fact split in to finer lines. This indicates that
the electron shells are split in to sub-shells, each with its own quantized energy level. These
sub-shells have been labeled after the types of lines in the atomic spectra to which they
correspond.
The atomic spectra of elements, under certain conditions can be split, spin of an electron.
All electrons spin about their own axis. The spin can be either clockwise or anticlockwise.
N.B. Fully filled and half-filled orbital’s are regarded as thermodynamically more stable
therefore the electronic configuration of Chromium (Z=24) and Copper (Z=29) follow this.
Determination of Block of an element
The block to which an element belongs is determined by the orbital’s which are in the
process of filling up. E.g.
11 Na  1S 2 2S 2 2P 6 3S 1 Belongs to the s- block.
5. Define the following terms:
(a) Shell: is a group of orbital with the same principal quantum number.
(b) Sub shell: is a group of orbitals with the same principal and second quantum
numbers, Examples: 1s, 2s-orbitals, 3p, 3d-orbitals.
Sub shell: is a group of orbital’s designated by a particular ɭ values within a
particular shell.
(c) Electron density: refer to the possibility of finding the electrons in a certain
region of atom.
Electron density (Probability density): is the probability that the electrons are
present in a given small region of space.
(d) Atomic orbital: is the volume of space in which there is 95% chance of finding
the electrons.
(e) Orbital (Atomic orbital): are region in atom within which electrons have a
high probability, usually 90% of being found.
(f) Hybridization: is the process of mixing up orbital on a single atom in a
molecule.
(g) Principal quantum number: is the existence of the energy level where an
electron of an atom in a given shell can be found.
Noble gas core abbreviations::
The electronic configurations of the Noble gas elements can be used as abbreviations when
writing electron configuration.
The Electron Configurations of the Elements (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Row Elements)
17
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Atomic Number Symbol Electron Configuration

1 H 1s1
2 He 1s2 = [He]
3 Li [He] 2s1
4 Be [He] 2s2
5 B [He] 2s2 2p1
6 C [He] 2s2 2p2
7 N [He] 2s2 2p3
8 O [He] 2s2 2p4
9 F [He] 2s2 2p5
10 Ne [He] 2s2 2p6 = [Ne]
11 Na [Ne] 3s1
12 Mg [Ne] 3s2
13 Al [Ne] 3s2 3p1
14 Si [Ne] 3s2 3p2
15 P [Ne] 3s2 3p3
16 S [Ne] 3s2 3p4
17 Cl [Ne] 3s2 3p5
18 Ar [Ne] 3s2 3p6 = [Ar]
19 K [Ar] 4s1
20 Ca [Ar] 4s2
⃰⃰⃰21 Sc [Ar] 4s2 3d1
22 Ti [Ar] 4s2 3d2
23 V [Ar] 4s2 3d3
⃰⃰⃰24 Cr [Ar] 4s1 3d5
25 Mn [Ar] 4s2 3d5
26 Fe [Ar] 4s2 3d6
27 Co [Ar] 4s2 3d7
28 Ni [Ar] 4s2 3d8
⃰⃰⃰29 Cu [Ar] 4s1 3d10
30 Zn [Ar] 4s2 3d10
31 Ga [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p1
32 Ge [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2
33 As [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p3
34 Se [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p4
35 Br [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5

18
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
Exceptions to Predicted Electron Configurations
There are several patterns in the electron configurations listed in the table in the previous
section. One of the most striking is the remarkable level of agreement between these
configurations and the configurations we would predict. There are only two exceptions
among the first 40 elements: chromium and copper.
Strict adherence to the rules of the Aufbau process would predict the following electron
configurations for chromium and copper.
predicted electron configurations: Cr (Z = 24): [Ar] 4s2 3d4
Cu (Z = 29): [Ar] 4s2 3d9
The experimentally determined electron configurations for these elements are slightly
different.
actual electron configurations: Cr (Z = 24): [Ar] 4s1 3d5
Cu (Z = 29): [Ar] 4s1 3d10
In each case, one electron has been transferred from the 4s orbital to a 3d orbital, even
though the 3d orbitals are supposed to be at a higher level than the 4s orbital.
Once we get beyond atomic number 40, the difference between the energies of adjacent
orbitals is small enough that it becomes much easier to transfer an electron from one
orbital to another. Most of the exceptions to the electron configuration predicted from the
Aufbau diagram shown earlier therefore occur among elements with atomic numbers
larger than 40. Although it is tempting to focus attention on the handful of elements that
have electron configurations that differ from those predicted with the Aufbau diagram, the
amazing thing is that this simple diagram works for so many elements.
Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
When electron configuration data are arranged so that we can compare elements in one of
the horizontal rows of the periodic table, we find that these rows typically correspond to
the filling of a shell of orbitals. The second row, for example, contains elements in which the
orbitals in the n = 2 shell are filled.
Li (Z = 3): [He] 2s1 N (Z = 7): [He] 2s2 2p3
Be (Z = 4): [He] 2s2 O (Z = 8): [He] 2s2 2p4
B (Z = 5): [He] 2s2 2p1 F (Z = 9): [He] 2s2 2p5
C (Z = 6): [He] 2s2 2p2 Ne (Z = 10): [He] 2s2 2p6

There is an obvious pattern within the vertical columns, or groups, of the periodic table as
well. The elements in a group have similar configurations for their outermost electrons.
This relationship can be seen by looking at the electron configurations of elements in
columns on either side of the periodic table.
Group IA Group VIIA
H 1s1
Li [He] 2s1 F [He] 2s2 2p5
Na [Ne] 3s1 Cl [Ne] 3s2 3p5
K [Ar] 4s1 Br [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5
Rb [Kr] 5s1 I [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p5

19
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
The figure below shows the relationship between the periodic table and the orbitals being
filled during the Aufbau process. The two columns on the left side of the periodic table
correspond to the filling of an s orbital. The next 10 columns include elements in which the
five orbitals in a d sub shell are filled. The six columns on the right represent the filling of
the three orbitals in a p sub shell. Finally, the 14 columns at the bottom of the table
correspond to the filling of the seven orbitals in an f sub shell.

20
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF PERIODIC TABLE:

21
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 6. State the properties of periodic table.
 Atomic radii.  Electronegativity.
 Ionization energy.  Electropositivity.
 Electron affinity.  Melting and boiling points

1) Atomic radii
7. What is an atomic radius?
Atomic radii: is defined as the distance of closest approach to another identical
atom.
Atomic radii: is the half the inter-nuclear distance between two covalently bonded
atoms.
Atomic radii: is the distance of closest approach to another nucleus.
Atomic radii: is half the distance between the two nucleus in boned atoms
Atomic radii: is half the inter-nuclear distance between atoms of the same element
joined by singly covalent bond.
Illustration:

Points to note:
The electron cloud of an atom has no definite limit. Because of this, the atom cannot
be defined simply and easily.
By the definition of atomic radii, it means that the size of an atom is determined by
the effective radius of the outer electrons.
But, what do we mean when we say the atomic radius of iodine in the solid is
0.133nm?is it the distance between the two iodine atoms in an I2 molecule or half
the distance between two bonded atoms in adjacent molecules which are not
chemically bonded.
Hence:
Covalent radius: is half the distance between two covalently bonded atoms.
Van der Waal’s radius: is half the distance between two atoms which are not
chemically bonded.

22
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Metallic radius: is half the inter-nuclear distance between neighbouring ions in the
crystalline metals.
Notes:
The term ‘ATOMIC RADIUS’ is normally considered to be the covalent radius of non
metallic atoms and the metallic radius for metallic atoms.
8. State and explain the factors affecting atomic radius.
 Nuclear charge.  Effective nuclear charge.
 Screening effect (shielding effect).

Explanations:
1) Nuclear charge: is the attraction of the positively charged nucleus for the
outermost electrons.
Nuclear charge: is the number of protons in the nucleus and it is positively
charged.
Notes:
The nucleus exerts an attraction for the electrons that pulls the electron
towards the nucleus and this tends to decrease the atomic radius of an atom.
Or:
The greater the nuclear charge, the outermost electrons are strongly
attracted closer to the nucleus and hence, the smaller atomic radius.
Notes:
The smaller the nucleus charge, the outermost electrons are less attracted
strongly closer to the nucleus and hence atomic radius will be larger.
2) Effective nuclear charge.
This is the resultant attractive force exerted by the nucleus on the outer
electrons.
Mathematically,
Effective nuclear charge = Nuclear charge – Screening or Shielding effect.
3) Screening or (Shielding effect): is the repulsion of the outermost electrons
from the nucleus by the inner energy levels.
Screening or shielding effect: is the tendency of inner electrons to shield outer
electrons from nuclear attraction.
Screening or shielding effect: is the repulsion of the outermost electron by
those in the innermost shells.
Notes:
This reduces (decreases the nuclear attraction for the outer electrons.

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 23

 The repulsion between different energy level is great; therefore it causes a
great increase in atomic radius.
Or:
The greater the shielding effect, the outermost electrons are less closely
attracted and are further away from the nucleus hence greater atomic radius.
The smaller the screening effect, the outermost electrons are more closely
attracted by the nucleus hence smaller atomic radius.
VARIATION OF ATOMIC RADIUS:
9. Explain the variation of atomic radius.

As we go from lithium to neon we are adding electrons to the outer shell, the second shell.
The charge on the nucleus is increasing from 3+ to 10+ (or 1+ to 8+ allowing for the
shielding of the inner shell).This tends to pull the electrons in closer to the nucleus. So the
size of the atom decreases as we go across the period. On moving from neon, where the
second shell is full, to sodium, the extra electron goes in to the third shell. The nuclear
charge is 11+ but the shielding of the inner shells is 10 and the outer electron feels a
shielded change of just 1+.Hence for two reasons we get a sudden jump in size: firstly the
outer electron in sodium is one shell further out than those in neon, and secondly it feels a
shielded nuclear charge of 1+ rather 8+.
(i).Across the period.
a) Period (II) elements.
Elements Li Be B C O F
Radius(nm) 0.123 0.089 0.082 0.070 0.066 0.064
a) Period (III) elements.
Elements Na Mg Al Si P S
Radius(nm) 0.15 0.136 0.125 0.117 0.110 0.090

b) Explanation.
Atomic radius decreases across the period. This is because the nuclear charge
increases due to the addition of protons to the nucleus. For every proton added, an
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 24
 electron is added to the same energy level and almost screening effect almost
remains constant. The effective nuclear charge increases thus the electrons become
more strongly attracted and closer to the nucleus.
Or:
Atomic radius decreases across the period. Across the period, the nuclear charge
increases and electrons are attracted closer to the nucleus.
Across the period, electrons are being added to the same energy level making the
screening effect almost constant.
The increase in nuclear outweighs that of screening effect. This leads to an increase
in effective nuclear charge causing the nucleus to strongly attract the outer shell
electrons, hence decrease in atomic radius.
Or:
Generally, Atomic radius reduces from left to right across each period as shown
above in the diagram.
In moving from one element to the next element across each period, an electron is
added to the same shell and proton added to the nucleus.
Therefore, across a period nuclear charge increases while shielding effect does not
almost change so that effective nuclear charge increases such that electrons are
pulled closer to the nucleus, hence the size of each atom decreases.
The table below shows the variation of atomic radius amongst transition metals
with their electronic configuration.

Elements Electronic configurations

radius(
Atomic
Symbo

nm)

K L M N
ls

Scandium 21Sc 1.62 1s2 2s22p2 3s23p63d1 4s2

Titanium 22Ti 1.50 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d2 4s2
Vanadium 23V 1.35 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d3 4s2
Chromium 24Cr 1.30 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d5 4s1⃰⃰⃰
Manganese 25Mn 1.29 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d5 4s2
Iron 26Fe 1.29 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d6 4s2
Cobalt 27Co 1.29 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d7 4s2
Nickel 28Ni 1.29 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d8 4s2
Copper 29Cu 1.31 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 4s1⃰⃰⃰
Zinc 30Zn 1.41 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 4s2⃰⃰⃰

‘Inner
building’ of Outer
d sub-shell shell

Explanation:
The metallic radius decreases from scandium to nickel and it slightly increases from nickel
to Zinc.
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 25
As atomic number increases, the nuclear charge increases. However, the electrons are being
added to inner 3d-subshell which poorly shields 4s electrons from the nuclear charge hence
the nuclear attraction for the outermost electron increases resulting into increase in atomic
radius/ metallic radius.
From scandium to vanadium, the 3d is occupied singly and do not screen the 4s effectively.
From chromium to nickel, the atomic radius is almost constant because the 3d is being paired
and this adds to the screening effect to balance the increase in nuclear charge.
The slightly increase from nickel via copper to zinc is because the 3d-subenergy levels is
completely full or fully filled with electrons leading to increased shielding effect and decrease
in effective nuclear charge, hence atomic radius increases.
Notes:
The decrease in radius is coupled with increasing atomic mass causes an increase in the
density and decrease in atomic volume in passing from Scandium to Nickel.
⃰⃰⃰Note that the 3d5 and 3d10 arrangements seem to be preferred-half full and full
shells seem to have extra stability which makes it worth transferring an electron
from 4s.the 3d and 4s levels are very close in energy.

Explanation:
 The graph shows a general slight decrease in atomic radii as atomic number
increases. As the atomic number increases, the nuclear charge also increases.
However, the electrons are being added to the inner 3d sub energy level. These
electrons are poorly shielded from the nuclear charge. The nuclear attraction for the
outer electrons therefore increases leading to a slight decrease in atomic radii.
 There is a slight increase in atomic radii from nickel to copper because the 3d sub
energy level in copper is fully filled with electrons. This increases the shielding of the
outer electrons from the nuclear charge hence atomic increases.

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 26

(ii).Down the group.
Group (I) Atomic Electron configuration
elements radius
(A°)
3Li 1.23 [He] 2s1
1s2,2s1
11Na 1.57 [Ne] 3s1
1s2,2s22p6,3s1
19K 2.03 [Ar] 4s1
1s2,2s22p6,3s23p6,4s1
37Rb 2.16 [Kr] 5s1
1s2,2s22p6,3s23p63d10,4s24p6,5s1
55Cs 2.37 [Xe] 6s1
1s2,2s22p6,3s23p63d10,4s24p6,5s25p66s1
87Fr 2.49 [Rn]7s1
1s2,2s22p6,3s23p63d10,4s24p64d104f14,5s25p65d10,6s26p67s1
Generally, Atomic radius increases down the group as shown above in the table.
Explanation:
Atomic radius increases down the group, why? Because both nuclear charge and screening
effect increases down the group. Down the group, new full energy levels are added. There is
much repulsion between the energy levels leading to the screening effect to outweigh the
nuclear charge. The effective nuclear charge decreases, hence atomic radius increases.
Or:
Atomic radius increases down the group. Both nuclear charge and screening effect increases.
However the increase in screening effect outweighs the increase in nuclear charge due to
addition of extra energy level of electrons thus the effective nuclear charge decreases such
that the outermost electrons are less strongly attracted towards the nucleus.
Or:
Atomic radius increases down the group. Down the group, Nuclear charge increases and so
it shields out (off) the inner electrons.
Because a full shell of inner electrons are added. The shielding effects outweighs increased
nuclear charge hence attraction of the outer electrons by the nucleus decreases, hence
increase in atomic radius.
Or:
Down the group, both nuclear charge and number of electrons are increasing.
The increase in number of electrons are as a result of extra shells of electrons being added
causes the increase in shielding effect which outweighs the increase in nuclear charge.
Therefore, effective nuclear charge decreases such that electrons are less attracted by the
nucleus resulting in the increase of the size of atoms.

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 27

 IONIC RADIUS:
10. What is Ionic radius?
 Ionic radius: is the half distance between the nuclei of two adjacent ions in an
ionic crystal. It’s variation is in line with atomic radius.
 Ionic radius: is half the internuclear distance between two neighbouring
monoatomic ions in a crystalline salt.

The sizes of ions:

 Cations (positive) are formed by the loss of one or more electrons from an atom.
A cation is smaller than the atom from which it is formed.
When electrons are lost, the nuclear charge is constant. The effective nuclear charge
on the remaining few electrons increases leading to a decrease in the ionic radius of
the ion formed.
Golden tips
The figure below shows roughly to scale the sizes of the covalent radii of the atoms
sodium to chlorine (even metals can form covalent bonds in the gas phase).Below
these are sizes of the ions they form.
You will see that positive ions (cations) are smaller than the parent atom because:
 The whole outer shell of electrons has been lost.
 The nuclear charge can pull the remaining electrons closer to the nucleus
because there is now less electron-electron repulsion.

The ions of Na+ and Mg2+ have the same electronic configuration, yet the ionic
radius of Mg2+ is smaller than Na+.
Both Na+ and Mg2+ have 10 electrons but different number of protons.
Mg2+ ion with 12 protons attracts the 10 electrons more strongly than Na+ ion with
only 11 protons making Mg2+ having a smaller ionic radius.
 Anions (Negative) are formed by addition (given) of one or more electrons to a
neutral atom.
Anion is bigger than the atom from which is formed.
This is because, the nuclear charge remains constant, the effective nuclear charge
decreases because the added electrons results in to increased screening effect,
making the ion formed bigger than the corresponding atom.
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 28
Golden tips:
The negative ions (anions) are longer than the parent atoms as they have gained
electrons, resulting in more electron-electron repulsion.
The periodicity of atomic and ionic radii is shown below. Notice that atomic radii
peak at the Group (I) metals where a new shell starts, while ionic radii peak at the
most negatively charged ion.
When one or more electrons are added to the outer shell of an atom forming a
positive ion, there is an increase in the repulsion between negative charge clouds.
Hence resulting in an overall increase in size and that is why the ionic size of F-,Cl-
,Br- & I-are larger than their corresponding parent atoms.

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 29

 2) Ionization Energy:
Ionization energy: is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron
completely from a gaseous atom to for a positively charged gaseous ion.
Ionization energy: is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron
from a gaseous atom or gaseous cation to form a gaseous cation.
Ionization energy: is the amount of energy needed to remove one electron from an atom.
Ionization energy: is the amount of energy required to lift an electron from its ground
state and detach it from its atom.
Ionization energy: is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the
ground state of an atom in the gas phase.
Equation:
1st ionization energy: is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron
from a free gaseous atom to form a unipositively charged gaseous cation.
1st ionization energy: is the energy required to remove one mole of electron from one
mole of a free gaseous atom to produce one mole of a univalent positively charged gaseous
ion.
1st ionization energy: is the minimum energy required to detach the most loosely held
electron from a gaseous atom.
1st ionization energy: is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one
mole of atoms of an element.
Equation:

2nd ionization energy: is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one
more singly charged positively.
Equation:

Golden tips:
If the electron removed is 1st to be removed from that atom, then the energy is referred to
as ionization energy. If it is second electron, then it is second ionization energy and so on.
Figure below shows a plot of ionization energy against number of electrons removed from
a gaseous atom of magnesium.
Ionization energy gives a measure of how firmly the nucleus of a gaseous atom or gaseous
ion holds on to its outer electrons. The oppositely charged nucleus attracts electrons
towards its self. The charge/attraction which a particular electron feels from the nucleus is
called effective nuclear charge. The effectively nuclear charge is influenced by several
factors and these also affect the ionization energy.
The 2nd ionization energy is always higher than the 1st ionization energy and the 3rd
ionization energy is higher than the 2nd I.E. This is because each succeeding electron has to
be withdrawn against the attractive force of a more strongly charged positive ion.
It’s then more difficult to form ions with higher positive charge.
That is why simple cations are limited to a charge of +4 and such highly charged ions are
only formed by large atoms like tin and lead.
11. State and explain the factors affecting ionization energy.
 Atomic radius.  Effective Nuclear charge.
 The net charge on the atom or ion.
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 30
  The screening effect of inner electrons.
 Electron configuration of the atom or ion.
 The penetrating power of the valence electrons.
Before we can explain these factors one by one, it is essential to understand
that outermost electrons (valence electrons) are removed 1st when ionizing
an atom.

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 31

  Atomic radius:
Ionization energy increases with decrease in atomic radius because the outer
shell electrons are closer to the nucleus and experience stronger nuclear
attraction than atoms with bigger atomic radius, hence high ionization
energy.
Or:
Atoms with small radius the electrons are strongly bound by the nuclear
attraction and thus require more energy to be removed.
 Effective Nuclear charge.
Increase in nuclear charge causes an increase in attraction of outer electrons
by the nucleus. Therefore keeping other factors constant, increase in nuclear
charge causes an increase in ionization energy.
Or;
Ionization energy increases with increase in effective nuclear charge. This is
because of the increased nuclear attraction for the electrons.
 The net charge on the atom or ion.
Ionization energy increases with increase in charge on the atom or ion.
Consequently, ionization energies increases in the order of 1st<2nd< 3rd <4th
and so on.
As electrons are removed, the nuclear charge remains constant but the
number of electrons reduced. The nucleus therefore attracts the remaining
fewer electrons more strongly hence increasing the effective nuclear charge.
Examples:
(a) The 1st, 2nd and 3rd ionization energies (in KJ/Mol1) of aluminium are 577,
1816 and 2745 respectively. Explain this trend:
The ionization energies increases from the 1st to the 3rd via 2nd.This are
because as electrons are removed, the nuclear charge remains constant. This
increases the effective nuclear charge hence the outer electrons become
more strongly attracted by the nucleus. Ionization energy therefore
increases.
a. The ionization energies of Na+,Mg2+ and Al3+ are in the order of
Na+<Mg2+<Al3+. Explain this observation:
From Na+ via Mg2+ to Al3+, nuclear charge increase (since protons are 11, 12
& 13 respectively).However, the number of electrons remains constant (all
the ions have 10 electrons).Therefore the nuclear attraction for the electrons
(effective nuclear charge) increases from Na+ via Mg2+ to Al3+.This causes an
increase in ionization energy in the same direction.
Or:
For a given successive ionization energies increases in the order of
1st<2nd< 3rd <4th and so on. This is due to increased effective nuclear
charge as the nuclear charge in the nucleus remains constant but the
number of electrons to be attracted decreases leading to increase in the
magnitude of ionization energy.
Successive ionization energy increases in the order of 1st I.E 2nd I.E3rd I.E4th I.E etc.
Consider successive ionization energy of element T.
1st I.E 2nd I.E 3rd I.E 4th I.E
+494 +1350 +1500 +1700

12. Explain the trend in the variation of the ionization energies of element T.

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 32

  1st ionization energy is low because it involves removing an electron
from a neutral atom whereas the other successive ionization energy
involves removing an electron from positively charged ions.
 Although the nuclear charge (number of protons) remains the same in
all cases, the attraction of the nucleus for the few remaining electrons
increases leading to increase in successive ionization energy.
 The screening (shielding) effect of inner electrons.
Shielding (or screening) of outer electrons by inner electrons reduces
the attraction of outer electrons by the nucleus. Therefore increase in
screening effect causes a decrease in effective nuclear charge and
hence a decrease in ionization energy.
Within a given shell, the screening efficiency of the inner electrons
decreases in the order [s<p<d<f].therefore s-electrons are more
screening than p-electrons and so on.
Or:
The screening of the outer electrons by the inner electrons in an atom
will facilitate the removal of electrons from the valence shell.
Effective screening reduces the value of ionization energy as the outer
electrons experience less nuclear attraction.
Within a given shell, the screening efficiency of the inner electrons
decreases in the order of [s<p<d<f].
 Electron configuration of the atom or ion.
Electron configurations with half-filled sub energy levels or fully filled
sub energy levels are relatively stable.
Example:
1st ionization energy of Nitrogen,7N:1s2,2s22p3 is higher than that if
Oxygen,8O:1s2,2s22p4 although Oxygen has a higher nuclear charge
than Nitrogen. This is because Nitrogen has a half-filled 2p3 sub
energy level which is more stable than partially filled 2p4 sub energy
level in Oxygen.
Similarly, 1st ionization energy of helium (with 2s2 sub energy level is
fully filled) is higher than that of lithium.
The concept of ionization energy is very essential in understanding
the chemistry of elements.
 The penetrating power of the valence electrons.
In a given shell, the penetrating power of electrons towards the
nucleus decreases in the orders of [s<p<d<f], therefore the s-
electrons are more penetrating and more firmly held than p-electrons
and so on. Consequently in a given shell, ionization energies increase
in the orders of [s<p<d<f].
13. Given the ionization energies of elements A, B, C & D.
Elements Ionization energies (KJ/Mol)
1 I.E
st 2nd I.E 3rd I.E
A 730 1500 7730
B 500 4560 6900
C 580 1815 4620
D 1310 3460 5300
 Elements B & C have typical metallic character because their 1st ionization
energies are below 800KJ/Mol.

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 33

  Element A show some little metallic character.
 Element D is a typical nonmetallic element why? Because it’s 1st ionization
energy is above 800KJ/Mol.
 Element A belongs to group 2 because there is a big rise in energy to remove
the 3rd electron implying that the 3rd electron comes from a different full new
energy level, its valency is 2.
 Element B belongs to group 1 why? Because there is a big rise in energy to
remove the 2nd electron, implying that the 2nd electron comes from a stable
energy level, hence B has single electron in its outermost shell, its valency is 1.
 Element C shows a similar rise in energy. This implies that the 3rd electrons
are same shell.it has 3 electrons in the outermost shell. Its valency is 3.
 Formation of compounds formed between:
i. A and B = A2B1 = AB2 iii. A and C = A2C3 = A3C2
ii. B and C = B1C3 = B3C iv. C and D = C3Dx = CxD3
VARIATION OF IONIZATION ENERGY:
14. Explain the variation of ionization energy.
 Across a period:
Across a period, ionization energy increases with increase in atomic number
Electrons are added to the same main energy level as nuclear charge increases.
These electrons shield each other poorly from the increasing nuclear charge
therefore atomic radius decreases resulting into increase in ionization energy along
the period
However, beryllium, neon and nitrogen have abnormally high ionization energy
because the electrons are removed from 2s2, 2p6 and 2p3 which are fully filled and
half-filled respectively and are regarded as thermodynamically stable.
15. The table below shows the elements in period 3 of the periodic table.
Element,Z 11Na 12Mg 13Al 14Si 15P 16S 17Cl 18Ar
1st I.E 502 745 587 791 1020 1000 1260 1530

Element,Z 3Li 3Be 5B 6C 7N 8O 9F 10Ne

I.E(KJmol-1) 520 899 801 1086 1403 1310 1681 2080
(a) Plot a graph of first ionization energy against atomic number.

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 34

 (b) Explain the shape of your graph in (a).

 There is a general increase in 1st ionization energy from sodium to argon as atomic
numbers increases with abnormal behavior shown by magnesium and phosphorous.
 Across the period, atomic radius decreases, the nuclear charge increases and the
electrons are attracted closer to the nucleus, electrons are being added to the same
energy level, they screens each other poorly (screening within the same energy level
is secondary) from the increasing nuclear charge. Therefore there is an increase in
effectively nuclear charge from sodium to argon and atomic radius reduces. Hence
increase in 1st ionization energy along the series.
 For magnesium, the 3s sub energy level is full (1s2, 2s22p6, 3s2) and it is
thermodynamically stable which require more energy to electrons.
 For phosphorous, the 3p sub energy level is half filled (1s2, 2s2 2p3) and has a
special stability, hence require higher energy to remove the electrons.
 Also aluminium and sulphur has lower 1st ionization energy than expected why?
 Alumimium (1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p1), the fully filled 3s2 has a stable electronic
configuration and shields the 3p1 electron hence lower 1st ionization energy.
 Also sulphur (1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p4), the half-filled 3p4 sub energy level has stable
configuration and relatively good shield hence lower 1st ionization energy.
16. Explain why beryllium atom has higher 1st ionization energy than boron?
 The electron structure of beryllium is: 1s2, 2s2.
 Write out the structure of boron in the same notation.
 The electron structure of boron is: 1s2, 2s22p2.
 Which of the two elements, ie beryllium and boron has more stable electron
structure?
Explanation:
 All the sub shells in beryllium are filled but the outer sub shell of
boron contains only 1 electron.
 We all know that filled electron shells are associated with extra
stability.

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 35

  There is also some extra stability associated with filled sub shells.
 This means that the electron structure in beryllium is rather more
stable than we might have expected and its 1st ionization energy is
greater than that of boron.
17. Explain why the 1st ionization energy of aluminium is less than that of magnesium?
 This is due to their electronic configurations: 13Al:1s2, 2s22p6, 3s23p1 & 12Mg:
1s2, 2s22p6, 3s2.
 The 1st ionization energy of aluminium is lower than that of magnesium is
because it involves removing an electron from partly filled 3p-sub energy
level which is shielded by a full 3s-sub energy level.
 The 1st ionization energy of magnesium is high because it involves removing
an electron from a full 3s-sub energy level which is stable.
18. Explain why 1st ionization energy of nitrogen is higher than that of oxygen?
 Special explanation for abnormality between nitrogen and oxygen atoms.
Electron configuration:
7N:1s2,
2s22p3 & 8O:1s2, 2s22p4.
 The half-filled 2p-sub shell in nitrogen atom with one electron in each of the
3 boxes of 2p-orbitals are evenly or uniformly distributed hence charge is
more stable than the 2p-sub shell in oxygen atom which contains four
electrons resulting in a higher 1st ionization energy for nitrogen atom than
oxygen atom.
 Down the group:
Elements Be Mg Ca Sr Ba
1 Ionization
st 900 738 590 549 502
energy(KJ/Mol)
Explanation:
 Ionization energy decreases down the group. Both nuclear charge and screening
effect increase down the group. Due to extra energy level of electrons being added,
the increase in screening effect exceeds the increase in nuclear charge. Effective
nuclear charge decreases such that the outer most electrons become less strongly
attracted hence less energy is required.
Or:
 On descending a group, both nuclear charge and screening effect increases but the
increase in shielding effect is as a result of an extra shell of electrons added that
outweighs that of the nuclear charge.
 Therefore, effective nuclear charge decreases so that electrons are less strongly held
down the group and is easy to remove hence decrease in ionization energy.
IMPORTANCE OF IONIZATION ENERGY IN THE DETERMINATION OF THE
CHEMISTRY OF AN ELEMENT:
Ionization energy provides the following information about the chemistry of an element i.e.
atomic number, valency, group number, period, number of energy levels, metallic and non-
metallic characters.
The values of ionization energy can be used to deduce:

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 36

  Atomic number of an element. The number of successive ionization energy indicates
the number of electrons present. E.g. Mg has 12 successive ionization energies.
 Arrangement of electrons and distribution of energy levels
 Metallic character. Elements which easily lose electrons have low values of
ionization energy and are electropositive. The 1st ionization energy is usually below
800KJmol-1.
Graph of ionization energy against number of electrons removed.

It should be noted that;

 The graph shows that there are two electrons in the outermost shell which are
easily lost in the 3s2 sub energy level with low energy. Therefore the electron in
energy level [n = 3 or (3rd)] is the outermost shell.
 The third ionization energy is much greater than the 1st 2 electrons because the 3rd
electron is being removed from a full new inner energy level (shell) which is very
stable i.e. [2s22p6].
 There is a gradual rise (increase) in ionization energy from the 3rd to 10th
ionization energy because the ion has acquired stability after the removal of the 1st
two electrons hence requiring high energy to remove the electrons.
 The 11th ionization energy is far much higher than the 10th ionization energy. In
this case, the electron is being removed from a stable 1s2 energy level is being very
close to the nucleus with two electrons.
3) Electro negativity.
Electronegativity: is the tendency of an atom to become negatively charged in its
covalent compounds.
Electronegativity: is the relative attraction of an atom for the electrons of a covalent
bond formed with an atom of another element.
Electronegativity: is the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract bonding electrons
to itself in a covalent bond.
Golden tips:
Most nonmetals are electronegativity because they gain electrons to form negative ions.
Consider hydrogen chloride molecules, (HCl) Chlorine atom being more electronegativity
than hydrogen in (H-Cl), it attracts the bonding electrons to itself, causing the chlorine
atom to acquire a partial negative charge (-ve) and hydrogen acquire a partial positive
charge (+ve).

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 37

 Factors affecting electro negativity:
19. State and explain the factors affecting electro negativity.
 Effective nuclear charge.
 Atomic radius (covalent radius).
 Screening effect of the inner electrons.
Explanation:
 Effective nuclear charge.
Electronegativity value increases with increase in effective nuclear charge.
For a low nuclear charge, the bonding electrons experience a low nuclear
attraction leading to a low electronegativity value.
For a high nuclear charge, the bonding electrons experience a high nuclear
attraction leading to a high electronegativity value.
 Atomic radius (covalent radius).
Electronegativity value increases with a decrease in atomic radius.
For a small atomic radius, the bonding electrons are neared to the nucleus
hence they experience a greater attraction.
For a large atomic radius, the bonding electrons are far away from the
nucleus hence they experience less attraction.
 Screening (shielding) effect of inner electrons.
For low screening effect the bonding electrons have high nuclear attraction
leading to high electronegativity values.
The greater the screening effects the less attracted are the bonding electrons
hence lower values of electronegativity.
Or:
Electronegativity values increases with decrease in shielding effect.
A low screening effect implies that the bonding electrons are less effectively
shielded from the nuclear charge hence experience higher nuclear attraction.
A high screening effect implies that the bonding electrons are effectively
shielded from the nuclear charge; they experience less nuclear attraction
leading to low value of electronegativity.
Trend in electronegativity:
 Across the period:
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 38
Explanation:
Across the period, electronegativity increases because the atoms become smaller and the
effective nuclear charge increases therefore the electron attractive power increases.
Or:
Across the period, the nuclear charge increases while the screening effect is almost
constant. The effective nuclear charge increases for the electrons leading to increase in
electronegativity value.
Or:
In moving from left to right across a period, from one element to the next, the nuclear
charge increases by almost one unit and an electron is added to the outer shell. As the
nuclear charge increases across, the atoms have an increasing electron attracting power
and therefore an increase in electronegativity values.
Period 2:
Elements Li Be B C N O F
Electronegativity 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Period 3:
Elements Na Mg Si P S Cl
electronegativity 0.9 1.2 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0

 Down the group:

Elements F Cl Br I
Electronegativity 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5
Explanation:
Down the group, electronegativity values decreases due to increasing atomic radius
and decrease in effective nuclear charge since an extra shell of electrons are added
by 1 unit therefore an increase in shielding effect outweighs that of the nuclear
charge.
Or:
Electronegativity values decreases down the group. This is because down the group,
new energy levels are being formed which increases the screening effect. The
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 39
 effective nuclear charge decreases hence leading to a decrease in nucleus to attract
electrons.
4). ELECTRON AFFINITY (E.A.)

1. What is electron affinity?

 This is the energy released when an electron is gained by one mole of an
isolated neutral gaseous atom to form a uninegative gaseous ion.
 This is energy change that occurs when one mole of electron (s) combine
with one mole of gaseous atom to form one mole of gaseous negatively
charged ions.
 This of the energy change that occurs when one mole of electron (s) is/are
added to one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of negative gaseous
ions.

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 40

  This is enthalpy which occurs when one mole of electrons combine with one
mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous anions.
Golden tip:
 The 1st electron affinity is exothermic (negative) because an electron is being added
to a neutral atom even for highly electropositive elements the more exothermic the
E.A, the easier an atom gains electron hence the more stable the ion is.
 The 2nd electron affinity is endothermic (positive) because the negative ion
produced repel further electron to be added so energy must be applied to overcome
the repulsive force.
 The 2nd E.A is accompanied by absorption of energy i.e. endothermic. This is because
the incoming electron experiences greater repulsion from both outermost electron
and the negative ion. In addition, the increased radius of the ion decreases the
nuclear attraction for the incoming electron.
2. State and explain the factors affecting electron affinity?
a) Atomic radius.
Electron affinity increases with decrease in atomic radius. Atoms with
small atomic radius have high effective nuclear charge, hence the nucleus
have strong nuclear attraction for the incoming electrons.
Atoms with larger atomic radius have low effective nuclear charge, hence
the nucleus have low nuclear attraction for the incoming electrons
therefore low electron affinity value.
b) Net charge on atom.
Electron affinity increases with increase in negative charge on the ion.
Why? This is because, the stronger is the repulsion on the incoming
electron and the higher is the amount of energy required to add the
electron.
Consequently, the magnitude of electron affinity increases in the order of
2nd< 3rd <4th etc.
c) Effective nuclear charge.
Electron affinity increases with increase in effective nuclear charge,
Increase in effective nuclear charge causes the nucleus to strongly attract
the incoming electrons.
Or:
The greater the nuclear, the more strongly the incoming electron is
attracted and the greater the electron affinity is.
The smaller the nuclear charge the less strongly electron is attracted hence
lower electron affinity.
d) Screening (or shielding) effect.
Electron affinity increases with decrease in screening effect. Decrease in
screening effect implies the effective nuclear charge is high; hence the
incoming electron is strongly attracted by the nucleus.
Or:
Shielding (or screening) of outer electrons by inner electrons reduces the
attraction of outer electrons by the nucleus.
Therefore, increase in effective nuclear charge hence decrease in electron
affinity.
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 41
 Within a given shell, the screening efficiency of the inners electrons
decreases in the order of s>p>d>f. therefore s-electrons are more
screening than p-electron and so on.
Or:
The greater the screening shielding effect, the electron is less strongly
attracted hence lowering electron affinity.
The smaller the screening effect, the more strongly attracted is the
incoming electron hence greater electron affinity.
e) Electronic structure of an atom.
Electronic structure of an atom affects the value of electrons affinity in
that, atoms with filled or half-filled outer with outer electronic
configuration are stable and resist addition of the electron leading
f) Penetrating power of valence electrons.
In a given shell, the penetrating power of electrons towards the nucleus
decreases in the order of s>p>d>f, therefore, the s-electrons are more
penetrating and more firmly held than p-electrons and so on.
Consequently in a given shell, electron affinity increases in the orders of
s>p>d>f. Golden tips:
 Electron affinity is estimated by an indirect method based on the Born Haber cycle.
Consider the formation of sodium chloride, NaCl.

KEY:
UL = Lattice energy. E.A = Electron affinity.
I.E = Ionization energy. S = Sublimation energy.
∆Hf° = Enthalpy of formation of Sodium Chloride. B.D.E = Bond dissociation energy.From
Hess’s law. ∆Hf° = S + B.D.E + E.A + I.E + UL, E.A = ∆Hf°- S + B.D.E + I.E + UL
VARIATION OF ELECTRON AFFINITY ACROSS A PERIOD:
3. Explain the variation of electron affinity across period 3 elements.
Elements 11Na 12Mg 13Al 14Si 15P 16S 17Cl
Electron 20 - + 67 -30 -135 -60 -200 -364
Affinity
(KJ/Mol)

PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected] 42

 4. Plot a graph of Electron Affinity against atomic number.

5. Explain the shape of the graph.

Trend: Generally, Electron affinity increases across a period.
Explanation:
Effective nuclear charge increases across a period so that the nuclear attractions
for the incoming electron increase.
However, Magnesium and Phosphorus shows abnormal values of electron affinity.
This is due to decrease in atomic radius and increase in nuclear charge while
screening effect remains almost constant. The effective nuclear increases leading
to an increase in the nuclear attraction for the incoming electron.
Magnesium, the electron is being added to a 3s-subshell which is full and stable,
therefore energy is required for the electron to be added.
Phosphorus, the value is less negative because an electron is being added to a 3p-
subshell which is half filled and relatively thermodynamically stable hence energy
is required to add the electron.
Or:
Effective nuclear charge increases across a period so that the nuclear attraction for
the incoming electron increases.
Electron affinity of magnesium is more positive than expected because magnesium
it’s electron is being added to full 3s-subshell according to its electron
configuration:
12Mg: 1s2 2s22p6 3s2, which is thermodynamically stable and resists the addition of
electrons hence more energy is required or resists the addition of electron hence
energy should be put in to effect it.
Similarly:
Electron affinity of phosphorous is less negative than expected because in
phosphorous, the electron is being added to half full 3p-subshell which is also very
stable and resists the addition of electron hence less energy is released.
15P:1s2 2s22p6 3s23p3.

43
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Golden tips:
 There is a general increase in electron affinity with increase in atomic
number. As atomic number increases, both nuclear charge and shielding
effect increases. But since electrons are added to the same main energy
level, increased nuclear charge outweighs that of shielding effect hence
electron affinity increases.
 Elements with atomic number 12 and 15 respectively bear abnormally low
electron affinity.
Why?
 12Mg: 1s2 2s22p6 3s2 15P:1s2 2s22p6 3s23p3
 The element with atomic number 12, the element has full 3s-
subenergy level while element with atomic number 15, its 3p-
subenergy level is half filled.
 Therefore, these two elements resists addition of an electron hence
energy released is low.
Points to notes:
 Moving from one element to the next across a period, electrons are added
to the same shell. At the same time; protons are added to the nucleus. The
electrons are therefore, attracted and pulled towards the nucleus by
increasing positive charges.
 So the radius of the atom decreases. However, the rate of decrease in the
radius becomes smaller as more protons are added.
 The addition of one more proton example to the 11 already present in
sodium in this case, causes a greater proportional increase in the attractive
power of the nucleus. Than the addition of one more proton to the already
16 present in sulphur, hence the atomic radius falls by 0.026nm from
sodium to magnesium but by ONLY 0,005nm from sulphur to chlorine.
VARIATION OF ELECTRON AFFINITY DOWN THE GROUP:
Elements F Cl Br I
Electron affinity -323 -364 -324 -295

6. Explain the variation of electron affinity down group.

Generally: Electron affinity decreases down the group.
Explanation:
Down the group, there is a decrease in effective nuclear charge and an increase in
screening effect which outweighs the nuclear charge as a result of new energy
level added.
This leads to decrease in the nuclear attraction for the income electrons leading to
low energy.
Fluorine has low value of electron affinity than expected due to its small atomic
radius which creates a strong repulsive force for the incoming electrons. The
incoming electron has to be forced in to the outermost shell against the repulsive
force hence some energy is used up reducing on the energy released.
Or:

44
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Down the group because of addition of an extra shell of electrons, the increase in
screening effect outweighs that of nuclear charge so that effective nuclear charge
decreases. Therefore, there is a decreasing ability to attract electrons hence
decrease in electron affinity.
Or:
Down the group, Electron affinity decreases due to decrease in effective nuclear
charge caused by addition of an extra energy level of electrons. The nuclear
charge decreases and ability of the nucleus to attract electrons is reduced
hence less energy is given out.
ELECTROPOSITIVITY:
7. What is electropositivity?
 Electropositivity is the tendency of an atom to lose electron(s) to become
positively charged.
Or:
 Electropositivity is the ability to lose outermost electrons to form a
positively charged ion. This is basically a property of metallic elements
because they have few electrons in the outermost energy level with low
ionization energy.
8. State and explain the factors affecting electropositivity.
 Atomic radius: Electropositivity increases with increase in atomic radius.
The bigger the atomic radius, the further away the outer electrons from the
nucleus and the less the nuclear attraction the electrons experience.
 Ionization energy: Electropositivity increases with decrease in ionization
energy. Decrease in ionization energy means little amount of energy
required for an atom to lose electron.
 Effective nuclear charge: Electropositivity increases with decrease in
nuclear charge because the outer shell electron is less attracted by the
nucleus.
 Screening (shielding) effect: Electroposivity increases with increase in
screening effect which reduces the effective nuclear attraction on the outer
shell electrons.
VARIATION OF ELECTROPOSITIVITY:
9. Discuss the variation of electropositivity across the period.
Across the period, electropositivity decreases because electrons are added to the
same energy level, therefore, they screen each other poorly hence nuclear charge
increases and outweighs that of screening effect leading to increase in effective
nuclear charge. Atomic radius decrease, Ionization energy increases, hence
electropositivity increases.
10. Discuss the variation of electropositivity down the group.
Down the group, Electro positivity increases because the shielding of outer most
electrons from nuclear attraction increases as more completed energy levels are
added. The atomic radius increases and ionization energy decreases hence the
tendency to lose electron increases hence increase in electropositivity.
Or:
Down the group, electropositivity increase because the effective nuclear increases
and shielding effect also increases due to the formation of new energy levels

45
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 hence the screening effect outweighs that of effective nuclear charge. Atomic
radius increases, ionization energy decreases thus increase in electropositivity.
MELTING AND BOILING POINT:
11. What is melting point?
 Melting point: is a constant temperature at which pure solid is in
equilibrium with the pure liquid at atmospheric pressure.
 Melting point: is the constant temperature at which a pure substance turns
from solid to liquid state at a given pressure when the two states are at
equilibrium.
12. State the factors affecting melting points of:
a) Metals.
 Atomic radius of the metals.
 Type of crystal structure formed by the metals.
 The number of electrons each atom contribute to the electron
cloud or charge of the metallic ion.
b) Molecular substances (Non-metals)
 Molecular mass of the substance.
 Type of intermolecular forces of attraction.
 Type of close packing of the molecules in the solid.
Table of physical data:
Metallic Proton Atomic Oxidation I.E
Element Mpt(°C) Bpt(°C)
character No: radius States (KJ/Mol)
+
Sodium,Na Metal 11 1.57 1 502 98 883
+
Magnesium,Mg " 12 1.36 2 745 639 1090
+
Aluminium,Al " 13 1.28 3 587 660 2467
+
Silicon,Si Metalloid 14 1.17 4 792 1410 2680
Non- +
Phosphorus,P 15 1.10 3,+5 1020 44 280
metal
-
Sulphur,S " 16 1.04 2,+4,+6 1000 113 445
-
Chlorine,Cl " 17 0.09 1,+1,+3,+7 1260 -101 -35
Argon,Ar " 18 - - 1530 -184 -187

The graph is often divided into three sections to make explanations easier. Mouse over
the graph, then select to learn about a section, or go directly to the explanations.

46
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 47
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
Explanation of the trends
Melting points generally increase going from sodium to silicon, then decrease going to
argon (with a “bump” at sulphur)
Melting
When a substance melts, some of the attractive forces holding the particles together are
broken or loosened so that the particles can move freely around each other but are still
close together. The stronger these forces are, the more energy is needed to overcome
them and the higher the melting temperature.
Boiling
When a substance boils, most of the remaining attractive forces are broken so the
particles can move freely and far apart. The stronger the attractive forces are, the more
energy is needed to overcome them and the higher the boiling temperature.
Sodium, magnesium and aluminium
Sodium, magnesium and aluminium are all metals. They have metallic bonding, in which
positive metal ions are attracted to delocalized electrons. Going from sodium to
aluminium:
 the charge on the metal ions increases from +1 to +3 (with magnesium at +2) ...
 the number of delocalized electrons increases ...
 so the strength of the metallic bonding increases and ...
 the melting points and boiling points increase.
Silicon
Silicon is a metalloid (an element with some of the properties of metals and some of the
properties of non-metals). Silicon has giant covalent bonding. It has a giant lattice
structure similar to that of diamond, in which each silicon atom is covalently-bonded to
four other silicon atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. This extends in three dimensions
to form a giant molecule or macromolecule.
Silicon has a very high melting point and boiling point because:
 all the silicon atoms are held together by strong covalent bonds ...
 Which need a very large amount of energy to be broken.
Phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and argon
These are all non-metals, and they exist as small, separate molecules. Phosphorus,
sulphur and chlorine exist as simple molecules, with strong covalent bonds between their
atoms. Argon exists as separate atoms (it is monatomic).
Their melting and boiling points are very low because:
 when these four substances melt or boil, it is the van der Waals’ forces between
the molecules which are broken ...
 which are very weak bonds ...
 so little energy is needed to overcome them.
Sulphur has a higher melting point and boiling point than the other three because:
 phosphorus exists as P4 molecules ...
 sulphur exists as S8 molecules ...
 chlorine exists as Cl2 molecules ...
 argon exists individual Ar atoms ...
 the strength of the van der Waals’ forces decreases as the size of the molecule
decreases .
 so the melting points and boiling points decrease in the order S8 > P4 > Cl2 > Ar.
Summary:

48
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  Metals form giant metallic structure which requires a lot of energy. Magnesium
has higher melting point than sodium because it contribute 2 electrons per atom
to the metallic bond while sodium only contribute 1 electron per atom, Hence
magnesium forms a stronger metallic bond than sodium making it to have higher
melting point.
 Aluminium doesn’t donate all its 3 valence electron to the electron cloud, hence
not very high melting point.
 Silicon has a giant atomic structure with covalent bonds. Each silicon atom is
bonded to four silicon atoms via strong covalent bonds. This results in 3
dimensional structures.
Diagram:

 There is a fall in melting point from silicon to phosphorus (P4) because

phosphorus is held together by weak Van der Waal’s forces which require less
energy to break.
The magnitude of Van der Waal’s forces decreases across the period, thus decrease
in melting point.
 Sulphur has the highest melting point because it forms rings of S8 atoms which are
held by Van der Waal’s forces. The strength of Van der Waal’s forces depends on
the molecular mas.S8 has the highest molecular mass that makes it have high
melting point.
 Argon has the lowest melting point because it is mono atomic, hence very weak
Van der Waal’s forces while chlorine in diatomic.
VARIATION OF MELTING POINT AMONGST GROUP (I) AND (II) METALS:
Melting point of the elements decreases down the group because of increase in atomic
radius and the number of electrons donated to the electron cloud is the same. The ionic
radius of the cations formed increases hence decreasing the charge density. The force of
attraction between the bonding electrons and the positive ion (metallic bonds) decreases.
This decreases the melting point.
VARIATION OF MELTING POINT AMONGST GROUP (VII) ELEMENTS:
Melting point of group (VII) elements increases down the group due to increase in the
magnitude of Van der Waal’s forces of attraction as a result of increase in atomic side
(molecular mass) down the group. That is why iodine is a solid, bromine is a liquid, and
chlorine and fluorine are gases.
BOILING POINTS:
Boiling point: is the constant temperature at which the pure liquid is in equilibrium with
its vapour at atmospheric pressure.
Points to notes:
 The magnitude of boiling point depends on the strength of the bonds which
must be broken and in converting the liquid to vapour.
 For metals, most of the metallic bonds still exist in the liquid state;
therefore a considerable amount of energy is needed to completely break

49
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 the metallic bonds. For this reasons, the boiling points of metals are much
higher than their melting point.
 For silicon, most of the covalent bonds have been broken during melting
and so the boiling point is not much higher than the melting point.
 For molecules such as phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine, it involves
breaking the Van der Waal’s forces which is much easier therefore melting
point is lower than boiling point.
CHARGE DENSITY:
13. What is charge density?
Charge density: is the ratio of the charge of a cation to the ionic radius. It’s known
as the polarizing power of a cation.
Charge density: is the ratio of charge of a given ion to its radius.
Mathematically:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Charge density (Polarizing) =
𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
Points to note:
An ion (cation) with a high charge density will have a high polarizing power while
that with low charge density will have low polarizing power.
EFFECT OF POLARIZATION ON THE IONIC PROPERTY OF A COMPOUND:
According to Fajan, polarization is favoured by:
 High charge. Highly charged positive ions greatly polarize anions with large
negative charge
 Small radius of the Cation
 Large anions. Anions with large radius are more polarisable
Polarization affects both the chemical and physical properties of ionic compounds
and considers the table below.
Cations Na+ Mg2+ Al3+
Ionic radius (nm) 0.095 0.065 0.050
Charge on the ion +1 +2 +3

Charge density
(Polarizing power) +1 +2 +3
0.096
= 10.5 0.065
= 30.8 0.060 = 60.0
Melting points of the 801 712 180
chlorides(°C) (Sublimes)

EXPLANATION:
 The polarizing power increase from sodium to Aluminium via Magnesium ions.
The Aluminium ion produces the greatest distortion (polarization) of the electrons
on the chloride ions than both magnesium and sodium ions.Aluminium chloride
has a greater covalent character than both chlorides of magnesium and sodium
has the least covalent character with the highest ionic character while Aluminium
chloride has the lowest ionic character. Because sodium chloride has the highest
ionic character, it has the highest melting point, Aluminium chloride having the
highest covalent character; it has the lowest melting point.
 Hence,Cations with high polarizing power their compounds tends to be more
covalent and less ionic while cations with low polarizing power, their compounds
tends to be more ionic and less covalent.

50
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 SOLUBILITY OF IONIC COMPOUNDS IN WATER.
For an ionic compound to dissolve in water, two energy changes must be overcome.
(a) Lattice energy,(UL) (b) Hydration energy,(∆Hh)
Mathematically:
Enthalpy of solution = Lattice energy + Hydration energy
∆Hsol. = UL + ∆Hh
A. LATTICE ENERGY:
This is the enthalpy change which occurs when one mole of a crystal, Lattice is
broken down in to its constituent gaseous ion.
Equation:

This is enthalpy chance which occurs when one mole of ionic crystal lattice is
formed for its constituent gaseous ions.
Equation:

FACTORS THAT AFFECTS LATTICE ENERGY:

 Charge on the ion ie, ionic charge:
Lattice energy increases with increase in ionic charge. This is because
increased ionic charge increases the electrostatic attraction between the
oppositely charged ions. Consider both chlorides of sodium and
magnesium.
Magnesium chloride has higher lattice energy than sodium chloride
because the electrostatic attraction between Mg2+ and Cl- ions is higher
than those sodium and magnesium ions.
 Ionic radius:
Lattice energy increases with decrease in ionic radius. The smaller the ionic
radius, the closer the ions of opposite charge to each other and the stronger
the ionic bond.
Also charge density increases with decrease in ionic radius. The higher the
charge density, the higher the electrostatic attraction between oppositely
charged ion.
Example:
Sodium chloride has higher lattice energy than potassium because
potassium ion has a bigger ionic radius than sodium ion.
Consider lattice energy of:
Sodium of:
Fluoride = - 915, Chloride = -775, Bromide = -742, Iodine = -699(KJ/Mol)
B. HYDRATION ENERGY:
This is the enthalpy change which occurs when one mole of gaseous ions is surrounded
by water molecules to form an infinitely dilute solution.
Equation:

51
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 FACTORS AFFECTING HYDRATION ENERGY:
14. State and explain the factors affecting Hydration energy.
 Ionic radius.
An ion with a small ionic radius is highly hydrated than an ion with a big
ionic radius, hence releasing more energy.
 Charge on the ion.
Hydration energy increases with an increase in the charge of the ion. Highly
charged ions have high charge density and readily dissolve in water
releasing a lot of energy hence higher hydration energy.
Example: Al3+ and Mg2+.Al3+ have higher hydration energy than Mg2+.
Points to note:
Relationship between hydration energy, lattice energy and enthalpy of
solution.

C. ENTHALPY OF SOLUTION:
This is the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of an ionic compound in
the solid state is dissolved in water to form an infinitely dilute solution.
Mathematically:

If a salt readily dissolves in water, the sign of Enthalpy of solution will be negative (-ve)
but if the salt does not readily dissolve in water, the sign of Enthalpy of solution will be
positive (+ve).
1. Given that the Lattice and hydration energies of salts AX and BX
Salts Lattice energy (KJ/Mol1) Hydration energy (KJ/Mol1)
AX +880 -860

BX +790 -800

a)
Calculate the enthalpy of solution of each salt.
 Salt AX.

= +880 + -860
= +20 KJ/Mol1
 Salt BX.

= +790 + -800
= -10 KJ/Mol1
b) Which of the two salts is more soluble in water?

52
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  Salt BX is more soluble than salt AX because it’s enthalpy of solution;
HSOL is exothermic while salt AX is endothermic.
EFFECTS OF LATTICE ENERGY:
 Solubility of an ionic compound (salt).
 Solubility of a salt decreases with increase in lattice energy. When the
lattice energy is high, the salt will have very strong electrostatic force of
attraction between the oppositely charged ions and vice versa.
Consider calcium carbonate and calcium chloride.
 CaCO3 is insoluble in water while CaCl2 is soluble.
 This is because the attraction between the double positive ion on Ca2+ ion
and the double negative charge on CO32- ion is much higher than between
the Ca2+ ion and Cl- ion, hence higher lattice energy.
 The higher the lattice energy, the harder it is to separate the ions in the
crystal apart, the less likely it is to dissolve.
 Melting point of a substance.
 When the lattice energy is high, the melting point of an ionic compound is
also high because it requires a lot of energy to separate the ions apart
because of the strong electrostatic force of attraction between the
oppositely charged ions.
2. The table below shows the melting point of some compounds.
Compounds Al2O3 Al2Cl3 CaO CaCl2
Melting points(K) 2290 451 2850 1050
Explain why?
a) The melting point of Aluminium chloride is abnormally low compared to
Aluminium oxide.
The chloride ions have a larger ionic radius than the oxide ion. They are
more polarized by the aluminium ion than the oxide ions. This makes
aluminium chloride to become more covalent is character with low
melting point as compared to aluminium oxide which is ionic in character
with high melting point.
b) The melting point of calcium oxide is much higher than that of calcium
chloride.
The oxide ion is much smaller and highly charged than the chloride ion
with a single charge. The ionic bond in calcium oxide is stronger than
those in calcium chloride because of the doubly charged calcium ion and
the doubly charged oxide ion, hence the lattice energy with high melting
point.
Also because of the big ionic radius of the chloride ion, it is easily
polarized making the bonding partly covalent with low melting point.

53
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 GROUP (I) ELEMENTS (ALKALI METALS).
Group (I) elements Atomic Electron configurations
radius (A°)
3Li 180 1330 0.15 0.06 [He] 2s1 (2:1)
1s2,2s1
11Na 98 892 0.19 0.10 [Ne] 3s1 (2:8:1)
1s2,2s22p6,3s1
19K 63 760 0.23 0.13 [Ar] 4s1 (2:8:8:1)
1s2,2s22p6,3s23p6,4s1
37Rb 39 688 0.24 0.15 [Kr] 5s1 (2:8:18:8:1)
1s2,2s22p6,3s23p63d10,4s24p6,5s1
55Cs 29 690 0.26 0.17 [Xe] 6s1 (2:8:18:18:8:1)
1s2,2s22p6,3s23p63d10,4s24p6,5s25p66s1
Tm/°C Tb/°C AR/nm IR/nm
87Fr [Rn]7s1 (2:8:18:32:18:8:1)
1s2,2s22p6,3s23p63d10,4s24p64d104f14,5s25p65d10,6s26p67s1
Radioactive elements artificially made

Elements Li Na Rb Cs Fr KEY:
Tm = melting temperature
Tb = boiling temperature
1st IE/KJmol-1 519 494 418 402 376
AR = Atomic radius
1st I.E = 1st Ionization
2nd IE/KJmol-1 7300 4600 3100 2700 2440 energy
2nd I.E = 2nd Ionization
Density/gcm-3 0.53 0.97 0.86 1.53 1.90 energy

Standard -3.05 -2.71 -2.93 -2.92 -2.92

electrode
potential, Eѳ/V
M+(aq)/M(s)/Volts
Notes:
Francium is a radioactive element.
 S-block elements (or elements in Group 1): these are elements which have got their
outer most electrons in s-sub energy level & only Helium in Group 0.
Generally, the outer electronic configuration is ns1; they are the S-block elements. Where
n is principal quantum number.
 They are the most reactive metal elements and their reactivity increases down the
group because of decrease in 1st ionization energy down the group.
54
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  They are the most electropositive elements in the periodic table.
 They have low densities since they have relatively bigger atomic radius.
 There melting points decreases down the group because their atomic radius
increases down the group, the bond length increases and the strength of the
metallic bonds decrease.
Physical properties of Group (I) elements:
 As one might expect, the atomic radii increase with increase in atomic number
down the groups. Each succeeding element has electrons in one more shell than
the previous element.
 The outermost s-electrons in these metals are held very weakly by nucleus. Hence,
the outer electrons can drift further from the nucleus than in most other atoms. So,
the elements in Groups (I) have larger atomic radii than those elements which
follow them in their respect periods.
The large atomic size results in weaker forces between neighboring atoms because
there is a reduced attraction of the nuclear charge for the shared mobile electrons.
 Consequently, the elements in Groups (I) have lower melting and boiling and
points than we normally associate with metals. All Group (I) metals melt below
200°C.In contrast, most of the transition metals melt at temperature above
1000°C.
 The reduced interatomic forces in these metals make them relatively soft. As we
have seen, s-block elements have larger atomic radii than transition metals of
approximately the same relative atomic mass. This results in lower densities and
larger molar volumes.
 The members of Groups (I) are silvery coloured and tarnish rapidly in air. They
show relatively weak metallic bonding because they have only single valence
electrons. They differ in a number of ways from metals later in the periodic table:
 Oxidation state:
This is the net charge that can be created on an atom when all other atoms bonded
to it have been removed as ions with a noble gas configuration.
The elements easily lose their valence electron to form positively charged ions
therefore the oxidation state of group (I) is +1.
Summary:
 They form a constant oxidation state of +1.
 They are soft, they can be cut be a penknife.
 Their melting and boiling temperatures are low.
 They have low densities. (Li, Na, P are less dense than water.)
 They have low standard enthalpies (heats) of melting and vaporization.
 The outer electron or electrons can be excited to a higher energy level. When they
fall to a lower energy level, energy is emitted. For these metals, the energy is
sufficiently low to have a wavelength in the visible spectrum. These elements
therefore colour flames: Li-red, Na-yellow, K-lilac, Rb-red and Cs-blue.
 Ionization energy:

The ionization energy required for the process is low. The s-electrons are shielded
from the attraction of the nucleus by the noble gas core and are easily removed. As
the size of the atoms increases down the groups, the electrons to be removed

55
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 become more distant from the nuclear charge, and the ionization energy
decreases.
CHEMICAL REACTIVITY OF THE S-BLOCK METAL ELEMENTS:
 The metals in Group (I) elements exist in fixed oxidation states of +1 in their
compounds.
 The metals in Group (I) elements are readily oxidized to monovalent ions, Na+ for
example. High 2nd I.E of Group (I) elements prohibits the formation of other ions
such as Na2+.
 The ease of oxidation of Group (I) elements is relatively reflected by high redox
potentials of those elements.
 The negative values show that the metals are electropositive and tend to be
oxidized. Hence the reverse reactions in the half reaction below takes place.
 Because they are readily oxidized and hence readily produce electrons, all the
metals in Group (I) are strong reducing agents.
 However, the metals cannot be used as reducing agents in aqueous solutions,
because they reduce the water instead in vigorous and violent reactions. In non
aqueous conditions they reduce non-metals and some compounds such as
ammonia.
STANDARD REDOX POTENTIALS OF GROUP (I) METAL ELEMENTS:

(*1) The small size of Li+ gives it a high standard enthalpy of hydration. This is why Li+
has the most negative value of electrode potential in the group. The small size of Li+
enables it to polarize anions, and its compounds have some covalent character.
Points to note:
 Because of the shielding of this outer electron from attraction of the nucleus by
completed shell of electrons, the 1st ionization energies of these elements are very
low, decrease with increasing number of shielding shells. Hence the elements are
very reactive as metals, and reactivity increase down the group.
 In general, the hydroxides, carbonates and sulphates of Group (I) elements are
more stable to heat than other metals, and their nitrates do not decompose in the
usual way.

56
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 REACTIONS WITH NON METALS:
1. Li, Na, K, Rb and Cs belong to group (I) metal elements of the periodic table. Describe
the reactions of the elements with;
(i) Air.
 Lithium burn in air (oxygen) gas readily with a red (scarlet) flame to form
normal oxide of lithium oxide.
Equation:

 Sodium burn in limited supply of air (oxygen) gas readily with a bright,
golden yellow flame to form normal oxide of sodium monoxide.
Equation:

 Sodium also burn in excess supply of air (oxygen) gas readily with a bright,
golden yellow flame to form a pale solid of sodium peroxide a temperature
of about 600K.
Equation:

 Potassium burns in air (oxygen) gas readily with a lilac flame to form
potassium superoxide.
Equation:

 Rubidium burns in excess air (oxygen) gas with a red flame to form rubidium
superoxide.
Equation:

 Caesium also burns in excess air (oxygen) gas with a blue flame to form
Caesium superoxide.
Equation:

Notes:
The reactions with oxygen (air) gas occur rapidly. When the metals are
exposed to air they begin to tarnish after a few seconds, becoming coated
57
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 with oxides. To prevent this, lithium, sodium and potassium are normally
stored under oil. Rubidium and Caesium are even more reactive and are
normally stored in sealed containers.
2. Explain why Lithium doesn’t form peroxide or superoxide when burn in oxygen.
 The reason is that the sizes of ions:O2- is larger than O22-,which is larger
than O2-.Therefore,Li+ is too small to either peroxide or superoxide ions to
cluster round it to form a stable crystal lattice.
3. Discuss the action of water on oxides of element of Group (I) metals of the
periodic table.
 Lithium oxide
Lithium oxide reacts violently with water to form lithium hydroxide
solution.
Equation:

 Sodium oxide
Sodium oxide reacts violently with water to form sodium hydroxide
solution.
Equation:

 Sodium peroxide
Sodium peroxide reacts violently with water to form solutions of sodium
hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide.
Equation:

 Potassium peroxide dissolves in water to form both solution of potassium

hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide.
Equation:

 Potassium superoxide
Potassium superoxide dissolves in water to form solution of potassium
hydroxide, hydrogen peroxide solution and oxygen gas.
Equation:

 Rubidium superoxide
Rubidium superoxide dissolves in water to form rubidium hydroxide
solution.
Equation
 Caesium superoxide
Caesium superoxide dissolves in water to form caesium hydroxide solution.
Equation:

(ii) Hydrogen gas.

58
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  Lithium reacts with heated dry hydrogen gas to form a white solid of
lithium hydride i.e. ionic hydride.
Equation:

 Sodium reacts with heated dry hydrogen gas to form a white solid of
sodium hydride.
Equation:

 Potassium reacts with heated dry hydrogen gas to form a white solid
resembling that of sodium hydride in chemical behavior.
Equation:

Note:
Since the metals are electropositive, the oxidation state of hydrogen in the
hydrides is -1.
4. Discuss the action of water on the hydrides of element of Group (I) metals of the
periodic table.
 Lithium hydride.
Equation:

 Sodium hydride.
A white solid of Sodium hydride yields hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide
solution when acted upon by cold water.
Equation:

 Potassium hydride.
Equation:

 Rubidium hydride.
 Caesium hydride.
(iii) Water.
 Lithium reacts with cold with water comparatively slowly to form lithium
hydroxide solution and a colourless gas that’s hydrogen gas.
Equation:

59
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Note:
Lithium is not a completely typical metal of Group (I), because of the small
size of its atom and consequent comparative lack of electropositive
character. It shows general resemblance to other metals of this Group in its
oxidation sate of +1, general chemical activity, reaction with water and
physical characteristics. But, in some respect, it resembles the elements of
Group (II).it can be said to have ‘diagonal relationship’ with magnesium.
 Sodium attacks cold water rapidly with evolution of hydrogen and
formation of sodium hydroxide solution.
Equation:

Note:
The hydrogen gas does not burn unless the movement of sodium is
restricted.
 Potassium reacts violently with water in cold. Hydrogen gas is liberated
and a burn with the lilac flame characteristic of the presence of potassium
compounds. Potassium hydroxide solution is left in solution.
Equation:

 Rubidium reacts with water more violently in cold liberating hydrogen gas
and rubidium hydroxide solution.
Equation:

Caesium also reacts with water explosively in cold forming caesium

hydroxide solution and hydrogen gas.
Equation:

Note:
 Because of shielding of outermost electron from the attraction of the
nucleus by completed shells of electrons, the 1st ionization energies of
these metals are very low and decreases with increasing number of
shielding shells. Hence the elements are all reactive as a metals and
reactivity increases down the group.
CARBONATES AND HYDROGEN CARBONATES:
 In general, the hydroxides, carbonates and sulphates of group (I) metal elements
are more stable to heat than those of other metals and their nitrates don’t
decompose in the usual way.
 All the carbonates are ionic except lithium carbonate which is covalent.

60
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Lithium carbonate is covalent because of the small ionic radius of lithium ion
which makes it easily to greatly polarize the carbonate ion leading to the
formation of covalent bond.
Because of being covalent:
 Lithium carbonate is easily decomposed to form lithium oxide and
carbon dioxide gas while the other carbonates are not easily
decomposed by heat.
Equation:

 Lithium carbonate is only sparingly soluble in water and can be

precipitated.
5. Explain why Lithium carbonate decomposes while other carbonates of group I do
not.
 It is because the Lithium ions have a high charge density hence easily
polarize the carbonate ions to form a covalent compound which is held by
weak Vander Waals forces which makes it easily decompose.
Or:
 Lithium ion has the smallest ionic radius while ionic radius of the group (I)
metal cations increases down the group. This makes lithium ion to have the
highest polarizing power than the rest of the group (I) metals
cations.Lithium ions therefore polarizes the carbonate ion making the
bonding in lithium carbonate covalent, hence making it less stable than the
rest whose bonding is ionic.
6. (a). Explain why Sodium carbonate is used as a base in acid-base titration.
(b). (i) State and Explain what is observed when sodium carbonate solution
is added to aluminium chloride solution.
(ii) Write the equation of reaction in b (i).
 The aqueous solution of the other carbonates is alkaline due to hydrolysis.
Equation:

 The carbonate ion is highly negatively charge; it readily withdraws a

proton from water releasing high concentration of hydroxyl ions.
 The weak carbonic acid partially ionizes in water; the concentration
of hydrogen ion is less than the concentration of hydroxyl ion
making the solution alkaline.
HYDROGEN CARBONATES:
 Hydrogen carbonates are the most stable and exist as solids except lithium
hydrogen carbonate which is unstable and only exist in solution.
 Hydrogen carbonates are easily decomposed to form carbonates, carbon dioxide
gas and water:
Equation:

61
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 3. Explain why sodium hydrogen carbonate decomposes on heating.
Decomposition is likely to occur when a compound with a small cation and a large
anion is covalent to one with the same cation but a smaller or highly charged
anion.
Equation:
Heat
2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Therefore, because HCO 3 has charge, it is therefore, decomposes.
-

HCO3-CO32-O2-.
Also in Magnesium carbonate, MgCO3.
Equation:
MgCO3(s) MgO(s) + CO2(g)
CO32-O2-.
NITRATES:
 The nitrate decomposes when heated to form the respective metal nitrite and
oxygen gas.
Equation:

 However, Lithium nitrate is unstable; it decomposes completely when heated to

form lithium oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas.
Equation:

HALIDES:
 They form ionic halides which are soluble in water except lithium halide.
Equation:

 Lithium halides are covalent because of the small ionic radius of lithium ion,
making it to have high polarizing power. It highly polarizes the halide ion forming
a covalent bond. Hence; the lithium halides are insoluble in water but soluble in
organic solvents.
ANOMALOUS PROPERTIES OF LITHIUM:
 Lithium shows anomalous properties from the rest of group (I) A metals and tends
to resemble magnesium, a group (II) A metal in most of its chemical properties.
Reasons:
 Lithium has a small atomic radius.
 Lithium forms a cation with a small ionic radius giving the ion a high charge
density and high polarizing power.
 Lithium resembles magnesium because both form ions with similar charge
density and have similar polarizing power.

62
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  Lithium and magnesium atoms have similar electronegativity and electrode
potential hence lithium and magnesium exhibit diagonal relationship.
ANOMALOUS PROPERTIES OF LITHIUM:
 Lithium shows anomalous properties from the rest of group (I) A metals and tends
to resemble magnesium, a group (II) A metal in most of its chemical properties.
Reasons:
 Lithium has a small atomic radius.
 Lithium forms a cation with a small ionic radius giving the ion a high charge
density and high polarizing power.
 Lithium resembles magnesium because both form ions with similar charge
density and have similar polarizing power.
 Lithium and magnesium atoms have similar electronegativity and electrode
potential hence lithium and magnesium exhibit diagonal relationship.
DIAGONAL RELATIONSHIP:
7. What is diagonal relationship?
Diagonal relationship: refers to elements adjacent to one another and right angle
to each other in the periodic table having similar chemical properties.
Or:
This is the similarity in chemical properties between elements in period two to
their diagonal neighbors in period three and adjacent groups.
Moving across the period, electronegativity increases and the ionic radius of
cations decreases.
Down the group, electronegativity decreases and the ionic radius of the cations
increase. But moving diagonally elements have similar electronegativities, similar
atomic/ionic radius and hence resemble each. Pair of elements that shows
diagonal relationship are:
 Lithium and magnesium  Beryllium and aluminium
 Boron and silicon
The similarity in chemical properties is due to following reasons:
 Similar electronegativity  Similar electropositivity
 Similar electrode potential
 Similar polarizing power or charge density

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN LITHIUM AND MAGNESIUM, BERYLLIUM & ALUMINIUM AND

BORON AND SILICON.

Li and Mg Be and Al B and Si

Both react with nitrogen on Oxides and hydroxides are amphoteric. Both form acidic
heating to form nitrides. Be(OH)2 (s) + 2OH- (aq) Be(OH)42- (aq) oxide as B2O3 and
Al(OH)3 (s) + OH- (aq) Al(OH)4- (aq) SiO2

Their hydrogen carbonates exist Both react with Conc. Sodium hydroxide solution Both form series
in solution to form a complex and hydrogen gas. of covalent
Be(s) + 2OH- (aq) + 2H2O (l) Be(OH)42- hydrides.
(aq) + H2(g)

63
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 2Al(s) +2OH-(aq) +6H2O(l) 2Al(OH)4-(aq)
+ 3H2(g)
Both form normal oxides when Their chlorides and bromides are covalent and
heated in oxygen (air) dimerize in vapour phase as Be2Cl4 and Al2Cl6. Both form
2AlCl3 (s) Al2Cl6 (g) chlorides which
hydrolyze readily.

Their hydroxides and carbonates Both form ionic carbides which hydrolyze to form Form covalent
are sparingly soluble in water methane. compounds.
Be2C (s) + 4H2O(l) CH4(g) + 2Be(OH)2 (aq)
Al4C3(s) + 12H2O(l) 3CH4(g) + 4Al(OH) 3(aq)
Carbonates, hydroxides, peroxide Both are rendered passive concentrated nitric Form borides and
decompose on heating to give an acid. silicides with
oxide. metals.
Nitrates decompose on heating to Both form fluoro complexes.e.g. BeF42-
give an oxide, nitrogendioxide
and oxygen.
Halides (except fluorides) and
chlorates (VII) are soluble in
organic solvent.
SUMMARY:
 Lithium and Magnesium.
Both lithium and Magnesium combine directly with nitrogen gas forming
nitrides other alkali metals do not reacts with nitrogen gas.
Equations:
6Li(s) + N2(g) 2Li3N(s)
3Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(S)
Both Lithium and Magnesium form normal oxides only, other alkali metals
form normal oxides, peroxides & super oxides.
Equations:
4Li(s) + O2(g) 2Li2O(s)
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
Carbonates, peroxides and hydroxides of Lithium and Magnesium are
sparingly soluble in water and decompose on heating. Carbonates, peroxides
and hydroxides of other alkali metals are soluble and (stable) do not
decomposed by heat.
Equations:
LiCO3(s) Li2O(s) + CO2(g)
MgCO3(s) MgO(s) + CO2(g)
Equations:
2LiOH(s) Li2O(s) + H2O(l)
Mg(OH)2(s) MgO(s) + H2O(l)
Their hydrogen carbonates exists as a solution.
Nitrates of Lithium and Magnesium decomposes on heating to form oxides,
nitrogen dioxides and oxygen gases when heated strongly.

64
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Equations:
2LiNO3(s) Li2O(s) + 2NO2(g) + ½O2(g)
Mg(NO3)2(s) MgO(s) + 2NO2(g) + ½O2(g)
Hydroxides of both metals are deliquescent.
Fluorides of both metals are soluble in organic solvents.
Both metals forms carbides when heated in carbon.
 Beryllium and Aluminium.
Both metals are rendered passive reaction by concentrated nitric acid
because of formation of insoluble oxides.
Both metals reacts with concentrated alkalis to give off hydrogen gas.
Equations:
Be(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 2H2O(l) Be(OH)42+(aq) + H2(g)
2Al(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 6H2O(l) Al(OH)4-(aq) + 3H2(g)
Both oxides are amphoteric and reacts with hot concentrated alkalis.
Equation:
BeO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(s) Be(OH)42-(aq)
Al2O3(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 3H2O(l) 2Al(OH)4-(aq)
Carbides of both metals yields methane on hydrolysis.
Equations:
Be2C(s) + 4H2O(l) 2Be(OH)2(s) + CH4(g)
Al4C3(s) + 12H2O(l) 4Al(OH)3(s) + 3CH4(g)
Chlorides of both metals are covalent and polymeric solids when anhydrous.
Equations:

Notes: Remember to show the donating electron and in this case, chlorine
atom donates electron to both beryllium and aluminium atoms respectively
all the compounds Aluminium and Beryllium are covalent in nature.
Both beryllium and aluminium chlorides are covalent and are hydrolyzed in
water to form acidic solution.
Equations:
BeCl2(s) + 4H2O(l) [Be(H2O)4]2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
Or:
Be(H2O)4(aq) [Be(H2O)22OH](s) + 2H+(aq)
AlCl3(s) + 6H2O(l) [Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3Cl-(aq)
Or:
[Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) [Al(H2O)33OH](s) + 3H+(aq)
 Boron and Silicon.
Both burns in air to form acidic oxides.

65
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Equations:
4B(s) + 3O2(g) 2B2O3(s)
Si(s) + O2(g) SiO2(s)
Both burns in nitrogen gas to form nitrides.
Equations:
2B(s) + N2(g) 2BN(s)
3Si(s) + 2N2(g) Si3N4(s)
Both exist in amorphous and crystalline state and exhibit allotropy.
Both forms covalent compounds.
Their hydrides are simple molecular.
Their chlorides are liquids, fume in most air and are readily hydrolyzed by
water.
Equations:
SiCl4(l) + H2O(l) Si(OH)4(aq) + 4HCl(aq)
BCl3(l) + 3H2O(l) B(OH)3(aq) + 3HCl(aq)
Both form weak acids like H3BO3 and H2SiF6 when reacted.
Notes:
Boron reacts with only oxidizing acids, i.e. nitric and sulphuric acid, only
when hot and concentrated. The product is trioxoboric acid.
Equation:
2B(s) + 6HNO3(l) 2H2BO3(s) + 6NO2(g)
But silicon is very resistant to the action of acids. It is only attacked by
hydrofluoric acid (more rapidly if nitric acid is present).
Equation:
HNO3
Si(s) + 6HF(l) H2SiF6(l) + 2H2(g)
Both the metals and their oxides are readily soluble in alkalis.
Their carbides are very hard and used as abrasives.
4. State three @ properties in which:
 Lithium differs from the rest of group (I) elements.
 Beryllium differs from the rest of group (II) elements.
 Boron differs from the rest of group (III) elements.
GROUP (II) ELEMENTS:
 Alkaline earth metals and includes:
 Beryllium, Be  Strontium, Sr
 Magnesium, Mg  Barium, Ba
 Calcium, Ca  Radium, Ra
 The outer general electronic configuration of Group (II) elements is ns2.
 They have a fixed valency of 2 and oxidation state of +2.
 Radium is a radioactive element.
CHEMICAL TRENDS:

66
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  Generally atomic radius increases down the group.
8. Explain why the atomic radius of Group (II) elements increases down the group?
 Also, ionic radius increases down the group with decrease in melting points down
the group.
9. Explain why melting points of Group (II) elements decreases down the group?
 Down the group, the ionic radius of the positive cations increases hence
decreasing the charge density.
 The bonding electrons becomes further away from the positive ion.the force
of attraction between the bonding electrons and positive cations decreases
(metallic bonding), hence decrease in melting point of group (II) elements.
EFFECTS OF IONIC RADIUS OF GROUP (II) IONS AS COMPAIRED TO
GROUP (I) IONS:
 The atoms of group (II) A elements have smaller atomic radius than those of group
(I)A. similarly, their ions are smaller than those of group (I)A ions.
 Because of the small ionic radius of group (II)A ion and double charge, their
polarizing powers are much greater than those of group (I)A metals ions hence it
affects the following properties:
 Solubility.  Melting & boiling points.
 Thermal stability.
(a) Solubility.
 Group (II) salts are less soluble than group (I) salts. Their enthalpy of
hydration are much large than those of group (I) A metal ions. Large
enthalpies of hydration would lead to group (II) A salts being more
soluble than group (I) A salts.
 However, group (II) A salts have greater lattice energy which reduces
their solubilities and the overall effect is that they becomes less
soluble.
(b) Thermal stability.
 The compounds of group (II) A are less stable to decomposition than
group (I) A compounds example sodium carbonate is not decomposed
by heat whereas magnesium carbonate decomposes.
 This is because group (II)A cations are more highly charge with
smaller ionic radius than group (I)A cations hence they have higher
polarizing power than group (I)A cations.
 Consequently, they highly polarize ….the to anions. This makes group
(II) A compounds more covalent than those of group (I) A compounds
hence easily decomposed.
(c) Melting & boiling points.
 Salts of group (II) generally have lower melting and boiling points
than those of group (I).this is because, group (II) cations are highly
charged with a smaller ionic radius than those of group (I).
 Their cations have higher polarizing power than those of group (I)
cations making compounds of group (II) more covalent than those of
group (I).the more covalent character, the lesser the melting and
boiling points.

67
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 10. Explain the following.
a) Magnesium carbonate is insoluble in water while sodium carbonate is
soluble.
 Mg2+ ion has a smaller ionic radius than Na+ ion and also Mg2+ ion
has a double charge while Na+ ion is a single charge. Because of the
highly charge and small ionic radius of Mg2+ ion and the high charge
on the CO32- ions, Magnesium carbonate has a higher or lattice
energy than sodium carbonate therefore sparingly soluble.
Or
 Because of the high charge and small ionic radius of Mg2+ than Na+,
it easily polarizes the carbonate ions, making magnesium carbonate
more covalent while sodium carbonate is more ionic in character,
therefore magnesium carbonate is insoluble in water while sodium
carbonate is soluble in water.
b) Magnesium carbonate is insoluble in water while magnesium chloride is
soluble.
 The electrostatic attraction between the double positive charge on
Mg2+ ion and the double negative charge on CO32- ion is much higher
than between Mg2+ and Cl- ion, making magnesium carbonate to
have high lattice energy than magnesium chloride.
 The higher the lattice energy, the harder it is to separate the ions in
crystal apart and the higher the hydration energy and the less likely
it is for the salt to dissolve.
Or
 The CO32- ion is more polarized than the Cl- ion making magnesium
carbonate to have a higher covalent character than magnesium
chloride this higher hydration energy make magnesium carbonate
to be insoluble in water.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
A. Reaction with air:
The metals burns brightly in air when heated forming oxides which are white in
colour.
Equation:

Golden tips:
However, magnesium forms a mixture of the oxide and nitride when heated in air.
Equation:

68
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Golden tips:
Magnesium and Strontium nitride reacts with water forming a white precipitate of
magnesium hydroxide and ammonia gas liberated.
Equation:

Barium and strontium oxide form peroxides when further heated in air.
Equation:

Golden tips:
The reaction of the elements with air increases from Beryllium to Barium.
B. Reaction with water:
The mode of reaction increases from Beryllium to Barium because of:
 Electronegativity increases down the group.
 Ionization energy decreases down the group.
 The solubility of the hydroxides increases down the group.
I. Beryllium.
It doesn’t react with water whether cold, hot or steam because Beryllium
hydroxide is insoluble.
II. Magnesium.
Magnesium burns with a dazzling white flame when heated in steam NOT
water to form a white ash of magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas liberated.
Equation:
Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
III. Calcium, Strontium & Barium
Calcium reacts moderately with cold water followed by Strontium and
Barium reacts vigorously with cold water. In also cases hydrogen gas is
liberated and their respective metal hydroxides are formed.
Equation:

COMPARE WITH GROUP (I) ELEMENTS:

All group (I) A elements reacts vigorously with cold water forming
Hydroxides and hydrogen gas liberated.
Equation:

The reaction with cold water becomes more vigorously as you descend down the
group.
C. Reaction with acids:
(a). Dilute acid.

69
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 All the elements reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid forming respective salts and
hydrogen gas is liberated. The reaction increases down the group because the
chlorides become more soluble.
Equation:

The reaction is more vigorous when the acid is concentrated.

 Dilute sulphuric acid.
Beryllium-Reacts with warm dilute sulphuric acid to give Beryllium sulphate and
hydrogen gas.
Equation:
Be(s) + H2SO4(aq) BeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium and Barium reacts with cold dilute sulphuric acid
forming their respective metal sulphate and hydrogen gas.
The reaction decreases down the group because the stability of sulphates decrease
forming insoluble sulphate that retard the reaction.
Equation:
Ca(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + H2(g)
Sr(s) + H2SO4(aq) SrSO4(s) + H2(g)
Ba(s) + H2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + H2(g)
Notes:
Magnesium oxide is said to react slowly with dilute Nitric acid to give some
Hydrogen gas but when the Nitric acid is more concentrated, it yields oxides of
nitrogen in the usual way.
Equation:
3Mg(s) + 8HNO3(aq) 3Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 2NO(g)
COMPARE WITH GROUP (1) A:
All group 1A elements reacts explosively with dilute acids than group (II) A
elements. This is because group (1) A elements are more electropositive and their
salts are more soluble.
(b). with concentrated oxidizing acids:
 Hot concentrated sulphuric acid.
All the elements reacts with hot concentrated acid forming sulphur dioxide
gas (reduced) and respective metal sulphate and water.
The reaction decreases down the group because the solubility of sulphates
decreases, hence Barium has little effect on concentrated sulphuric acid
because barium sulphate is insoluble and the reaction stops.
Equations:
Be(s) + 2H2SO4(l) BeSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Ba(s) + 2H2SO4(l) BaSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Mg(s) + 2H2SO4(l) MgSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
 Concentrated nitric acid.
Beryllium doesn’t react with concentrated nitric acid because it is rendered
passive due to the formation of an insoluble oxide.
70
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 The rest react with concentrated nitric acid and are oxidized to M2+ (metal
nitrate) and the acid is reduced to nitrogen dioxide gas.
Equation:
Mg(s) + 4HNO3(l) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Ba(s) + 4HNO3(l) Ba(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
D. Reaction with aqueous alkali:
Beryllium reacts with hot concentrated alkalis forming a complex called Beryllate
ion and hydrogen gas. Beryllium reacts with alkalis because it is amphoteric.
Equation:
Be(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 2H2O(l) Be(OH)42-(aq) + H2(g)
Or
Be(s) + 2OH-(aq) BeO22-(aq) + H2(g)
The rest of the elements do not react with alkalis because they are basic and highly
electropositive.
E. Reaction with non-metals:
Beryllium when heated in chlorine gas forms a covalent chloride which is insoluble
in water.
Equation:
Be(s) + Cl2(g) BeCl2(s)
Beryllium chloride dimerises in vapour state (phase) and exist as beryllium
chloride, Be2Cl4.

Formula:
Beryllium chloride is covalent because Beryllium forms a cation which is highly
charge with smallest ionic radius. Beryllium ion has high polarizing power and it
polarizes the chloride ion leading to the formation of covalent bond.
The other metals form chlorides when heated in chlorine gas. The chlorides are
ionic and soluble in water.
Equations:
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2(s)
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) CaCl2(s)
Ba(s) + Cl2(g) BaCl2(s)

71
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 COMPOUNDS OF GROUP (II) A:
All elements exhibit an oxidation state of +2 and smaller ionic radius than the
corresponding group (1) elements. Group (II)A ions have high polarizing power.
Group Charge Hydration Group Charge Hydration
(II) density energy(KJ/Mol) (I) density energy(KJ/Mol)
2 1
Be 2+
=64.5 Li +
=16.7
0.031 0.060
2 1
Mg2+ =30.8 -1920 Na+ =10.5 -406
0.065 0.095
2 1
Ca2+ =20.2 -1650 K+ =07.5 -322
0.099 0.133
2 1
Sr2+ =10.5 -1440 Rb+ =06.6 -301
0.191 0.152
Notes:
Since the cations of group (II) elements have high polarizing power on the
accompanying anions, it has the effect that:
 There compounds are less ionic than those of group (1) e.g. magnesium
chloride is less ionic than sodium chloride.
 Their carbonates and hydrogen carbonates are insoluble in water.
 Their enthalpies of hydration are much higher than those of group of group
(1), have higher lattice energies.
 There carbonates are less stable to heat i.e. they are easily decomposed.
 Their salts tend to be hydrated e.g. chlorides and sulphates.
1) Hydroxides.
The hydroxides can be prepared by either:
(i).dissolving the oxides in water except beryllium oxide which is insoluble.
Equation:
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)
MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq)
BaO(s) + H2O(l) Ba(OH)2(aq)
(ii).by adding aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia to a soluble salts of
group (II).
Equations
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Mg(OH)2(aq)
SOLUBILITY OF THE HYDROXIDES:
Hydroxides Solubility at 25C Mol-1/100g of water
Be(OH)2 INSOLUBLE Insoluble
Mg(OH)2 2.0 X 10 -5 0.002
Ca(OH)2 1.5 X 10-3 0.150
Sr(OH)2 3.4 X 10 -3 0.400
Ba(OH)2 1.5 X 10 -2 4.000
11. State and explain the trend of the solublities of the hydroxides of this group.
 Down the group, the solubility of group (II) hydroxides increases, this is due
to decrease in lattice energy as the size of ionic radius of metal ion increase.
Large ionic metal radius makes less overlap) holding force) of the ions
reducing the lattice energy.

72
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  This is (Lattice energy) overcome by the hydration energy, hence increased
solubility down the group.
Or:
 The solubility of the hydroxides increases down the group. Why?
 This because both Lattice and hydration energy decreases down the group
due to increase in ionic radius of the group (II) ions, but the Lattice energy
decrease more rapidly than the hydration energy and the hydration energy
overcomes the lattice energy leading to increase in the solubility of the
hydroxide.
Or:
The solubility of the hydroxide increases down the group as a results of
increase in ionic character.
Down the group, the ionic radius of the cations increases, the polarizing
power of the double charged cations decreases and the bonding becomes less
covalent but more ionic in character. Water being an ionic solvent tends to
dissolves the more ionic compounds leading to increase in solubility of the
hydroxides down the group.
Notes
The solubility of the nitrates is similar to the hydroxides.
2) Sulphates
The sulphates are prepared by precipitation by adding a sulphate ions, SO42- to any
soluble salt except, Beryllium and Magnesium sulphates which are soluble.
Equations:
Ca2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) CaSO4(s)
2+ 2-
Sr (aq) + SO4 (aq) SrSO4(s)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
SOLUBILITY OF THE SULPHATES.
Sulphates Solubility at 25C in gm/100g of water
BeSO4 4.3000
MgSO4 8.6000
CaSO4 0.2000
SrSO4 0.1100
BaSO4 0.0024
12. State and explain the trend of the solublities of the sulphates of this group.
The solubility of the sulphates decreases down the group.
 This is because both Lattice and hydration energy decreases but the
hydration energy decreases more rapidly than Lattice energy. Since both
cation and anion are double charged, this results in high Lattice energy hence
decrease in solubility down the group.
Notes:
 The trend is the same with chromates and carbonates.
3) Chlorides
The chlorides are prepared by reacting dilute hydrochloric acid with excess metal
hydroxide or carbonates.
Equation:
73
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) BaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Chlorides Conductivity Bonding Melting point (C)
(-1cm2/Mol)
BeCl2 00.09 Covalent 405
MgCl2 32.00 Ionic 714
CaCl2 58.00  782
SrCl2 63.00  872
BaCl2 71.00  963
 The molar conductivity increases down the group because of increase in
ionic character. Molar conductivity is very low because the salt is mainly
covalent, it hardly forms ions for electric conductivity.
 Beryllium chloride is covalent because Beryllium ion has a small ionic radius
which is double charged. Beryllium ion has high polarizing power which
polarizes the chloride ion making the bonding covalent.
 Down the group, the ionic radius of the cations increases leading to decrease
in polarizing power. The bonding becomes less covalent but more ionic.
 The melting point increases down the group due to increase in ionic bonding
forces.
 The melting points generally increases down the group as shown above in
the table.
Why?
 This is because down the group, ionic radius of the cation increases with
constant charge. Which reduces charge density of the cation down the group
hence polarizing power reduces therefore this increases the ionic character
of the chlorides down the group hence increase in melting points.
HYDROLYSIS OF THE CHLORIDES OF GROUP (II) ELEMENTS:
 Beryllium chloride is hydrolysed by water to form beryllium hydroxide and
hydrogen chloride gas.
 Equation:
BeCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) Be(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(g)
 Magnesium chloride can only undergo partial hydrolysis by water.
Equation:
MgCl2(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)Cl(s) + HCl(g)
 When heated, hydrated magnesium chloride is hydrolysed by its water of
crystallization. It is therefore not possible to obtain the anhydrous chloride
by evaporation of its aqueous solution.
Equation:
MgCl2(s) + H2O(l) MgO(s) + 2HCl(g)
 Calcium chloride is only hydrolysed to a small extent to form calcium oxide
or calcium hydroxide. Strontium and barium chlorides are not hydrolysed.
4) Carbonates
They are prepared by precipitation by adding a soluble carbonate to a solution
containing a soluble group (II) metal ions.
Equations:

74
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Mg2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) MgCO3(s)
Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) CaCO3(s)
Ba2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) BaCO3(s)
THERMAL STABILITY OF THE CARBONATES:
The thermal stability of an ionic salt depends on two factors:
-The ionic radius of the ions.  The charge on ion.

The table below shows the decomposition temperatures for group II carbonates
Carbonates Temperature (C)

BeCO3 100
MgCO3 350
CaCO3 900
SrCO3 1290
BaCO3 1350
EXPLANATION:
 The smaller the ionic radius, the greater will be their degree of approaching
each other in the crystal Lattice and more stable the salt.
 The greater the charges, the stronger the electrostatics forces of attraction,
the more strongly will the ions attract each other, the more stable will be the
salt.
 Moving down the group, the charge remain the same but the ionic radius
increases, the charge on the carbonate ion is the same throughout. The
polarizing power of the cations decreases the bonding in the metal carbonate
becomes more ionic down the group, hence the compounds becomes more
stable.
 Hence the decomposition temperature increase in the order of:
BeCO3MgCO3CaCO3SrCO3BaCO3
Be(NO3)2 Mg(NO3)2 Ca(NO3)2Sr(NO3)2 Ba(NO3)2
NOTES:
 The thermal stability increases due to increasing ionic character i.e. Lattice
enthalpy. The larger the metal ion, the less the polarizing power thus the
carbonates become ionic and the stronger the electrostatic forces of
attraction.
 Group I metal carbonates are more stable than group II metal carbonates.
This is because M2+ ions have higher charge density than M+ ions therefore
they polarize the large carbonates more than M+.
5. Explain why magnesium carbonate decompose when heated while sodium
carbonate does not.
Magnesium ion, Mg2+ has a high charge, small ionic radius than sodium ion, Na+.it
therefore has high polarizing power which makes it easy to polarize the big
carbonate ions,CO32- making the bonding in magnesium carbonate to have some

75
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 covalent character while the bonding in sodium carbonate is ionic due to the low
polarizing power of Na+, hence magnesium carbonate easily decomposes.
5) Oxides
The oxides can be prepared by:
 Heating the metals in oxygen.
Equation:
2Be(s) + O2(g) 2BeO(s)
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
 Passing steam over heated metals.
Equations:
Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
 Heating the carbonates, nitrates or hydroxides of group (II) elements.
Equations:
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
2Be(NO3)2(s) 2BeO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Ca(OH)2(s) CaO(s) + H2O(l)
Notes:
All the oxides are white crystalline solid with high melting points.
Beryllium oxide is amphoteric and the bonding is covalent while the rest of
the oxides are basic and the bonding is ionic.
Oxides Types of oxides Types of bonding Melting points (C)
BeO Amphoteric Covalent 2530
MgO Basic Ionic 2800
CaO   2570
SrO   2000
BaO   1920
 Generally, the melting point decreases down the group. This is because of the
decrease in the ionic bond force caused by increase in the ionic radius of the
cations down the group.
 Magnesium oxide has a higher melting point than beryllium oxide because it
is ionic and beryllium oxide is covalent due to its small ionic radius and
making it to have polarizing power to polarize the oxide ion making the
bonding covalent.
6) reactions with water:
Beryllium oxide does not reacts with water because it forms an insoluble beryllium
hydroxide while the rest of the metals oxides do reacts readily with water liberating
heat and metal hydroxides. The metal oxides become more soluble down the group.
Equations:
MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(s)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s)
SrO(s) + H2O(l) Sr(OH)2(s)
BaO(s) + H2O(l) Ba(OH)2(s)
6. Explain why beryllium oxide do not reacts with water?

76
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Beryllium oxide is covalent in nature, forms insoluble hydroxide and therefore it
does not reacts with water while the other members reacts with water because the
oxides are largely ionic in nature and sparingly dissolves in water.
7. Explain why beryllium hydroxide cannot be prepared by precipitation method.
Because Beryllium hydroxide is amphoteric and therefore it forms complex.
Equation:
Be(OH)2 (s) + 2OH- (aq) Be(OH)42- (aq)
7) Reactions with alkalis:
With the exception of beryllium, the elements do not reacts with alkalis. Beryllium
oxide reacts with alkalis to form complex salt (Beryllate ions).
Equation:
BeO(s) + 2OH-(l) + 2H2O(l) Be(OH)42-(aq) + H2(g)
Or
BeO(s) + 2OH-(l) + H2O(l) Be(OH)42-(aq)
Reasons why the rest do not reacts with alkalis under any conditions:
This is because the oxides of Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium and Barium are basic
in nature while Beryllium oxide is amphoteric oxide.
8) Reactions with dilute acids:
All the metal oxides reacts with dilute acids to form corresponding salts and water.
Equations:
BeO(s) + 2H+(aq) Be2+(aq) + H2O(l)
CaO(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l)
MgO(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2O(l)
+
BaO(s) + 2H (aq) Ba2+(aq) + H2O(l)
SrO(s) + 2H+(aq) Sr2+(aq) + H2O(l)
Notes:
Calcium, strontium & Barium oxides reacts slightly with dilute sulphuric acid
forming an insoluble sulphates which stops the reaction because the solubility of the
sulphates decreases down the group.
Equation:
CaO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + H2O(l)
SrO(s) + H2SO4(aq) SrSO4(s) + H2O(l)
BaO(s) + H2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + H2O(l)
White Precipitate (Insoluble salt)
CALCIUM OXIDE, CaO (QUICK LIME):
8. Describe how ethyne gas can be prepared in the laboratory.
Procedures:
It is obtained by heating calcium carbonate.
Equation:
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
This oxide has a high affinity for water and it is normally used as a drying agent for
alcohol and gas.

77
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 When cold water is added to calcium oxide, it swells with a hissing sound, then
cracks and eventually crumbles to a white powder called slaked lime.
Equation:
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s)
A saturated solution of calcium hydroxide is called lime water. Calcium oxide reacts
with heated carbon to form calcium carbide.
Equation:
1800-2000
CaO(s) + 3C(s) CaC2(s) + CO(g)
Temperature/C
When cold water is added to calcium carbide, it is hydrolyzed to form ethyne gas.
Equation:
CaC2(s) + 2H2O(l) HC CH(g) + Ca(OH)2(s)
All carbides of Group (II) elements except Beryllium carbide when hydrolyzed with
cold water, they form ethyne gas while beryllium carbide forms methane.
9. Describe how methane gas can be prepared in the laboratory.
Beryllium carbide is prepared by heating the elements of beryllium and carbon at a
temperature of above 900C.
Beryllium carbide can also be prepared by reduction of beryllium oxide with carbon
at a temperature above 1500C.
Equation:
2BeO(s) + 3C(s) Be2C(s) + 2CO(g)
Beryllium carbide obtained is hydrolyzed or decomposes slowly in water.
Equation:
Be2C(s) + 2H2O(l) 2BeO(s) + CH4(g)
Or:
The rate of decomposition is fastest in mineral acids with evolution of methane gas.
Equation:
Be2C(s) + 4H+(aq) 2Be2+(aq) + CH4(g)
However, in hot concentrated alkali the reaction is very rapid, forming the alkali
metal beryllates and methane gas.
Equation:
Be2C(s) + 4OH-(l) 2BeO22+(aq) + CH4(g)
HYDROLYSIS OF GROUP (II) SALTS:
10. What is Hydrolysis?
Hydrolysis: is a reaction between water molecules and highly charged cations
and anions (CO32-) which disturbs the water equilibrium hence producing more
hydroxide ions (OH-) or hydrogen ions giving a solution of PH greater or less than 7.
Salts of beryllium are highly hydrolyzed and show acidic properties.
Although most salts of beryllium are covalent, Beryllium ion in solution exist as
hydrated beryllium ion.
Equation:

78
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Because of the high charge density on beryllium ion, it strongly attracts water
molecules towards itself than Mg2+ with a lower charge density hence Beryllium
salts shows more acidic properties than magnesium salts.
The acidity or degree of hydrolysis decreases down the group due decrease in
charge density of the cations.
Equation:
[Be(H2O)4]2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) [Be(H2O)4.2OH](s) + 2H+(aq)
Mg(H2O)62+(aq) [Mg(H2O)4.2OH](s) + 2H+(aq)

COMPLEX FORMATION:
11. What is complex ion?
Complex ion: is a negative or positive ion in which group of atoms with lone pairs
of electrons (Ligands) or negative charges co-ordination with a central metal atom.
Complex ion: is an ion that contains a central ion or atom linked to other atoms,
ions or molecules via co-ordination bonds.
FACTORS FAVOURING FORMATION OF COMPLEX IONS:
12. State two factors favouring formation of complex ions.
A complex formation is favoured by:
 A small and highly charged cation, i.e small and highly charges cations easily
attract the lone pair of electrons in the ligand (donor atom).
 Presence of a suitable empty (vacant) d-orbital to accommodate the lone
pairs of electrons from ligand to form a dative bond.
13. Explain why formation of complex ions decreases down the group (II) elements.
The tendency of group (II) elements to form complexes decreases down the group is
due to decreasing charge density of the cation as the ionic radius increases.
This tends to a decrease in the nuclear charge attraction for the lone pair of electron
down the group, hence decrease in the ability to form complexes.
Beryllium is able to form complexes because it forms cation with the smallest ionic
radius with high charge density. The nucleus can strongly attract lone pairs from
ligands, hence forming complexes.
Examples:
Be(H2O)42+ , Be(H2O)42- , BeF42+ , Al(H2O)63+, BeF3-
IDENTIFICATIONS OF Ca2+, Mg2+ and Ba2+:
Dilute Sodium hydroxide Solution until in excess:
A white precipitate insoluble in excess is observed by Ca2+, Mg2+ and Ba2+
Equations:
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
2+ -
Ca (aq) + 2OH (aq) Ca(OH)2(s)
2+ -
Ba (aq) + 2OH (aq) Ba(OH)2(s)
Dilute Ammonia solution until in excess
Ba2+ and Mg2+ - White precipitate insoluble in excess.
Equation:

79
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Ba(OH)2(s)
The white precipitate of magnesium hydroxide dissolves in the presence of ammonium
chloride.
Why?
This is because ammonium chloride is a strong electrolyte which dissociates completely to
form ammonium ion, NH4+ which suppresses the ionization of aqueous ammonia due to
common ion effect. Therefore the concentration of Hydroxyl ion is low.
Equations:
NH4Cl(aq) NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ca2+- No observable change.
Notes:
Calcium ions, Ca2+ do not form white precipitate because aqueous ammonia solution is a
weak base, it cannot provide hydroxyl ions in sufficient quantity to exceed the solubility
product of calcium hydroxide which is quite high and the hydroxides being very soluble.
Dilute Sulphuric acid / Sodium Sulphate solution
Mg2+ - No observable change Ca2+ and Ba2+ - White precipitate
Equations:
Ca2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) CaSO4(s)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
However, Calcium sulphate is soluble in excess acid due to complex formation.
Equation:
CaSO4(s) + SO42-(aq) Ca(SO4)22-(aq)
Dilute Sulphuric acid does not precipitate magnesium sulphate hence it’s used to
differentiate Mg2+ ion from Ca2+ and Ba2+ ions.
Potassium Chromate (VI) solution and sodium hydroxide.
Potassium chromate (VI) solution forms a yellow precipitate when added to a solution
containing both Calcium, Ca2+ and Barium, Ba2+.
Notes:
Calcium chromate its yellow precipitate is soluble in excess sodium hydroxide solution
while the yellow precipitate of Barium chromate is not soluble in excess sodium hydroxide.
Potassium Chromate (VI) solution and ethanoic acid
Ba2+ - Yellow precipitate insoluble in Ethanoic acid
Ca2+ - Yellow precipitate soluble in Ethanoic acid
Mg2+-No observable change.
Equations:
Ca2+(aq) + CrO42-(aq) CaCrO4(s) But soluble in dilute acid
Ba2+(aq) + CrO42-(aq) BaCrO4(s) But soluble in dilute acid
Ammonium Oxalate (Ethandiote) and Ethanoic acid
Ba2+ and Ca2+ - white precipitate Mg2+- No observable change
Equations:

80
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
Ba2+(aq) + C2O42-(aq) Ba(COO)2(s)
Or:
Ba2+(aq) + C2O42-(aq) BaC2O4(s)
Ca2+(aq) + C2O42-(aq) Ca(COO)2(s)
Or:
Ca2+(aq) + C2O42-(aq) BaC2O4(s)
Notes:
Calcium oxalate is insoluble in hot ethanoic acid but Barium oxalate is soluble (dissolves)
in hot ethanoic acid.
This is a test used to differentiate Ba2+ from Ca2+ ions.
Disodium Hydrogen Phosphate or sodium phosphate/sodium dihydrogen phosphate
Ca2+,Ba2+,Mg2+ - A white precipitate insoluble in excess Ammonia solution.
Equations:
Mg2+(aq) + NH4+(aq) + PO43-(aq) MgNH4PO4(s)
Or:
Mg2+(aq) + NH4+(aq) + PO43-(aq) + 6H2O(l) MgNH4PO4.6H2O(s)
2+ 2- -
3Ca (aq) + 2HPO4 (aq) + 2OH (aq) 3Ca(H2PO4)2(s) + 2H2O(l)
Notes:
Calcium phosphate can be converted to super phosphate by treatment with 70% of dilute
sulphuric acid.
Equation:
Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) Ca(H2PO4)2(s) + 2CaSO4(s)
Ammonium carbonate solution
Ba2+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions when treated with ammonium carbonate solution, they all reacts
to liberate a white precipitate.
Equations:
Ba2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) BaCO3(s)
2+ 2-
Ca (aq) + CO3 (aq) CaCO3(s)
2+ 2-
Mg (aq) + CO3 (aq) MgCO3(s)
Notes:
In the presence of ammonium chloride, Only Barium,Ba2+ and Calcium,Ca2+ ions forms
white precipitate and No observable change occurs with Magnesium,Mg2+.
Reasons:
Magnesium ions will not form white precipitate with ammonium chloride. Why? This is
because of the presence of ammonium chloride that reduces the concentration of carbonate
ions below that necessary to exceed that of the solubility product of magnesium carbonate.
Equation:
NH4+(aq) + CO32-(aq) NH3(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
N.B. Zn2+ - forms a white precipitate soluble in excess ammonia solution.
14. Name the reagents used to differentiate Magnesium, Mg2+ from Calcium, Ca2+ and
Ba2+ ions.
15. Name the reagents used to differentiate Calcium, Ca2+ from Barium, Ba2+ ions.

81
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 GROUP IV ELEMENTS:
Elements 6C 14Si 32Ge 50Sn 82Pb

Electronic [He]2s22p2 [Ne]3s23p2 [Ar]4s24p2 [Kr]5s25p2 [Xe]6s26p2

configuration 1s22s22p2 1s22s22p63s23p2
Atomic radius 0.077 0.117 0.122 0.141 0.154
(nm)
Boiling 4830d. 2680 2830 2270 1730
points/C
Melting 3730d. 1410 937 232 327
points/C
Electronegativity 2.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8

1st I.E (KJ/Mol) 1086 787 760 707 715

Type of Giant Giant molecular similar to Giant metallic

structure molecular diamond

(a) Existence
Carbon exists as graphite, diamond and amorphous carbon. Silicon occurs as
Silica (SiO2). Tin exist as grey tin and white tin. Lead occurs as an ore in form
of galena (PbS).
Notes:
Graphite is a good conductor of electricity because of the presence of mobile
electrons along the layers.
It is used as a lubricant because the layers are held by weak Vander Waals
forces that hold the layers to slide over each other.
Golden tips:
Carbon is a typical non-metal, silicon and germanium are metalloids while
Tin and Lead are typical metals.
Consequently, the character in the bonding in their corresponding
compounds shows a trend from covalent to ionic.
All the elements have similar ground state electronic configuration of ns2np2
promoted to ns1np3 i.e., sp3 hybridization hence are able to form four
covalent bonds with a tetrahedral structure.
(b) Melting point.
Melting point: is the constant temperature at which a pure substance turns
from solid to liquid state at a given pressure when the two states are at
equilibrium.
Melting point: is a constant temperature at which pure solid is in equilibrium
with the pure liquid at atmospheric pressure.

82
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Graph:
Explanation:
The melting points of group IV elements depend on the structure. Carbon and
Silicon have giant atomic structures which require a lot of energy to break.
However the melting point of silicon is lower than that of carbon since the
covalent bonds in silicon atoms are longer thus weaker. Germanium is a
Metalloid with an intermediate giant atomic structure. Tin and Lead are weak
metals with a metallic structure however lead is more metallic than tin hence
has a higher melting point.
Golden tips:
Melting point decrease down the group. The very high melting point of
carbon (diamond) is caused by the great energy needed to break the
numerous short and strong covalent carbon-carbon bond (catenation).From
carbon to Germanium, they adopt a giant atomic structure.
Tin and lead have a giant metallic structure. The strength of the metallic
bond depends on the number of electrons donated to the electron cloud and
the atomic radius. The strength of the metallic bond decreases with increase
in atomic radius.
(c) Oxidation states
The elements exhibit both +2 and +4 oxidation states. The+4 oxidation state
is attained by promoting one S- electron to an empty P-orbital to avail four
electrons from ns2 & np2. Down the group, the nS2 electrons become more
reluctant to participate in bonding.
Golden tips:
The stability of the two possible oxidation states are not the same for all the
elements. The +2 oxidation state become more stable down the group from
carbon to lead while +4 O.S is more stable from lead to carbon.
This is due to inert pair effect. Therefore the stability of +2 oxidation state
increases while that of +4 decreases,
STABILITY OF GROUP (VI) ELEMENTS:
Oxidation state:
Elements +2 O.S +4 O.S
Carbon
Silicon
Germanium
Tin
Lead
Lead

83
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 16. What is inert pair effect?
Inert pair effect is the inability of the inner s-pair electron to take part in
bonding as the atomic radius increases down the group.
(d) Atomic radius.
Atomic radius increases down the group because the screening effect
outweighs the increased nuclear charge due to the formation of a new energy
level. The effective nuclear charge decreases leading in the increase in atomic
radius.
1. Explain the cause of inert pair effect.
 AS the radius of the atoms increase down the group there is increasing
tendency for the two bonding electrons in the S- Sub energy level to resist
taking part in bonding.
Examples of inert pair effect include:
Carbon forms carbon tetrachloride while lead (IV) chloride readily
decomposes to form Lead (II) chloride and Chlorine
PbCl4 (l) PbCl2 (s) + Cl2 (g)
Lead (IV) oxide decomposes on heating to form lead (II) oxide and Oxygen
2PbO2 (s) 2PbO (s) + O2 (g)
Lead forms stable compounds in +2 oxidation state. Compounds in +4
oxidation state are very unstable and decompose to compounds in +2
oxidation state.
Carbon monoxide is readily oxidized to carbon dioxide by air.
Carbon dioxide and silicon dioxide are more stable in +4 oxidation state
than those in in +2 oxidation state.
2CO (g) + O2 (g) 2CO2 (g)
2SiO (g) + O2 (g) 2SiO2 (g)
Carbon and silicon form stable compounds in the +4 oxidation state. Their
compounds in +2 oxidation state are unstable and tends to be oxidized to +4
oxidation state.
Germanium both +2 & +4 oxidation states have equal stabilities, therefore,
their compounds formed also have equal stabilities.
Tin and lead forms stable compounds in +2 oxidation state.
CARBON BEHAVES DIFFERENTLY FROM THE REST OF THE GROUP MEMBERS DUE:
2. State three reasons why carbon behaves differently from the rest of the group
members?
 Small Atomic radius  Lack of vacant d-orbital
 High electronegativity
SOME OF THE PROPERTIES IN WHICH CARBON DIFFERS FROM THE REST OF THE
MEMBERS INCLUDE:
3. State some properties in carbon is different from the rest of the group members.
 The halides are stable to hydrolysis.
 It forms gaseous oxides unlike other members.
 It forms a stable multiple bonds with itself and with other non-metals.

84
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  Carbon can form a number of hydrocarbons because it can catenate.
Catenation is the ability of the element to form bonds between atoms of the
same element.
UNIQUENESS OF CARBON:
4. Mention some uniqueness of carbon that you know.
 Carbon does not shows inert pair effect.
 Compounds of carbon are inert to acid and alkalis.
 Carbon is much more electropositive than the rest of the group members.
 Carbon has only single oxidation state of +4 while the other members have
both +2 and +4.
 All the oxides of carbon are gases at room temperature while the other
oxides are solids.
 Carbon form multiple bonds with itself and other non-metals Examples: C-
H, CC, CO, CN, CC.
 Carbon forms very stable bonds with other carbon atoms resulting in to
long chains and ring structures Examples: Benzene, Alkanes, Alkenes etc.
This is known as catenation.
5. Explain why carbon dioxide exist as a gas at room temperature while other oxides
like silicon dioxide exist as solids at room temperature.
 Because of the high electronegativity value and small atomic radius of
carbon, it forms strong double bonds with oxygen that exist as discrete
molecule which are held by weak Vander Waals forces of attraction which
are easily broken at room temperature hence exist as a gas.
 For silicon dioxide, the atomic radius of silicon is big, the molecules are
closely packed together in a tetrahedral giant structure by several Si-O
single covalent bonds. Hence exist as a solid and to break it, it requires a
large amount of energy, hence a high melting points.
Diagram:

REACTIONS OF GROUP (IV) ELEMENTS:

6. Discus the reactions of group (IV) elements with the followings.
(a) Air:
Graphite ignites at red heat (with some difficulty) and burns to form
carbon dioxide gas.
Equation:
C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
However in limited amount of air, Carbon forms carbon monoxide.
Equation:
2C (s) + O2 (g) 2CO (g)
Amorphous silicon burns readily in oxygen at red heat but in air, oxidizes
only superficially.
85
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Equation:
Si (s) + O2 (g) SiO2 (s)
Germanium burns strongly in air to form germanium oxide.
Equation:
Ge(s) + O2 (g) GeO2(s)
Tin is not affected by air at room (ordinary) temperature but it burns in air
at a temperature of about 1750K.
Equation:
Sn(s) + O2(g) SnO2(s)
Tin (IV) oxide is more stable than Tin (II) oxide.
Lead burns in limited supply of air to form a yellow solid just above its
melting point.
Equation:
2Pb(s) + O2(g) 2PbO(s)
Yellow solid
However in in excess supply of air, a mixture of lead (II) oxide and Tri-lead
tetra oxide (or red lead) is formed.
Equation:
6PbO(s) + O2(g) 2Pb3O4(s)
Notes:
All the oxides of the Group (IV) element are Covalent bond except Tin and
lead oxide which are ionic character.
(b) Water
When heated to high temperature, coke (carbon) reacts with steam to form
water gas.
Equation:
H2O (g) + C (s) CO (g) + H2 (g)
Amorphous silicon is unaffected by water, but attacks steam slowly at red
heat.
Or
Hot silicon reacts with steam to form silicon dioxide and hydrogen gas or
silicon reacts with boiling water or steam to form silicon dioxide.
Equation:
Si(s) + 2H2O(g) SiO2(s) + 2H2(g)
Germanium, Ge and Tin, Sn DO NOT react with water in any form.
Tin reacts with steam slowly when heated to form Tin (IV) oxide and
hydrogen gas.
Equation:
Sn(s) + 2H2O(g) SnO2(s) + 2H2(g)
Pure water, free from air, does not attack Lead, the presence of air,
however, produces the very sparingly soluble lead (II) hydroxide
Equation:
2Pb(s) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) Pb(OH)2(s)
Notes:

86
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Hard water containing CO32- and SO42- ions reacts very slowly with lead
due to the formation of an insoluble lead (II) carbonate and lead (II)
sulphate respectively.
(c) Acids
 Dilute acids.
DILUTE HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
Carbon, Silicon & Germanium (non-metals) DO NOT reacts with
dilute hydrochloric acid except Tin and Lead (metals) reacts slowly
with cold dilute hydrochloric acid but very vigorously with hot
dilute hydrochloric acid forming Tin (II) chloride, Lead (II) chloride
and hydrogen gas. The reaction is more rapidly at higher
concentrations.
Equation:
Sn(s) + 2HCl(aq) SnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Sn(s) + 2H (aq)
+ Sn2+(aq) + H2(g)
Pb(s) + 2HCl(aq) PbCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
DILUTE SULPHURIC ACID.
Carbon, Silicon & Germanium DO NOT reacts with dilute sulphuric
acid even Tin and Lead DO NOT reacts with dilute sulphuric acid.
DILUTE NITRIC ACID.
Carbon, Silicon & Germanium DO NOT reacts with dilute nitric acid.
Except Tin reacts slowly with cold dilute nitric acid to form
usual mixed products of tin (II) nitrate, ammonium nitrate & water.
Equation:
4Sn(s) + 10HNO3(aq) 4Sn(NO3)2(aq) + NH4NO3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Silicon only reacts with hydrofluoric acid, owing to the stability of
hexafluorosilicate (IV) complex, SiF62-, formed and NO reactions
with any metal of Group (IV) elements.
Equation:
Si(s) + 6HF(aq) H2SiF6(aq) + 2H2(g)
Lead reacts with ethanoic acid in presence of air to form lead (II)
ethanoate.
Equation:
Pb(s) + 2CH3COOH(l) + ½O2(g) (CH3COO)2Pb(s) + H2O(l)
 Concentrated acids.
CONCENTRATED HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
Hot concentrated hydrochloric acid reacts with Tin and Lead to form
Tin (II) chloride and Lead (II) chloride respectively with evolution
of a colourless gas i.e hydrogen gas.
Equations:
Sn(s) + 2HCl(l) SnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Pb(s) + 2HCl(l) PbCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Carbon, Silicon and Germanium DONOT reacts with concentrated
hydrochloric acid.
CONCENTRATED SULPHURIC ACID.
87
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Carbon, Germanium, Tin & lead reacts with hot concentrated
sulphuric acid to form colourless gases and water respectively.
Equations:
C(s) + 2H2SO4(l) CO2(g) + 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Ge(s) + 2H2SO4(l) GeO2(s) + 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Sn(s) + 4H2SO4(l) Sn(SO4)2(s) + 2SO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
Pb(s) + 2H2SO4(l) PbSO4(s) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Silicon DOES NOT reacts with hot concentrated sulphuric acid.
CONCENTRATED NITRIC ACID.
Hot (warm) concentrated nitric acid oxidizes both Tin and
Germanium to their metal oxides while carbon to carbon dioxide gas
and nitrogen dioxide gas respectively then oxidizes Lead to Lead (II)
nitrate with evolution of nitrogen dioxide gas.
Silicon DO NOT reacts with hot concentrated nitric acid.
Equations:
C(s) + 4HNO3(l) CO2(g) + 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
3Ge(s) + 4HNO3(l) GeO2(s) + 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Sn(s) + 4HNO3(l) SnO2(s) + 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
3Pb(s) + 8HNO3(l) 3Pb(NO3)2(s)+ 2NO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
Or:
Pb(s) + 4HNO3(l) Pb(NO3)2(s)+ 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(d) Alkalis
Silicon, Germanium, Tin and lead reacts with hot concentrated alkalis to
forms Silicate,Germanate (IV), Stannate (II) and Plumbate (II) ions with
evolution of a colourless gas respectively.
Equations:
Si(s) + 2OH- (aq) + H2O (l) SiO32- (aq) + 2H(g)
Ge(s) + 2OH - (aq) + H2O (l) GeO32-(aq) + 2H2 (g)
-
Sn(s) + 2OH (aq) + H2O (l) SnO32- (aq) + 2H(g)
Pb(s) + 2OH - (aq) + H2O (l) PbO22- (aq) + 2H2(g)
Notes:
SiO32-, GeO32-, SnO32- & PbO22- are often written in hydrated form as follows.
Equations:
Ge(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 4H2O(l) Ge(OH)62-(aq) + 2H2(g)
-
Sn(s) + 2OH (aq) + 4H2O(l) Sn(OH)62-(aq) + 2H2(g)
Pb(s) + 4OH-(aq) + 2H2O(l) Pb(OH)64-(aq) + H2(g)
Carbon DO NOT reacts with alkalis.
(d) Non metals
With the exception of lead, all the elements combine with chlorine gas
when heated to form tetrachloride BUT lead forms lead (II) chloride & NOT
VERY SURE about carbon and chlorine gas.
Equations:

88
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 C (s) + 2Cl2(g) CCl4(l)
Sn(s) + 2Cl2(g) SnCl4(l)
Pb(s) + Cl2(g) PbCl2(s)
Si(s) + 2Cl2(g) SiCl4(l)
Ge(s) + 2Cl2(g) GeCl4(g)
With the exception of lead, all the elements combine with sulphur when
heated to form disulphides BUT lead forms lead (II) sulphide.
Equations:
C(s) + 2S(s) CS2(l)
Pb(s) + S(s) PbS(s)
COMPOUNDS OF GROUP (IV) ELEMENTS:
Elements Tm/K Tb/K Electronic configuration

Carbon, 6C 3930 Sublimes 1s2 2s22p2 [He]2p2

Silicon, 14Si 1683 2628 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p2 [Ne] 3s2 3p2

Germanium,32Ge 1210 3103 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 3d10 4p2 [Ar] 4s2 3d104p2

Tin, 50Sn 505 25331s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 3d10 4p64d10 5s25p2
[Kr] 4d105s25p2
Lead, 82Pb 601 2013 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s23d10 4p64d104f14 5s25p65d10 6s26p2
[Xe] 4f145d106s26p2
Keys: Tm/K = Melting points /Kelvin, Tb/K = Boiling points /Kelvin, [] = Argon gas core

Elements Carbon Silicon Germanium Tin Lead

Monoxides (+2 CO - GeO SnO PbO

O.S)
Physical states Colourless gas - Black powder Black powder Brown (cold)

Nature Weakly acidic - Amphoteric

Dioxides (+4 O.S) CO2 SiO2 GeO2 SnO2 PbO2

Physical states Colourless gas White White solid White solid Brown solid
solid
M.pts(C) -56.5 1700 1116 1827 752(Decomposes)

Nature Acidic Amphoteric

Dichlorides - GeCl2 SnCl2 PbCl2

Physical states ‘’ Pale yellow White solid

Nature ‘’ Ionic bond Ionic bond

89
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
Tetrachlorides CCl4 SiCl4 GeCl4 SnCl4 PbCl4

Physical states Colourless liquid Yellow liquid

Nature Covalent bonds Ionic bonds

Structures Simple Giant molecular

molecular
Bonding Covalent Ionic

Hydrides Methane, CH4 Silane ,SiH4 GermananeGeH4 Stannane,SnH4 Plumbane, PbH4

A. OXIDES:
There are two forms of oxides namely:
(a) Monoxide, MO where the oxidation state of the elements is +2.
-Carbon monoxide, CO
It can be prepared by passing carbon dioxide gas over heated coke
(carbon).
Equation:
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
Heat
By dehydration of methanoic acid with concentrated sulphuric acid.
Equation:
HCOOH(l) H2O(l) + CO(g)
Conc.H2SO4
By the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on oxalic acid.
Equation:
C2H2O4(s) CO2(g) + CO(g) + H2O(l)
Conc.H2SO4
PROPERTIES:
It has a linear shape and it’s covalent.
It is a colourless, odourless & extremely poisonous gas.
It is a neutral oxide hence it does not reacts with acids, water & base.
It is a reducing agent, it reduces metallic oxides to respectively metals and
is itself oxidized to carbon dioxide gas.
Equations:
CuO(s) + CO(g) Cu(s) + CO2(g)
PbO(s) + CO(g) Pb(s) + CO2(g)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
It burns with a blue flame in air forming carbon dioxide gas.
Equation:
2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g)
-Silicon (II) oxide, SiO

90
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 It is very unstable and known to exist in the vapour phase and it can be
prepared by heating silicon in silica.
Equation:
SiO2(s) + Si(s) 2SiO(s)
-Germanium (II) oxide, GeO
It is prepared by reducing Germanium (IV) oxide when heated with
Germanium.it is amphoteric oxide.
Equation:
GeO2(s) + Ge(s) 2GeO(s)
It can also be prepared by hydrolysis of Germanium (II) chloride.
Equation:
GeCl2(s) + H2O(l) GeO(s) + 2HCl(aq)
Germanium (II) oxide (Germanium monoxide), GeO can be prepared also
by the action of water on Germanium (II) chloride.
Equation:
GeCl2(s) + H2O(l) GeO(s) + 2HCl(aq)
-Tin and Lead (II) oxides are prepared by the action of heat on their
hydroxides, nitrates or oxalates.
Equations:
Sn(OH)2(s) SnO(s) + H2O(l)
2Sn(NO3)2(s) 2SnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
SnC2O4(s) SnO(s) + CO2(g) + CO(g)
Pb(OH)2(s) PbO(s) + H2O(l)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Golden tips on BASICITY OF THE MONOXIDES:
Carbon monoxide, CO and Silicon (II) Oxide, SiO are neutral oxide, simple
molecular structures are Covalent bonds in nature while GeO, SnO and PbO
are amphoteric oxides predominantly with giant ionic structures.
Notes:
Basic character increases down the group. For an individual element, basic
character increases with decreasing oxidation state number e.g. CO is
weakly acidic but CO2 is acidic.
Carbon monoxide is slightly acidic and reacts with hot solution of sodium
hydroxide to form sodium methanoate.
Equation:
CO(g) + NaOH(aq) HCOONa(s)
Heat
GeO, SnO & PbO are amphoteric through predominantly basic. They form
salts with dilute acids and also reacts with hot concentrated alkalis to form
complex salts of names Germanate, Stannate, & Plumbate (II) ions
respectively.
Equations:

91
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 GeO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) Ge(OH)42-(aq)
Or:
GeO(s) + 2OH-(aq) GeO22-(aq) + H2O(l)
SnO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) Sn(OH)42-(aq)
Or:
SnO(s) + 2OH-(aq) SnO22-(aq) + H2O(l)
PbO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) Pb(OH)42-(aq)
Or:
PbO(s) + 2OH-(aq) PbO22-(aq) + H2O(l)
They also reacts with dilute mineral acids to form salts and water
respectively.
Equations:
GeO(s) + 2H-(aq) Ge2-(aq) + H2O(l)
SnO(s) + 2H-(aq) Sn2-(aq) + H2O(l)
PbO(s) + 2H-(aq) Pb2-(aq) + H2O(l)
(b) Dioxides, MO2 where the oxidation state of the elements s +4.

Oxides CO2 SiO2 GeO2 SnO2 PbO2

M.pts(C) -56.5 2590 1116 1827 752(Sublimes)

Explanations:
Carbon dioxide gas is a simple molecular hence low melting points. Silicon
dioxide forms a giant molecular structure with many covalent bonds that
have to be broken before melting occurs. This explains its high melting
points. The rest of the oxides adopt intermediate molecular and ionic
structures.
-Carbon dioxide, CO2.
It is prepared by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on calcium
carbonate.
Equation:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
On large scale, it is prepared by heating calcium carbonate.
Equation:
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Heat
PROPERTIES:
Carbon dioxide gas is an acidic oxide.
Carbon dioxide gas is a colourless, it is moderately soluble in water forming
weak carbonic acid.
Equation:
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
-Silicon (IV) oxide, SiO2.

92
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 It is prepared by hydrolysis of silane.
Equation:
SiH4(g) + 2O2(g) SiO2(s) + 2H2O(l)
-Germanium (IV) oxide, GeO2.
It is prepared by hydrolysis of Germanium (II) or (IV) chloride.
Equation:
GeCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) GeO2(s) + 4HCl(aq)
-Tin (IV) oxide, SnO2.
It is prepared by the action of concentrated nitric acid on tin metal. This
amphoteric oxide.
Equation:
Sn(s) + 4HNO3(l) SnO2(s) + 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
-Lead (IV) oxide, PbO2.
Lead (IV) oxide is prepared by the action of concentrated nitric acid on Tri
lead tetra oxide.
Equation:
Pb3O4(s) + 4HNO3(l) 2Pb(NO3)2(aq) + PbO2(s) + 2H2O(l)
It can be also be prepared by oxidizing lead (II) salt using warm sodium
chlorate (I).
Equation:
Pb2+(aq) + 2ClO-(aq) + H2O(l) PbO2(s) + Cl-(aq) + 2H+(aq)
Golden tips on BASICITY OF THE DIOXIDES:
(a). Reaction with alkalis.
GeO2, SnO2 & PbO2 are amphoteric oxides though acidic character
predominates. They reacts with hot concentrated alkalis to form complex
soluble salts.
Equations:
GeO2(s) + 2OH-(l) GeO32-(aq) + H2O(l)
Or:
GeO2(s) + 2OH-(l) + 2H2O(l) Ge(OH)62-(aq)
SnO2(s) + 2OH-(l) SnO32-(aq) + H2O(l)
Or:
SnO2(s) + 2OH-(l) + 2H2O(l) Sn(OH)62-(aq)
PbO2(s) + 2OH-(l) PbO32-(aq) + H2O(l)
Or:
PbO2(s) + 2OH-(l) + 2H2O(l) Pb(OH)62-(aq)
But carbon dioxide gas is more acidic than other dioxides hence it can
reacts with cold dilute alkalis to form sodium carbonate.
Equation:
CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Cold
93
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Note:
When carbon dioxide gas is in excess, a white precipitate of sodium
hydrogen carbonate is formed.
Equation:
CO2(g) + Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) 2NaHCO3(s)
Excess CO2(g)
(a). Reaction with acids.
Both Carbon dioxide & Silicon (IV) oxide are acidic in nature and therefore,
they DON’T react with any dilute non-oxidizing acids.
Silicon dioxide (Silicon (IV) oxide) reacts ONLY with dilute hydrofluoric
acid to form silicon tetraflouride.
Equation:
SiO2(s) + 4HF(aq) SiF4(g) + 2H2O(l)
Lead (IV) oxide reacts with warm concentrated hydrochloric acid. Which it
oxidizes the acid to chlorine gas and leaves a white precipitate of lead (II)
chloride.
Equation:
PbO2(s) + 4HCl(l) PbCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
Red lead oxide (Tri Lead tetra oxide) also gives a similar reactions.
Equation:
Pb3O4(s) + 8HCl(l) 3PbCl2(s) + 4H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
Notes:
When excess concentrated hydrochloric acid is reacted with lead (IV) oxide
at 0oC it forms a complex ion.
Equation:
PbO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) PbCl62-(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Addition of concentrated ammonium chloride to the complex produces a
yellow precipitate. i.e.
Equation:
PbCl62-(aq) + 2NH4+ (aq) (NH4)2PbCl6(s)
Lead (IV) oxide reacts with heated concentrated sulphuric acid to form a
white solid of lead (II) sulphate with evolution of a colourless gas.
Equation:
2PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(l) 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Red lead (Tri Lead tetra oxide) reacts with heated concentrated sulphuric
acid to form a white solid of lead (II) sulphate with evolution of a colourless
gas.
Equation:
2Pb3O4(s) + 6H2SO4(l) 6PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Red lead (Tri Lead tetra oxide) reacts with hot concentrated nitric acid to
form a white solid of lead (IV) oxide and lead (II) nitrate respectivelys.
Equation:
94
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Pb3O4(s) + 4HNO3(aq) PbO2(s) + 2Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Germanium & Tin (IV) oxides reacts with dilute acids to form salts and
water respectively. Equations:
GeO2(s) + 4H+(aq) Ge4+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
SnO2(s) + 4H+(aq) Sn4+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Golden tips:
-lead (IV) oxide oxidizes sulphur to sulphur dioxide gas, the sulphur
dioxide gas formed reacts with excess lead (IV) oxide to form a white solid
of lead (II) sulphate.
Equations
PbO2(s) + S(s) Pb(s) + SO2(g)
PbO2(s) + SO2(s) PbSO4(s)
Red lead (Tri lead tetra oxides, Pb3O4).
This is a mixed oxide. It contains both lead (II) and (IV) oxides.
Equation:
Pb3O4(s) 2PbO(s) + PbO2(s)
decomposes on Heating
It can be prepared by heating lead (II) oxide in oxygen gas at a temperature
of about 400C.
Equation:
6PbO(s) + O2(g) 2Pb3O4(s)
Heating
7. A solution containing tin (II) ions and lead (II) ions react with hydrogen sulphide
gas to precipitate the metal sulphide. State what is observed and write an equation
for the reaction in both case.
A black solid of both tin and lead (II) sulphide are formed.
Equations:
Sn2+(aq) + S2-(aq) SnS(s)
Pb2+(aq) + S2-(aq) PbS(s)
A Black solid
B. CHLORIDES:
They form two types of chlorides. Namely: Dichlorides, MCl2 and Tetrachlorides,
MCl4.However, carbon and silicon DO NOT form chlorides in the +2 oxidation state.
Elements Carbon Silicon Germanium Tin Lead

Dichlorides - - Pale yellow White solid

Compounds - - GeCl2 SnCl2 PbCl2

Tetrachlorides Colourless liquid Yellow liquid
Compounds CCl4 SiCl4 GeCl4 SnCl4 PbCl4
Bonding Covalent Ionic

95
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 B.pts(C) 78 58 83 114 Decomposes
The dichlorides are solids while the tetrachlorides are volatile liquids. Lead (IV)
chloride exists but lead (IV) bromide and iodide do not exist. This is because
bromine and iodine are not sufficiently strong oxidizing agents to convert Pb2+ to
Pb4+.
The increase in boiling point of the tetrachloride is due to increase in the
molecular size (mass) leading to increase in the magnitude of the Vander Waals
force of attraction.

PREPARATIONS DICHLORIDES, MCL2:

-Germanium (II) chloride is a pale yellow solid made by passing a vapour of
germanium (IV) over hot germanium.
Equation:
GeCl4(g) + Ge(s) 2GeCl2(s)
-Tin (II) chloride is a white crystalline solid prepared by heating Tin with
moderately concentrated hydrochloric acid, and crystallizes as the dehydrate, of
chemical formula of SnCl2.2H2O, Known as tin salt.
Equation:
Sn(s) + 2HCl(l) SnCl2(s) + H2(g)
-Tin (II) chloride is also obtained by heating Tin in dry hydrogen chloride gas.
Equation:
Sn(s) + 2HCl(g) SnCl2(s) + H2(g)
-Lead (II) chloride is a white precipitate obtained by the action of cold dilute
hydrochloric acid on lead salts or a solution containing Pb2+ ion.
Equation:
Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) PbCl2(s)
-Lead (II) chloride is also prepared by the action of hot concentrated hydrochloric
acid on lead metal.
Equation:
Pb(s) + 2HCl(l) PbCl2(s) + H2(g)
-Lead (II) chloride is also prepared by passing dry chlorine gas over heated lead
metal.
Equation:
Pb(s) + Cl2(g) PbCl2(s)
Notes:
Lead (II) chloride is insoluble in cold water and it does not undergo hydrolysis but
soluble in hot water and it undergo hydrolysis forming basic salt which is soluble.
Equation:
PbCl2(s) + H2O(l) Pb(OH)Cl(aq) + HCl(aq)

96
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Lead (II) Chloride is sparingly soluble in water and does not undergo hydrolysis.
However it dissolves on heating since solubility increases with temperature.
Equation:
PbCl2 (s) Pb2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
Lead (II) chloride is also soluble (dissolves) in concentrated hydrochloric acid due
to the formation of a soluble complex known as Tetra chloro plumbate (II) ions.
Equation:
PbCl2 (s) + 2Cl- (aq) [PbCl4]2- (aq)
REACTION WITH WATER (HYDROLYSIS) OF DICHLORIDES:
General, the dichlorides hydrolyse to give monoxides (or hydroxides) and
hydrogen chloride gas. And only formed by Germanium, Tin & Lead but those of
Germanium & Tin are less stable than that of lead (II) chloride.
-Germanium (II) chloride hydrolyses in water to form Germanium (II) oxide and
hydrochloride gas.
Equation:
GeCl2(s) + H2O(l) GeO(s) + 2HCl(aq)
-Tin (II) chloride in cold water undergoes partial hydrolysis to form a (cloudy
solution) or white basic hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.
Equation:
SnCl2(s) + H2O(l) Sn(OH)Cl(s) + HCl(aq)
Note:
However, Tin (II) chloride undergoes complete hydrolysis in hot excess water to
form Tin (II) hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.
Equation:
SnCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) Sn(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq)
The hydrolysis is partial because the charge density of Sn2+ ion is not high
enough in order for it to undergo complete hydrolysis.
REDUCING PROPERTIES OF TIN (II) CHLORIDE:
8. Explain the reducing properties of Tin (II) chloride.
A solution of Tin (II) chloride in moderately concentrated hydrochloric acid is a
reducing agent.
The Tin (II) ion, Sn2+ donates two electrons to form Tin (IV) ion, Sn4+.
Equation:
Sn2+(aq) Sn4+(aq) + 2e-
9. Explain the reducing properties of Tin (II) chloride with the followings and state
what is observed & write an equation for the reaction in each case.
a) Iron (III) salt.

97
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Tin (II) chloride reduces an iron (III) salt in solution to the
corresponding Iron (II) salt, the solution turns from yellow (or brown) to
pale green (or dirty green).
Equations:
Sn2+(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq) Sn4+(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq)
b) Iodine.
Tin (II) chloride reduces iodine, usually dissolved in potassium iodide
solution, to the iodine ion, the solution turns from dark brown to
colourless.
Equation:
Sn2+(aq) + I2 [(In KI(aq)] Sn4+(aq) + 2I-(aq)
c) Potassium manganite (VII).
Tin (II) chloride decolorized acidified potassium manganite (VII)
solution rapidly producing manganese (II) ion as the principal product.
I.e the purple colour turns colourless.
Equation:
2MnO4-(aq) + 5Sn2+(aq) 16H+(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 5Sn4+(aq) + 8H2O(l)
d) Potassium dichromate (VI).
Tin (II) chloride reduces acidified potassium dichloride (VI) from golden
yellow solution to a green solution containing the chromium (II) ion.
Equation:
Cr2O72-(aq) + 3Sn2+(aq) + 14H+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 3Sn4+(aq) + 7H2O(l)

PREPARATIONS TETRACHLORIDES, MCL4:

-Carbon tetrachloride, CCl4.
Carbon tetrachloride is prepared by passing chlorine gas through
Carbon disulphide solution in the presence of iron (III) chloride as a
catalyst at a temperature of about 30C or boiling under reflux, in the
presence of iodine as a catalyst.
Equation:
CS2(l) + 3Cl2(g) CCl4(l) + S2Cl2(l)
I2 or FeCl3 as a Cat
10. Explain why the bonds in Carbon tetrachloride are polar but the whole Carbon
tetrachloride molecules is non-polar.
Chlorine atom is more electronegative than carbon atom, it attracts the bonding
electrons towards itself which gives rise to a dipole moment towards chlorine
atom.
The chlorine atom acquire a partial negative charge while carbon atom acquire a
partial positive charge.

98
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 This unequal distribution of the bonds in electrons is responsible for the bond
polarity in carbon tetrachloride.
However, the carbon –chloride bonds are symmetrically arranged in the carbon
tetrachloride because the chlorine atom a tetrahedrally arranged around the
carbon atom.
The bond polarity effect cancels each other so that the net-dipole moment is zero,
hence the molecule is non-polar.
-Silicon, SiCl4, Germanium, GeCl4 & Tin tetrachloride, SnCl4 are prepared
by direct synthesis (passing dry chlorine gas).
Equations:
Si(s) + Cl2(g) SiCl4(l) At a temperature of 720K
Ge(s) + 2Cl2(g) GeCl4(g) '' '' '' '' 340-450K
Sn(s) + 2Cl2(g) SnCl2(l)
-Silicon tetrachloride, SiCl4 can also be prepared by passing dry heated
chlorine gas over a mixture of silica and carbon.
Equation:
SiO2(s) + 2C(s) + 2Cl2(g) SiCl4(l) + 2CO(g)
-Lead tetrachloride, PbCl4 can be prepared by the action of cold
concentrated hydrochloric acid on lead (IV) oxide and it’s obtained as a
yellow liquid.
Equation:
PbO2(s) + 4HCl(l) PbCl4(l) + 2H2O(l)
Note:
Lead (IV) chloride is an oily yellow liquid. It decomposes on heating to
form a white crystals of lead (IV) chloride and a greenish yellow gas (i.e.
chlorine gas) is evolved.
Equation:
PbCl4(l) PbCl2(s) + Cl2(g)
THERMAL STABILITY OF THE TETRACHLORIDE:
The tetrachlorides of carbon, silicon & germanium are stable to heat, but
those of Tin & Lead decomposes on heating to form dichlorides.
11. The thermal stability of the tetrachlorides are in the order of CCl4 SiCl4 GeCl4
SnCl4 PbCl4.Explain the observation.
Down the group, the atomic radius of the group (IV) elements increases down the
group, the bond length between the elements and chlorine atoms increases, the
bonds strength decreases, therefore the energy required to break the bonds
decrease.
12. A sample of lead (IV) oxide was treated with warm concentrated hydrochloric
acid.
(a) State what was observed.
A white precipitate is formed and greenish-yellow gas is evolved.
(b) Write equation for the reaction.
PbO2(s) + 4HCl(l) PbCl2(s) + Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l)
REACTION OF TETRACHLORIDES WITH WATER (HYDROLYSIS):
13. Discuss the reaction of tetrachlorides of group (IV) elements with water.
99
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 -Carbon tetrachloride does not undergo hydrolysis with water because carbon
lacks empty d-orbital to accept lone pair of electrons from water.
-The rest of the tetrachlorides are hydrolyzed by water because their central
atoms have empty d-orbitals to accept lone pair of electrons from water molecules
forming a white (misty) fumes of hydrogen chloride gas.
-The tendency to undergo hydrolysis in water is in the order of
SiCl4GeCl4SnCl4PbCl4.
-SiCl4 is highly hydrolysed even in damp air because Si4+ ion has the highest
charge density. It strongly attract the lone pair of electron from water while Pb4+
ion has the least charge density and PbCl4 is least hydrolyzed.
Equations:
SiCl4(l) + 4H2O(l) SiO2.2H2O(s) + 4HCl(aq)
GeCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) GeO2(s) + 4HCl(aq)
SnCl4(l) + 4H2O(l) SnO.2H2O(s) + 4HCl(aq)
PbCl4(l) + 4H2O(l) PbO2.2H2O(s) + 4HCl(aq)
C. HYDRIDES:
Carbon forms the largest number of hydrides followed by silicon. The striking
stability of hydrides of carbon compared with hydrides of other group (IV)
elements is attributed to the relatively high C-C bond energy, high C-H bond
energy and the fact that carbon does not have easily accessible d-orbitals.
Apart from methane, other hydrides are made by reduction of corresponding
tetrachloride using lithium aluminium tetra hydride at 0C in the presence of dry
ether.
Equations:
SiCl4(l) SiH4(g) + AlCl3(s) + LiCl(s)
GeCl4(l) GeH4(g) + AlCl3(s) + LiCl(s)
SnCl4(l) SnH4(g) + AlCl3(s) + LiCl(s)
PbCl4(l) PbH4(g) + AlCl3(s) + LiCl(s)
LiAlH4(s)/Ether/0C
Methane is made by decarboxylation of sodium ethanoate,
Equation:
Heat
CH3COONa(s) CH4(g) + Na2CO3(s)
Ca(OH)2/NaOH(s)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
 They are all colourless gases at room temperature.
 They are all covalent compounds with tetrahedral shape.
 They have low melting & boiling points because they have simple
molecular structure with weak Van der Waals force of attraction between
the molecules.
 The boiling point increases down the group in the order of
CH4SiH4GeH4SnH4PbH4.This is because the magnitude of the Vander
Waals forces of attraction increases down the group with increase in
molecular mass (molecular size).

100
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  The thermal stability decreases down the group. Down the group, atomic
radius increases bond length increases and the bond strength decreases.
When heated, they tend to easily decompose down the group because of
decrease in bond strength. Methane is very stable but plumbane is least
stable due to changing character as +2 oxidation state becoming more
stable and decrease in electronegativity down the group.
 Reactions with air.
They all burns in air (oxygen gas) to produce dioxides and water.
Equations:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
SiH4(g) + 2O2(g) SiO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
GeH4(g) + 2O2(g) GeO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
SnH4(g) + 2O2(g) SnO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
PbH4(g) + 2O2(g) PbO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Heating
 Reaction with water (Hydrolysis).
Only Silane and stannane are hydrolysed but the rest do not undergo
hydrolysis. The hydrolysis of both silane and stannane is in the presence of
alkali.
Equations:
SiH4(g) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) SiO32-(aq) + 4H2(g)
Or
SiH4(g) + 4H2O(l) Si(OH)4(s) + 4H2(g)
SnH4(g) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) SnO32-(aq) + 4H2(g)
Or
SnH4(g) + 4H2O(l) Sn(OH)4(s) + 4H2(g)

101
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 The trend in hydrolysis is in accordance with their electronegativity values.
The greater the greater the electronegativity, the less the hydrolysis.
 Reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Except methane, all the hydrides reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to
form tetrachlorides and hydrogen gas.
Equations:
SiH4(g) + HCl(aq) SiCl4(l) + 4H2(g)
PbH4(l) + HCl(aq) PbCl4(l) + 4H2(g)
IDENTIFICATIONS OF Pb2+, Sn2+ and Sn4+:
Dilute sodium hydroxide solution until in excess:
A white precipitate soluble in excess forming colourless solution.
Equations:
Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Pb(OH)2(s)
-
Pb(OH)2(s) + 2OH (aq) Pb(OH)42-(aq)
Sn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Sn(OH)2(s)
-
Sn(OH)2(s) + 2OH (aq) Sn(OH)42-(aq)
Sn4+(aq) + 4OH-(aq) Sn(OH)4(s)
-
Sn(OH)(s) + 2OH (aq) Sn(OH)62-(aq)
Dilute ammonium hydroxide solution until in excess:
A white precipitate insoluble in excess.
Equations:
Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Pb(OH)2(s)
Sn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Sn(OH)2(s)
4+ -
Sn (aq) + 4OH (aq) Sn(OH)4(s)
Note:
Ammonia solution is a weaker base than sodium hydroxide solution therefore, it does not
produce enough hydroxyl ions to enable complex formation as in the case of sodium
hydroxide.
Sodium sulphate/dilute sulphuric acid.
A white precipitate insoluble on warming.
Equation:
Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) PbSO4(s)
No observable change occurs with both Sn2+ & Sn4+.
Dilute hydrochloric acid /sodium chloride solution.
A white precipitate, soluble on warming (hot water).
Equation:
Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) PbCl2(s)
A white precipitate dissolves on warming and reappears on cooling, the precipitate
dissolves in concentrated hydrochloric acid forming a complexes.
Equation:
PbCl2(s) + 2Cl-(aq) PbCl42-(aq)
No observable change occurs with both Sn2+ & Sn4+.
Potassium iodide solution.
A yellow precipitate, soluble on heating to form a colourless solution.
102
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
Equation:
Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) PbI2(s)
Potassium chromate solution.
A yellow precipitate insoluble in ethanoic acid.
Equation:
Pb2+(aq) + CrO42-(aq) PbCrO4(s)
Acidified potassium permanganate (VII) solution.
The purple colour of acidified potassium permanganate (VII) solution turns from purple
to colourless.
Equation:
2MnO4-(aq) + 5Sn2+(aq) + 16H+(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 5Sn4+(aq) + 8H2O(l)
Purple To Colourless
Mercury (II) chloride solution.
A white precipitate that slowly turns grey.
Equation:
Sn2+(aq) + 2HgCl2(aq) Hg2Cl2(s) + Sn4+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
Ammonium sulphide/Hydrogen sulphide solution.
A black precipitate, soluble in dilute nitric acid.
Equation:
Pb2+(aq) + S2-(aq) PbS(s)
14. Explain the following observations.
(a) When Tin (II) chloride solution was added to Iron (III) chloride solution
followed by sodium hydroxide solution, a green precipitate is formed.
Iron (III) in the solution is reduced by Tin (II) to Iron (II) and Tin (II) is
oxidized to Tin (IV) ion.
Equation:
Sn2+(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq) Sn4+(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq)
The Iron (II) in solution reacts with the sodium hydroxide to form Iron (II)
hydroxide.
Equation:
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
(b) When tri lead tetra oxide dissolves in dilute nitric acid, a colourless solution
and a brown solid is formed.
Tri lead tetra oxide dissolves (reacts) with nitric acid to form a brown solid
of lead (IV) oxide and a colourless solution.
Equation:
Pb3O4(s) + 4HNO3(l) 2Pb(NO3)2(aq) + PbO2(s) + 2H2O(l)
15. The resultant mixture in 14 (b) above is filtered to obtain the residue and the
filtrate.
(a) To the 1st portion of the filtrate is added potassium iodide. State what was
observed and write ionic equation for the reaction.
A yellow precipitate is observed.
Equation:

103
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) PbI2(s)
(b) To the 2nd
portion of the filtrate, excess sodium hydroxide solution is
added. State what is observed and write ionic equation for the reaction.
A white precipitate is observed, soluble in excess forming a colourless
solution.
Equations:
Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Pb(OH)2(s)
-
Pb(OH)2(s) + 2OH (aq) Pb(OH)42-(aq)
(c) To the residue, hot concentrated hydrochloric acid is added. State what was
observed and write an ionic equation for the reaction.
A white precipitate & a greenish-yellow gas is evolved.
Equation:
PbO2(s) + 4HCl(l) PbCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
16. Describe how you would determine the percentage of Tin in its alloys in the
laboratory.
Procedures:
 Measure a known mass of the alloy and dissolves it in dilute hydrochloric
acid.
 Make the solution up to 250cm3 of volumetric flask using distilled water.
 Pipette a known volume of the solution in to a conical flask and titrate it
with a standard potassium permanganate (VII) solution.
Treatment of results:
GROUP VII ELEMENTS (HALOGENS):
Elements Nature at Boiling point Bond Electron Affinity Electron
R.T energy egativit
y
Fluorine Pale yellow -188 158 -322.6 4.0
gas
Chlorine Pale -34 242 -364 3.0
Greenish-
Yellow gas
Bromine Red brown 58 193 -342 2.8
liquid
Iodine Black solid 183 151 -295.4 2.5
Astatine RADIOACTIVE ELEMENT
Elements Fluorine, 9F Chlorine, 17Cl Bromine, Iodine, 53I
35Br Astatine
Outer shell 2s22p5 3s23p5 4s24p5 5s25p5

Melting Pt -220 -101 -7 113 /C

Boiling point -188 -35 59 183 /C
O.S -1 -1,+1,+3,+5,+7 -1,+1,+5 -1,+1,+3,5,+7

Electrode +2.87 +1.36 +1.09 +0.54

potential/V
Bond 0.142 0.200 0.229 0.266 -
length/nm
104
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
GENERAL PROPERTIES:
All the elements exists as diatomic molecules i.e., F2, Cl2, Br2, & I2, the two atoms in each
atomic molecule are being joined by covalent bond. All exists as non-polar diatomic
molecule. They are coloured and highly electronegative and very reactive.
Reasons why the elements are very reactive:
 Low bond dissociation energy of the molecules which allows formation of atoms.
i.e, Cl2 2Cl (g).
 High values of both electronegativity and electron affinity of the individual atoms
which allows easy formation of ions.
 The elements all have 7 electrons on their outer shell with one electron less than
those of inert gases. The outermost general electronic configuration is ns2np5.they
attain stable octet of noble gases by either:
 Sharing of electrons (covalency) between themselves (Cl2) or other atoms.
 Accepting an electron (electrovalency) to form univalent ion.
Equation:
X + e X-
 Melting (and also Boiling) points:
Melting (and also Boling) points of the halogens increases down the group with
increasing molecular mass down the group.
This is because the molecules are held by weak Van der Waals forces. As molecular
mas increases, the magnitude of the Van der Waals also increases consequently
increasing both melting & boiling points.
Fluorine & chlorine are gases at room temperature. Bromine is a liquid while Van
der Waals forces in iodine are strong enough to hold its molecules in a solid state.
 Bond energy: is the amount of energy required to break one mole of a covalent
bond in to its constituent gaseous atoms.
Equation:
X2(g) 2X(g) H = Bond energy of X-X bond.
Bond energy usually decreases with increase in bond length.
Bond energy generally decreases down the group. This is because down the group,
atomic radius increases hence causing an increase in bond length of (X-X).The
longer the bond, the weaker it is.Flourine has an abnormally low bond enthalpy
because of its very small atomic radius. Due to small atomic radius of fluorine, the
non-bonding electron pairs on the fluorine atoms are very close to each other
causing a strong repulsion. This weakens the F-F bond.
Notes:
Bond energy (or Bond dissociation enthalpy)
 Electrode potentials decrease (become less positive) down the group. Down the
group, there is a decrease in bond dissociation energy and electron affinity. Both
these two factors favour electrode potential to become less positive.
However, although fluorine has a lower electron affinity than chlorine. Its low
bond dissociation enthalpy enables it to have higher electrode potential than
chlorine. Electrode potential gives a measure of oxidizing power –the higher
(more positive) the electrode potential, the stronger is the oxidizing power.
Therefore oxidizing power of the halogens decrease down the group.

105
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
Note. Fluorine shows strict differences in its properties from the rest of Group (VII)
elements.
Explanation: Fluorine has an extremely small atomic radius compared to any other
halogen. This gives rise to very high electronegativity, unexpectedly low bond
dissociation energy, high lattice energy in fluorides, and very high electrode potential and
forms very strong covalent bonds with other elements. Fluorine lacks empty orbitals and
as such it has only one oxidation state of -1
Explanation for the variation of the physical properties of the halogens
Physical state
The physical state of the halogen molecules depend on the strength of the Van der Waals
forces of attraction between the halogen molecules which also depends on the size of the
atoms of the elements.
As the size of the atoms of the elements increases down the group, the strength of the Van
der Waals forces of attraction increases leading to a decrease in volatility with increasing
relative molecular mass of the resultant halogen molecule. In fluorine and chlorine
molecules, because of the smaller sizes of fluorine and chlorine atoms, the Van der Waals
forces of attraction between respective fluorine and chlorine molecules are so weak that
they can easily be broken down even at room temperature hence fluorine and chlorine
molecules exit as gases at room temperature. In bromine and iodine molecules due to
subsequent increase in the sizes of the bromine and iodine molecules, the Van der Waals
forces of attraction become stronger enough to keep them as liquid and solid
respectively.
2
Atomic radius
Atomic radius generally increases down the group from fluorine to iodine.
Down the group, both nuclear charge and screening effect increase.
The increase in screening effect outweighs increase in nuclear charge due to addition of
an extra inner fully filled sub-energy level from one element to the next.
This leads to a decrease in the effective nuclear charge and hence nuclear attraction for
the outermost electrons subsequently decreases.
As a result, the outermost electrons are less strongly attracted by the nucleus leading to
an increase in the size of the atoms from fluorine to iodine.
Boiling point/melting point.
Boiling points of halogen molecules increase down the group with increasing molecular
weight of the molecules.
This is because the simple molecules are held by weak Van der Waals forces whose
magnitude increases with increase in magnitude of molecular mass.
Fluorine being the smallest atom forms the smallest molecule with the lowest molecular
mass, has the weakest
Van der Waals forces of attraction hence has the lowest boiling point.
Iodine being the biggest atom forms the largest molecule with the biggest molecular
mass, has the strongest Van der Waals forces of attraction hence has the highest boiling
point.
First Ionization energy
First ionization energy of the halogens decreases down the group from fluorine to iodine.
Down the group, both nuclear charge and screening effect increase from one element to
the next.

106
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
The increase in screening effect outweighs increase in nuclear charge due to addition of
an extra inner fully filled sub-energy level from one element to the next.
This leads to a decrease in the effective nuclear charge and hence nuclear attraction for
the outermost electrons subsequently decreases.
As a result, the outermost electrons are less strongly attracted by the nucleus and can
thus be easily removed.
Bond Dissociation Energy (BDE)
The bond dissociation energy decreases down the group. However, fluorine has
unexpectedly low bond dissociation energy.
Bond dissociation energy is determined by the size the atoms. The smaller the atoms, the
greater the forces of attraction and hence the stronger the bond between the atoms, and
consequently the higher the bond dissociation energy.
The bigger the atoms, the weaker the forces of attraction and hence the weaker the bond
between the atoms and, consequently the lower the bond dissociation energy.
In the above respect, chlorine forms the strongest covalent bonds hence the highest bond
dissociation energy while iodine forms the weakest covalent bonds resulting into the
lowest bond dissociation energy.
Fluorine has abnormally low bond dissociation energy. This is because fluorine atom
being the smallest atom, there is stronger repulsion between the bonding electrons and
the lone pairs of electrons which weakens the fluorine-fluorine bond.
3
First Electron affinity
Electron affinity of halogens generally decreases down the group.
Down the group, both nuclear charge and screening effect increase from one element to
the next.
The increase in screening effect outweighs increase in nuclear charge due to addition of
an extra inner fully filled sub-energy level from one element to the next.
This leads to a decrease in the effective nuclear charge and hence nuclear attraction for
the incoming electrons subsequently decreases.
Therefore, the incoming electron successively experiences greater repulsion hence less
energy is evolved from chlorine to iodine.
However, the electron affinity of fluorine is lower than expected. Due to its smallest
atomic radius, electrons in the outermost shell strongly repel each other and also repel
the incoming electron leading to release of lower energy.
Electrode Potential
Electrode Potential is the measure of the reducing power of an element.
The more reducing an element is, the more negative is its Electrode Potential.
The more oxidizing the element is, the more positive is its Electrode Potential.
The most negative electrode potential represents the strongest reducing agent and the
most positive electrode potential represents the strongest oxidizing agent. The reduction
potential becomes less positive down the group therefore fluorine is the most powerful
oxidizing agent.
The reducing power of the halogens is in the order of
iodine>bromine>chlorine>fluorine. The reducing power of the halogens increases down
the group with increasing atomic size.
Fluorine is the least reducing element. This is because fluorine has the smallest atomic
size. As a result, electrons in the outermost shell repel each other strongly and the

107
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
incoming electron. This reduces the ability of fluorine to accept electrons. Iodine is the
most reducing halogen. . This is because iodine has the largest atomic size. As a result,
electrons in the outermost shell repel each other minimally and the incoming electron.
This increases the ability of iodine to accept electrons.
Electronegativity
Electronegativity of the halogens decreases down the group from fluorine to iodine.
Down the group, both nuclear charge and screening effect increase from one element to
the next.
The increase in screening effect outweighs the increase in nuclear charge due to addition
of an extra inner fully filled sub-energy level from one element to the next.
This leads to a decrease in the effective nuclear charge and hence nuclear attraction for
the outermost electrons subsequently decreases. As a result, the bonding electrons are
less strongly attracted by the nucleus.
OXIDATION STATES OF THE HALOGENS
Halogens except fluorine exhibit a number of positive oxidation states.
Fluorine being the smallest atom of the halogens lacks vacant d-orbitals. The other
halogens are large and have empty d-orbitals.
As a result, electrons can be easily transferred or promoted from the p-orbitals to the
vacant d-orbitals.
E.g. Consider chlorine; electronic configuration 17Cl 1s22s22p63s23p5
3s 3p 3d
Cl(I)

Cl(III)

Cl(V)

Cl(VII)

Examples
Compounds HCl HOCl HClO2 HClO3 HClO4

Oxidation states of Cl -1 +1 +3 +5 +7

Note: The oxidation state of -1 exists in ionic compounds while all other oxidation states
exist only in the oxyanions of the halogens.
PREPARATIONS OF HALOGENS IN THE LABORATORY:
17. Describe briefly how fluorine, Bromine and chlorine can be prepared in the
laboratory.
Golden tips:
The reduction potential becomes less positive down the group therefore fluorine
is the most powerful oxidizing agent.

108
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 The most negative electrode potential represents the strongest reducing agent
and the most positive electrode represents the strongest oxidizing agent.
18. State some reasons why fluorine is the most powerful oxidizing agent.
 Low bond dissociation energy
 High enthalpy of hydration
 Absence of enthalpy of fusion and vaporization
19. State reasons why Fluorine behaves differently from the rest of the members due.
 Low bond energy  Small atomic radius
 High electronegativity  High electrode potential
20. State some Special properties in which fluorine behaves differently.
 Fluorine does not form oxo-acids.
 Fluorine has only one oxidation state.
 Hydrofluoric acid is the weakest acid compared to other halogen acid.
 Oxides of fluorine are not acidic while those of other halogens are acidic.
 It combines directly with carbon at room temperature to form carbon tetra
fluoride.
 Hydrogen fluoride has a very high boiling point due to formation hydrogen
bonding.
 Calcium, Lithium & magnesium fluoride is insoluble in water while the other
halides are soluble in water.
 Silver fluoride is soluble in water while silver chloride, bromide and iodide
are insoluble in water. This is because the small fluoride ions have high
hydration energy which exceeds lattice energy hence the enthalpy of solution
is negative.
REACTIONS OF HALOGENS:
21. Discuss the reaction of halogens with the followings:
a) Nonmetals:
OXIDATION REACTIONS:
(i) Iron (II) to Iron (III).
Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine & Iodine are shaken with a solution of
iron (II) sulphate, it oxidizes Fe2+ to Fe3+ ions.
Equation:
2Fe2+(aq) + Cl2(g) 2Fe3+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
Or:
2Fe2+(aq) 2Fe3+(aq) + 3e-
(ii) Tin (II) to Tin (IV).
Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine & Iodine oxidizes Tin (II) to Tin (IV) ion.
Equations:
Sn2+(aq) + Cl2(g) Sn4+(aq)
Sn2+(aq) + Br2(g) Sn4+(aq)
Sn2+(aq) + I2(g) Sn4+(aq)
(iii) Sulphite ions (saturated solution of sulphur dioxide)
They all oxidizes sulphites ion to sulphates ions.
Equations:

109
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 SO32-(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
SO32-(aq) + I2(g) + H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2I-(aq)
SO32-(aq) + Br2(g) + H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2Br-(aq)
Sodium thiosulphate
Chlorine reacts with sodium thiosulphate to form sulphate ion with a
deposit of yellow solid.
Equation:
S2O32-(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + S(s)
When chlorine and bromine is in excess, being a stronger oxidizing
agent than iodine, it oxidizes the thiosulphate ion to sulphate ion.
Equations:
S2O32-(aq) + 4Cl2(g) + 5H2O(l) 2SO42-(aq) + 10H+(aq) + 8Cl-(aq)
Iodine oxidizes thiosulphate ion to tetrathionate ion.
Equation:
2S2O32-(aq) + I2(aq) S4O62-(aq) + 2I-(aq)
(iv) Hydrogen sulphide
They all oxidizes hydrogen sulphide gas to a yellow solid of sulphur.
Equations:
F2(g) + H2S(g) 2HF(g) + S(s)
Cl2(g) + H2S(g) 2HCl(g) + S(s)
Br2(g) + H2S(g) 2HBr(g) + S(s)
I2(g) + H2S(g) 2HI(g) + S(s)
(v) Phosphorous.
Heated phosphorous reacts with dry both bromine and chlorine gas to
form phosphorous trichloride.
Equations:
P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) 4PCl3(l)
P2(s) + 3Br2(g) 2PBr3(l)
If more chlorine gas is passed over heated phosphorous, both
phosphorous tri bromide or chloride and pentabromide or chloride
are formed respectively.
Equations:
PCl3(l) + Cl2(g) PCl5(s)
PBr3(l) + Br2(g) PBr5(s)
But Iodine forms only phosphorous triiodine.
Equation:
P2(s) + 3I2(l) 2PI3(l)
(vi) Hydrogen gas.
Fluorine gas explodes in hydrogen gas to form hydrogen fluoride.
Equation:
F2(g) + H2(g) 2HF(g)
Reaction with Chlorine gas is slow in diffuse light but explosive in
sunlight or ultra violet light but very slow in darkness.
110
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Equation:
Cl2(g) + H2(g) 2HCl(g)
Both bromine and iodine only reacts with hydrogen gas in the
presence of a catalyst at high temperature (Heat).
Equations:
Pt/200
Br2(g) + H2(g) 2HBr(g)
I2(g) + H2(g) 2HI(g)
Pt/400
(vii) Sulphur.
Both Bromine & Chlorine gases reacts with molten sulphur to give
disulphur dichloride, which is a yellow liquid.
Equations:
Cl2(g) + 2S(s) S2Cl2(l)
Br2(g) + 2S(s) S2Br2(l)
Both Fluorine and iodine gases DONOT reacts with molten sulphur.
(viii) Water
Fluorine reacts with cold water, forming hydrogen fluoride and
oxygen gas.
Equation:
2F2(g) + 2H2O(l) 4HF(g) + O2(g)
Both chlorine, Bromine & Iodine dissolves slowly in water forming
chlorine water. Chlorine water is slightly acidic due to
disproportionation of chlorine to form hydrochloric acid and chloric
(I) acid.
Equation:
Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l) Cl-(aq) + H3O+(aq) + HClO(aq)
Br2(g) + 2H2O(l) Br-(aq) + H3O+(aq) + HOBr(aq)
Iodine is very sparingly soluble in water and the reaction is reversible
in which oxygen gas oxidizes the iodide ion back to iodine.
22. Define the term Disproportionation?
Disproportionation is a reaction in which the same species undergoes simultaneous
oxidation and reduction.
b) Metals
Fluorine combines readily and directly with metals. Chlorine gas, the metal
has to be heated in dry gas. Iodine reacts slowly with metals at high
temperature.
Equations:
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)
c) Alkalis
(i) Cold dilute alkalis
Fluorine reacts with cold dilute alkalis to form the following
products in the equation below.
Equation:
2F2(g) + 2OH-(aq) OF2(g) + 2F-(aq) + H2O(l)

111
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Both Chlorine and Bromine produces a pale yellow solution of
akalis chlorate & bromate (I), alkalis chloride & bromide and water
respectively.
Equations:
Cl2(g) + 2OH-(aq) OCl-(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
Br2(g) + 2OH-(aq) OBr-(aq) + Br-(aq) + H2O(l)
Notes:
The sodium chlorate (I) and sodium bromate (I) formed above
disproportionate at temperature above 70C. i.e,
Equations:
3OCl-(aq) 2Cl-(aq) + ClO3-(aq)
3OBr-(aq) 2Br-(aq) + BrO3-(aq)
(ii) Hot concentrated alkalis
Fluorine reacts with hot concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.
Equation:
2F2(g) + 4OH-(aq) 4F-(aq) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Chlorine, Bromine & Iodine reacts with hot concentrated alkalis the
products below.
Equations:
3Cl2(g) + 6OH-(aq) ClO3-(aq) + 5Cl-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
3Br2(g) + 6OH-(aq) BrO3-(aq) + 5Br-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
-
3I2(g) + 6OH (aq) IO3-(aq) + 5I-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
23. Discus how the followings are prepared in the laboratory.
a) Potassium chlorate (V) or Potassium bromate (V) & Potassium iodate (V).
b) Sodium chlorate (V) or Sodium bromate (V) & Sodium iodate (V).
Golden tips:
Chlorine is more soluble in sodium hydroxide solution than in water. This is
because chlorine is non-polar and sparingly dissolves in water to equilibrium
below.
Equation:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + HOCl(aq)
24. Describe the bleaching action of chlorine.
The bleaching action of chlorine is brought about by the chlorate (I) ion, which is an
oxidizing agent. Chlorine bleaches by oxidizing the dye. Therefore dry chlorine gas
does not bleach.
Equation:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HOCl(aq) + HCl(aq)
HOCl(aq) + dye HCl(aq) + Oxidised Dye
Coloured Colourless
The oxidized dye is colourless.Loss of colour is caused by structural changes in the
organic molecule. Bromine has a similar action but much less vigorous. Iodine does
not react with water and therefore does not bleach.

112
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 COMPOUNDS OF GROUP (VII) ELEMENTS:
A. Hydrides:
PREPARATIONS OF HALO ACIDS (HYDRIDES):
-Hydrogen Fluoride, HF.
Hydrogen fluoride is prepared by heating concentrated sulphuric acid with calcium
fluoride.
Equation:
CaF2(s) + H2SO4(l) CaSO4(s) + 2HF(g)
-Hydrogen Chloride, HCl.
Hydrogen chloride is prepared by heating concentrated sulphuric acid with sodium
chloride.
Equation:
2NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(g)
-Hydrogen Bromide, HBr.
Both hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide are prepared by hydrolysis of
phosphorous tribromide and triiodide respectively.
Equations:
PBr3(l) + 3H2O(l) H3PO3(aq) + 3HBr(g)
PI3(s) + 3H2O(l) H3PO3(aq) + 3HI(g)
Notes:
Both hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide cannot be prepared by action of
concentrated sulphuric acid on any halides why?
Since they are both strong reducing agent, they can be oxidized by concentrated
sulphuric acid to bromine and iodine respectively.
Or:
Hydrogen bromide and iodide cannot be made by the action of concentrated
sulphuric acid because concentrated sulphuric acid oxidizes them to halogens. They
are instead made by hydrolysis of phosphorous tri bromide or phosphorous tri
iodide.
Hydrides HF HCl HBr HI
B.E (KJ/Mol +560 +430 +370 +290

B.pt(C) +19.9 -85.0 -66.7 -35.4

pKa 3.25 -7.4 -9.5 -10

Explanation:
 Bond energy decreases down the group. This is due to an increase in atomic
radius of the halogen down the group. Increase in atomic radius causes an
increase in H-X bond length. The longer the bond, the weaker it is.
Or:
 Bond energy decreases down the group. This is because down the group,
Electronegativity decrease. Fluorine being the most electronegative than the
others, it forms the strongest H-F bond while iodine is the least
electronegative, it forms the weakest H-I bond.
 Boiling point, generally boiling point increases down the group with
hydrogen fluoride having an abnormally high boiling point. This is because

113
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 molecules of the hydrides are held by weak Van der Waals forces whose
magnitude depend on the increase with increasing molecular mass.
 Fluorine is highly electronegative than the rest hence hydrogen fluoride
molecules associate through strong hydrogen bonds this gives hydrogen
fluoride an abnormally high boiling point.
 Acidic strength, Halogen hydrides dissolves in water to form acidic solutions.
The pKa values of the acids can be used as a measure of acidic strength-the
lower the values, the stronger is the acid.
 Acidic strength of the hydrides increases down the group. This is because
atomic radius increases down the group in the order of
FClBrConsequently the H-X bond length increases down the group. The
longer the bond, the weaker it the weaker the bond the stronger is the acid.
Hydrofluoric acid is a weaker which is slightly ionized in aqueous solution.
Equation:
HF(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + F-(aq)
Moist hydrogen fluoride and aqueous solution of the acid attack silica and
glass, so the solution is stored in polythene containers.
Equation:
SiO2(s) + 4HF(aq) SiF4(g) + 2H2O(l)
B. Oxides
Chlorine forms six oxides, but only the following three have any considerable
importance. All six oxides are unstable and the oxides are acidic in nature.
Oxides of bromine have not been extensively studied since they are unstable. While
the best known oxide of iodine is iodine pent oxide.
PREPARATION OF OXIDES OF CHLORINE:
(i) Chlorine monoxide (Dichlorine oxide), Cl2O
 Dichlorine oxide or chlorine monoxide is prepared by passing dry chlorine
gas over freshly precipitated mercury (II) oxide which has been dried at a
temperature of 670K.
 The reaction tube should be cooled by water.Dichlorine oxide can be
condensed in a U-tube immersed in ice-salt.
Equation:
2HgO(s) + 2Cl2(g) HgO.HgCl2(s) + Cl2O(g)
Yellow gas
Note:
The yellow gas reacts with water forming chloric (I) acid (Hypochlorous
acid), so acting as the anhydride of this acid.
Equation:
Cl2O(g) + H2O(l) 2HOCl(aq)
(ii) Chlorine dioxide, ClO2
 Chlorine dioxide is prepared by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on
potassium chlorate (V) in the present of heat.
Equation:
3ClO3-(s) + 2H+(Conc.l) 2ClO2(g) + ClO4-(aq) + H2O(l)

114
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Or:
 Chlorine dioxide is prepared also by the action of dry chlorine gas on silver
chlorate (V) at a temperature of about 360K.
Equation:
2ClO3-(s) + Cl2(g) 2ClO2(g) + 2Cl-(Conc.aq) + O2(g)
Note:
Chlorine dioxide gas reacts with water as a mixed acidic anhydride, forming
chloric acid (III) acid (Chlorous acid) and chloric (V) acid (Chloric acid).
Equation:
2ClO2(g) + H2O(l) HClO3(aq) + HClO2(aq)
Reddish-Yellow gas Chloric (V) acid Chloric (III) acid
(iii)
Dichlorine heptoxide, Cl2O7
 Dichlorine hetoxide is prepared by dehydration of chloric (VII) acid, whereby
acid is gradually phosphorous (V) oxide cooled in ice-salt. After an interval in
which dehydration occurs, dichlorine heptoxide can be distilled off.
Equation:
-H2O(l)
2HClO4(l) Cl2O7(l)
Dehydration H+ from Acid
Note:
Dichlorine hetoxide reacts with water to form chloric (VII) acid.
Equation:
Cl2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2HClO4(l)
(iv) Chloric (I) acid (Hypochlorous acid), HClO
 Chloric (I) acid (Hypochlorous acid) is prepared by passing chlorine gas via a
suspension of freshly yellow prepared mercury (II) oxide in water.
Equation:
HgO(s) + 2Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HgCl2(aq) + 2HClO(aq)
Note:
Chloric acid is a weak acid and it liberates oxygen gas under the action of
sunlight exposure.
Equation:
2HClO(aq) 2HCl(l) + O2(g)
Sunlight
Hypochlorous acid is also decomposed by heat.
Equation:
3HClO(aq) 2HCl(l) + HClO3(g)
Heat
The acid liberate oxygen gas when warmed with cobalt (II) salt present as a
catalyst.
Equation:
2ClO-(aq) 2Cl-(aq) + O2(g)
Warm
Both the acid and its salts have powerful oxidizing properties and are used as
a bleaching agents and antiseptics.
Examples of their oxidizing action in solution are:
115
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Equations:
2Fe2+(aq) + 2H+(aq) + ClO-(aq) 2Fe3+(aq) + H2O(l) + Cl-(aq)
2I-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + ClO-(aq) H2O(l) + Cl-(aq) + Cl-(aq) + I2(s)

Acidified KI solution
SO32-(aq) + ClO-(aq) SO42-(aq) + Cl-(aq)
(iii) Chloric (V) acid, HClO3.
Chloric (V) acid is prepared in aqueous solution by the action of barium
chlorate (V) with an equimolar proportion of sulphuric acid in dilute
solution.
Eqution:
Ba(ClO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2HClO3(aq)
Note:
If heated, Chloric (V) acid decompose to some useful products.
Equation:
3HClO3(aq) HClO4(aq) + 2ClO2(g) + H2O(l)
Note:
Chloric acid and its salts like sodium chlorate are powerful oxidizing agents
in solution.
Equation:
ClO3-(aq) + 6H+(aq) +6e Cl-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Similarly, bromates (V) and iodates (V) ions are powerful oxidizing agents.
Equations:
BrO3-(aq) + 6H+(aq) + 6e Br-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
IO3-(aq) + 6H+(aq) + 6e I-(aq) + 3H2O(l) 1
The iodate (V) ion oxidizes iodide ions then to iodine.
Equation:
2I-(aq) I2(aq) + 2e 2
The overall reaction equation between iodate (V) ions and iodide ion is:
IO3-(aq) + 5I-(aq) + 6H+(aq) 3I2(aq) + 3H2O(l) 3
This is obtained by multiplying equation 2 by 3 then summing up together
with equation 1.This is done to balance the number of electrons in either
equation.
(iv) Chloric (VII) acid (Perchloric acid), HClO4-.
Question: Explain why chlorine is more soluble in sodium hydroxide solution than in water.
In sodium hydroxide solution, chlorine reacts irreversibly to form sodium chloride
solution, sodium chlorate (I) solution and water.
Equation:
Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + NaOCl(aq) + H2O(l)
However, in water chlorine reacts reversibly to form hydrochloric acid and chloric (I) acid.
Equation:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)

116
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
Question: Describe briefly how chlorine can be converted to potassium chlorate (V)
Chlorine gas is passed through a hot concentrated solution of potassium hydroxide to form
a pale yellow solution which is a mixture of potassium chloride and potassium chlorate (V).
Equation:
HClO Chloric (I) acid
HClO2 Chloric (III) acid
HClO3 Chloric (V) acid
HClO4 Chloric (VII) acid
3Cl2(g) + 6KOH(aq) 5KCl(aq) + KClO3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
The solution is allowed to cool. In the process of cooling, potassium chlorate (V)
crystallizes out with some little potassium chloride. The resultant is again dissolved in hot
water and cooled to recrystallize potassium chlorate (V). This process is repeated several
times until the final product are pure crystals of potassium chlorate (V).
C. Oxo acids.
Chlorine gas forms several oxy acids which includes:
HClO Chloric (I) acid
HClO2 Chloric (III) acid Thermal stability increases
HClO3 Chloric (V) acid Acid strength increases
HClO4 Chloric (VII) acid Oxidizing power increases

Oxidation Acid
States Anion
Formula Systematic Traditional Formula Systematic
name name name
+
1 HOCl Chloric (I) acid Hypochlorous OCl- Chlorate (I)
+
3 HClO2 Chloric (III) acid Chlorous ClO2- Chlorate (III)
+
5 HClO3 Chloric (V) acid Chloric ClO3- Chlorate (V)
+
7 HClO4 Chloric (VII) acid Perchloric ClO4- Chlorate (VII)
HClO4> HClO3> HClO2> HClO [Or] HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4.
As the oxidation states (numbers) of chlorine increases, both the thermal stability
and the acid strength of the Oxo acids increases. While the oxidizing power of the
acids decreases with increasing oxidation states (numbers) of the order of:
HClO or HOCl > HClO2 > HClO3> HClO4.
Binary Acids:
Two factors are related to the acid strengths of nonmetals hydrides.
Namely:
1) The polarity of the X-H bond.
2) The strength of the X-H bond. (X stands for a nonmetal atom).
Explanation:
 The polarity of a X-H bond increases with the electronegativity of the nonmetal atom.
The greater the electronegativity of the nonmetal atom, the more it withdraw
electrons from the hydrogen atom. This facilitates the release of H+ as a proton.
Hence acid strength increases as the electronegativity of the nonmetal atom increases.
 The strength of the X-H bond decreases as the atomic radius of X increases. A
hydrogen ion is more easily broken away from a larger atom than a smaller one. This

117
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 happens because the electron cloud in a large atom is more diffuse. The smaller the
nonmetal atom, the denser the electron cloud. This greater electron density results in
a greater attraction for the proton. Hence acid strength increases as the atomic radius
of the nonmetal atom increases.
 When comparing acid strengths of the hydrides in a group of the periodic table versus
those within a period, one must consider both the electronegativity of the nonmetal
atom and bond energy. Within a series of hydrides of the elements in a group the acid
strength increases with increasing atomic radius of the nonmetal.
Examples:
H2S H2Se H2Te
Increasing acid strength
Increasing nonmetal radius
Increasing electronegativity of X
 In this series, the electronegativity of X varies only slightly, and so is outweighed by
the more significant increases in atomic radius, as shown below in the table.

H2S H2Se H2Te

Radius of X (pm) 104 117 137

Electronegativity of X 2.5 2.4 2.1

 When reading across a row of the periodic table the situation is reversed. The
importance of bond polarity in determining acid strength outweighs that of atomic
radius. For instance, the hydrides of the elements phosphorus, Sulphur, and Chlorine
show increasing acid strength as shown below. Increasing acid strength parallels the
increasing electronegativity on the nonmetal.
PH3 H2S HCl
Increasing acid strength
Increasing nonmetal radius
Increasing electronegativity of X

PH3 H2S HCl

Radius of X (pm) 110 104 99

Electronegativity of X 2.1 2.5 3.0

 The smaller decrease in atomic radius is insignificant in comparison to the larger

change in electronegativity. The trend in acid strength results from significant
increases in bond polarity when going across the row.
 Oxoacids. I.e. HClO > HBrO > HIO or HOIHOBrHOCl. Oxoacids with the same
structure, but with different central atoms whose elements are in the same group,
acids strength increases with increasing electronegativity values of the central atom.

118
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Hence, acid strength increases in the following series where the central atom is a
halogen element as shown above.
 In each molecule, the O-H bond strength is approximately the same. In this series the
ability of the halogen atom to withdraw electron density from the O-H bond increases
with increasing electronegativity. As the O-H bond in a series of acids becomes more
polar, the acid strength increases.
 For Oxo acids that have the same central atom, but differing numbers of attached
oxygen atoms, the acid strength increases with increasing oxidation number of the
central atom.Therefore,HNO3 is stronger than the HNO2,
 The oxygen atoms draw electrons away from the nitrogen atom, making it more
positive. The more positive the nitrogen atom, the more effective it is in withdrawing
from the O-H bond. This increases the polarity of the O-H bond.
RELATIVE ACID STRENGTH:
1. Which one of the following pairs is the stronger acids?
 HCl or HBr
 These acids are nonmetal hydrides of elements within Group (6A) of the periodic
table. Variations in atomic radius are more important within a group than
electronegativity variations.
 The stronger acid is the one with the greater radius of its nonmetal atom.HBr is
the stronger acid than HCl.
 HCl or H2S
 These acids are nonmetal hydrides of the elements within the third row of the
period table. The electronegativity values changes more significantly going across
a row than does the atomic radius. HCl with its more polar bond is the stronger
acid than H2S.
 HClO3 or HBrO3
 Within this group the strengths of the acids increases with increasing
electronegativity of the central atom. The electronegativity values of Cl- ion is
greater than that of Br- ion.
 H3PO3 or H3PO4
 H3PO3 & H3PO4 are oxoacids of the same element. The acid strength increases as the
number of oxygen atoms increase. H3PO4 is the stronger acid because of the greater
number of oxygen atoms bonded to the phosphorus atom. In H3PO4, phosphorus has
a higher oxidation number than H3PO3.
Oxidizing power and thermal stability: The oxidizing power of these acids decreases as the
oxidation number increases in the order of HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4. Stability of Oxo
acids of chlorine in the increasing order is, HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4 and the
increasing stability order of anions of Oxo acids of chlorine is, CIO– < CIO2– < CIO3– < CIO4–.
As the number of oxygen atoms in an ion increases there will be a greater dispersal of
negative charge and thus greater will be the stability of ion formed. For different halogen
having the name oxidation number, the thermal stability decreases with increase in atomic
number i.e., it is in the order HClO > HBrO > HIO and ClO– > BrO– > IO– However, in
HXO3 is most stable. The stability order being HClO3 < HBrO3 < HIO3.
The acidity of Oxo acids of different halogens having the same oxidation number decreases
with increase in the atomic size of the halogen i.e. HCIO4 > HBrO4 > HIO4.

119
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
Reasons why different halogen having the same oxidation states decreases in the order of:
HClO3 < HBrO3 < HIO3 or HCIO4 > HBrO4 > HIO4.
In any series of oxo acids of halogens, the first member possesses high acidic strength. This
is due to high electronegativity and small size of the respective halogens.
Example:
Among perhalic acids, perchloric acid has high acidic strength. As chlorine is more
electronegative than bromine or iodine, the shared electron pair lies relatively nearer to
chlorine in a Cl-O bond than in a Br-O or I-O bond. As a consequence, the O-H bond
becomes much weaker in case of perchloric acid, thereby facilitating the release of proton
readily and easily.

Oxy acid Formula structure (Not accurate)

Chloric (I) acid HClO Cl O H
Chloric (III) acid HClO2 O Cl OH

O
Chloric (V) acid HClO3 Cl OH
O

Chloric (VII) acid HClO4 O Cl OH

O
ACIDIC STRENGTH:
Acidic strength of the acids decreases in the order of: HClO4> HClO3> HClO2> HClO
and increases in the order of: HClO or HOCl > HClO2 > HClO3> HClO4.
Explanation:
Acidic strength increases with increase in the number of oxygen atoms attached to
the chlorine atom. Oxygen atom is more electronegative than chlorine atom.
The oxygen atom withdraw electrons from the O-H bond through the chlorine atom
hence this increases the partial positive charge on the hydrogen atom therefore
weakening the O-H bond. The weaker the O-H bond, the stronger is the acid.
Illustrations:
120
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Increase in the number of oxygen atoms causes an increase in partial positive
charge on the hydrogen atom thus weakening the O-H bond. This increases the ease
with which a proton is lost.
Or:
The acidic strength depends on the number of oxygen atoms in the acid molecule.
Since oxygen is more electronegative than chlorine, it pulls the bonding electrons
towards itself and this negative inductive effect is transmitted to the O-H bond
weakening it thus hydrogen ions are released in solution. The greater the number of
the oxygen atom, the greater the effect and the weaker the O-H bond. Thus the
strength of the acid is HClO4> HClO3> HClO2> HClO.
Or:
The greater the number of oxygen atoms the acid has, the greater the acidity.
Therefore Perhalic acid, HClO4 is the most acidic. This is because the greater the
number of oxygen atoms the greater is the electron displacement towards the
oxygen atom and the weaker will be the H-Cl bond.
The acidic strength of Oxo acids of chlorine increases with increase in the number of
oxygen atoms and the order is: HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4.
Notes:
This is due to oxygen atom being more electronegative than chlorine atom and this
pulls electrons more strongly away from the chlorine atom and effect weakens the
H-Cl bond such that H+ ion is easily lost to the solution. The greater the number of
oxygen atoms the greater the effect and the greater the acidity.
Or:
Strong acids are those which dissociate to a great extent in solution.
When the central atom remains constant but the number of oxygen atoms
surrounding that central atom increase, the added oxygen atoms draw electrons
away from the central atom. This makes the central atom more positive. Thus, the
central atom can is able to more effectively draw electrons away from the O—H
bond. As electron density of the O—H bond decreases, the bond becomes more
polar.
As the O—H becomes more polar, the Oxo acid more readily dissolves in water
(dissociates to a greater extent). Therefore, acid strength increases as the number of
oxygen attached to the central atom increases.
Or:
Strength of acid depends on the bond strength of the O-H bond in the acid and the
stability of the conjugate base. As the number of oxygen atoms increase in Oxo acids,
there will be more electronegative oxygen atoms to pull electron density away from
the O-H bond, weakening it and causing it to break more easily. Also, such inductive
effect can pull charge density from the conjugate base, stabilizing it further. Thus,
Oxo acids become stronger when there are more oxygen atoms in the acid. However,
this is not applicable if the Oxo acids are not all monoprotic or all diprotic.
Or:
Oxo acids have oxygen and at least one O-H group attached to central metal atom.

121
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 The determining factor for an oxyacid’s relative strength has to do with the central
atom's oxidation state (positive character), as well as the number of O atoms around
that central atom.
As the number of oxygen increases
1. Oxidation state of metal increases.
2. Oxygen is electronegative, it withdraws electron density developing more delta
positive on metal.
Thus metal attracts more electron density from O-H, making it acidic. Now as the
number of oxygen increases, acidity increases. You can now take some examples
and work on it.
Or:
Acid strength of the Oxo acids of chlorine increases in the order of:
HClO4> HClO3 > HClO2 > HClO
The acidic strength depends on the number of oxygen atoms in the acid molecule.
Since oxygen is more electronegative than chlorine, it pulls the bonding electrons
towards itself and this negative inductive effect is transmitted to the O-H bond
weakening it thus hydrogen ions are released in solution.
The greater the number of the oxygen atom, the greater the negative inductive effect
and the weaker the O-H bond and hence the stronger the acid. The lower the
number of the oxygen atom, the lesser the negative inductive effect and the stronger
the O-H bond and hence the weaker the acid.
Oxo acids of halogens
Fluorine does not form any Oxo acid since it is the strongest oxidizing agent. Chlorine,
bromine and iodine mainly form four series of Oxo acids namely hypohalous acid (HXO),
halous acid (HXO2) halic acid (HXO3) and perhalic acid (HXO4).
REACTIONS OF OXIDES OF CHLORINE WITH SODIUM HYDROXIDE
SOLUTION:
EQUATIONS:
Cl2O(g) + 2NaOH(aq) 2NaOCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Orange
2ClO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) NaClO2(aq) + NaClO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Yellow
Cl2O6(l) + 2NaOH(aq) NaClO3(aq) + NaClO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Red
Cl2O7(l) + 2NaOH(aq) 2NaClO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Colourless
TEST OR ANALYSIS OF CHLORIDE, BROMIDE AND IODIDE IONS:
i. Using concentrated sulphuric acid.
Procedure:
 To the unknown solid substance, add a little of concentrated sulphuric acid and
warm the mixture.
Observations:
 Evolution of a colourless gas, with a sharp smell, which forms dens white
fumes with ammonia gas shows the presence of chloride, Cl ion.
Note:
122
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Sulphuric acid displaces hydrogen chloride gas (the colourless gas) from chloride.
Equation:
Observations:
 Evolution of a brown gas (bromine) shows the presence of bromide ion.
Observations:
 Formation of a purple vapour (iodine vapour) shows the presence of an
iodide ion.
ii. Using dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate solution.
Procedure:
 To the solution of the unknown, add dilute nitric acid followed by silver nitrate
solution.
Observations:
 Formation of white precipitate indicates the presence of chloride, Cl- ion. The
precipitate dissolves in excess ammonia due to formation of complex ion.
Equation:
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
White precipitae
AgCl(s) + 2NH3(aq) Ag(NH3)2+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Observation:
 Formation of a cream precipitate (or pale yellow) indicates the presence of
bromide, Br- ion.
Equation:
Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) AgBr(s)
Pale yellow or Cream precipitate
Observation:
 Formation of a yellow precipitate indicates the presence of iodide ion, I- ion.
Equation:
Ag+(aq) + I-(aq) AgI(s)
Yellow precipitate
iii. Using concentrated sulphuric acid and manganese (IV) oxide.
Procedure:
 To the unknown solid sample, add manganese (IV) oxide followed by concentrated
sulphuric acid and warm the mixture.
Observations:
 Evolution of a greenish yellow gas that turns moist blue litmus paper red
shows the presence of chloride, Cl- ion.
Equation:
MnO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) Mn2+(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l)
 Evolution of brown fumes (reddish) shows the presence of bromide, Br- ion.
Equation:
MnO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2Br-(aq) Mn2+(aq) + Br2(g) + 2H2O(l)
 Evolution of a purple vapour (or dark solution) shows the presence of iodide,
I- ion.
123
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Equation:
MnO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2I-(aq) Mn2+(aq) + I2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Notes:
A mixture of manganese (IV) oxide and concentrated sulphuric acid are very
powerful oxidizing agent which oxidizes chloride, Cl- ,bromide, Br- ,& iodide, I- ions
to chlorine, bromide & iodine gases respectively.
iv. Using lead (II) ethanoate or lead (II) nitrate solution.
Procedure:
 To the solution of the unknown, add a few drops of lead (II) nitrate solution.
Observations:
 Formation of a white precipitate that dissolves on warming shows presence
of either chloride, Cl- or bromide, Br- ions.
Equations:
Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) PbCl2(s) White precipitate
Pb2+(aq) + 2Br-(aq) PbBr2(s)
 Note:
white precipitate of Bromide, Br- ion soluble in hot water.
 Formation of a yellow precipitate soluble on heating shows the presence of
iodide, I- ion.
Equation:
Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) PbI2(s)
Yellow precipitate
Note:
 Yellow precipitate dissolves in hot water to give a colourless solution.
v. Using chlorine water (or slightly acidified sodium hypochloride) and carbon
tetrachloride.
Procedure:
 To the solution of the unknown, add 1 to 2 drops of chlorine water followed by 3cm3
of carbon tetrachloride. Shake well and allow to settle.
Observations:
 A brown (or red) carbon tetrachloride layer shows the presence of bromide,
Br- ion.
Reason:
 This is because the reagent oxidizes bromide, Br- ion to bromine which is
dissolves in carbon tetrachloride layer turning to brown.
 A purple (or violet) carbon tetrachloride layer shows the presence of iodide,
I- ion.
Qn: Describe how the hydrides of group (VII) elements are prepared in the Laboratory.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE HYDROGEN HALIDES.

Compounds HF HCl HBr HI

B.E (KJ/Mol) 544 431 366 299
B.p.t (C) +19.9 -85.0 -67.0 -36.0

124
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 M.p.t (C) -8.31 -144.2 -56.9 -56.8

Acid strength (Ka) 5.6 X 10-4 1.0 X 107 1.0 X 109 1.0 X 1011
Explanations for the variations in the physical properties of the hydrogen halides
Boiling point

The boiling points increase with increase in molecular mass from HCl to HI.
The boiling points of molecular compounds depend on the strength of the intermolecular
forces of attraction between the molecules.
The stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules, the higher the
boiling point and the weaker the intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules,
the lower the boiling point.
HCl, HBr, and HI are simple molecules held by weak Van der Waals forces of attraction
whose magnitude increases with increase in molecular mass.
Thus as molecular mass increases from HCl to HI down the group, the strength of the Van
der Waals forces of attraction increases hence leading to an increase in boiling point from
HCl to HI.
However, HF has an extremely higher boiling point because its molecules associate through
hydrogen bonding. Fluorine atom is very small and highly electronegative. This causes a big
electron displacement in the hydrogen-fluorine (H-F) bond. Due to this, hydrogen fluoride
molecules associate through strong hydrogen bonding. These strong hydrogen bonds
require very high amounts of energy to be broken down hence a very high boiling point of
hydrogen fluoride.
Note. The boiling point of the hydrogen halides decrease in the order of HF>HI>Br>HCl
Bond energy
The bond energy of the hydrogen halides decreases down the group from HF to HI due to:
Increased atomic radius which increases the bond length and Decrease in electronegativity
down the group thus the bonds become less polar.
Down the group, as electronegativity of the halogens decreases from fluorine to iodine, the
strength of the hydrogen-halide (H-X) bond decreases.
125
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
Fluorine atom being very small and highly electronegative, it greatly polarizes the H-F bond
thus hydrogen fluoride molecules associate through very strong hydrogen bonds which are
extremely hard to break leading to the highest bond energy and thermal stability of the HF
molecule.
Iodine atom being the biggest and least electronegative, the hydrogen-iodide (H-I) bond is
the weakest thus the easiest to break leading to the lowest bond energy and thermal
stability of the HI molecule.
3. Acid Strength (Ka)
The acid strength of group (VII) hydrides increase in the order of HF<HCl<HBr< HI i.e. it
increases from HF to HI down the group.
The acid strength depends on the degree of dissociation of the acid thus the concentration
of the hydrogen ion in aqueous solution. I.e. it depends on the ease with which a hydrogen
ion is lost into solution which primarily depends on the strength of the hydrogen-halide
(H-X) bond.
As electronegativity decreases down the group due to increase in atomic radius, the
strength of the H-X bond decreases is in the order HF> HCl> HBr> HI
The weaker the H-X bond, the more easily the proton is lost and the stronger the acid is; the
stronger the H-X bond, the least easily the proton is lost and the weaker the acid is.
Thus in HF, the H-F bond is not easily broken hence it does not easily release a proton in
aqueous solution hence it is the weakest acid. The H-I bond is the weakest bond therefore
in aqueous solution it easily release a proton hence making HI the strongest acid among
halogen acids.
Note.
HF slightly ionizes in dilute solution as:

HF (aq) H+ (aq) + F- (aq)

N.B. When concentrated, HF is a weaker acid than in dilute solution due to hydrogen
bonding which reduces the concentration of hydrogen ions. I.e.

2HF (aq) H+ (aq) + HF2- (aq)

Question: Hydrogen fluoride has a higher boiling point and it is a weaker acid than hydrogen
chloride. Explain. (10 marks)
Fluorine atom is smaller and highly electronegative than chlorine atom. This causes a big
electron displacement in the hydrogen-fluorine (H-F) bond. Due to this, hydrogen fluoride
molecules associate through strong hydrogen bonding while hydrogen chloride molecules
are held by weak Van der Waals forces of attraction.
Therefore to break down the strong hydrogen bonds in hydrogen fluoride molecules
requires very high amounts of energy than breaking down the weak Van der Waals forces
of attraction in hydrogen chloride hence a very high boiling point of hydrogen fluoride than
hydrogen chloride. HF is a weaker acid than HCl. The acid strength of the hydrogen halides
depends on the strength of the H-X bond. It thus follows that that the stronger the H-X
bond, the weaker the acid and the weaker the H-X bond the stronger the acid. Fluorine
atom being smaller and highly electronegative than chlorine atom, the H-F bond is stronger

126
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
than the H-Cl bond. Thus, in HF, the H-F bond is not easily broken hence it does not easily
release a proton in aqueous solution hence it is a weaker acid compared to HCl.
Question: State two factors which affect the acid strength of the hydrogen halides down the
group
(i) The bond energy of the H-X bond; down the group the bond strength of the H-X bond
decreases and therefore, the tendency to form H+ ions increases.
(ii) Electronegativity of the halogens; as electronegativity of the halogens decreases down
the group due to increase in atomic radius, the strength of the H-X bond decreases is in the
order HF> HCl> HBr> HI.
PERIOD 3 ELEMENTS:
The period runs from sodium to Argon. The table below shows some physical parameters
of the elements involved.
Elements Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
M.pt.(C) 98 651 660 1410 44 114 -101 -189
Electronegativity 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0

Ionization 502 745 587 792 1020 1000 1260 1530

energy
Atomic radius 1.57 1.36 1.28 1.17 1.10 1.04 0.99

Electron Affinity 2.0 -6.7 3.0 13.5 6.0 20.0 36.4

+1, +3, -
Oxidation states +1 +2 +3 +4 +3, +5 -2, +4, +6,
1, +5, +7

Structure Close packed Giant Discrete molecular structure

molecular
Chlorides NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4 PCl3,PCl5 S2Cl2,SCl2 Cl2

B.pt.(C) 1465 1418 423 57 74,164 138 -35

Bonds Ionic Covalent

Structure Giant ionic Simple molecular structure

Oxides Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO2,SO3 Cl2O,

Na2O2 Cl2O7

127
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Bonds Ionic Covalent

Nature Basic Amphoteric Acidic

Structure Giant ionic Giant simple molecular

molecular
Hydrides NaH MgH2 AlH3 SiH4 PH3 H2S HCl

Bonds & Ionic bonds & Giant ionic Covalent bonds & Simple molecular structures
structures structures
 The changing properties across a period 3 elements are related to the change in the
nuclear charge and size of the atoms with the increasing number of outer-shell
electrons.
 The major properties which change across a period are:
 Redox properties.  Acid-base properties.
 Structure and bonding.
 Solubility and complexing properties.
 The third period starts with sodium in Group (I) and continues through magnesium,
aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and ends with argon in Group (0)
of the periodic table.
 Sodium, magnesium, & aluminium adopt metallic bonding with strong force of
attraction between the cation and the delocalized mobile electron.
 The strength of the metallic bonds depends on the number of electron each atom
contribute to the electron cloud.
 Silicon is a metalloid which has a giant molecular structure with strong covalent
bonds between the atoms of the silicon.
 Phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and argon are non-metals which consist of discrete
molecules of S8, P4, Cl2 and Ar. Vander Waal’s forces of attraction hold the molecules
together. The strength or magnitude of Van der Waal forces depends on the
molecular size or molecular mass.
GENERAL PROPERTIES:
A. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PERIOD THREE ELEMENTS:
(a) Standard electrode potential (V).

128
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Very weak reducing agent Powerful oxidzing agent

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
- - - - +
2.71 2.37 1.66 - - 0.48 1.36

Powerful reducing agents Weak reducing agents and weak oxidizing agents
Melting & boiling points, Electronegativity, Electronaffinity, Atomic radius,
Electroposititivity & Ionization energy explanation refers to the properties of
periodic table in the introduction part of the inorganic chemistry.
B. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PERIOD THREE ELEMENTS:
(a) Reaction with air (oxygen gas).
Vigour or reaction with oxygen gas.
React slowly Do not react

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

React vigorously React vigorously

 Sodium burn in limited supply of air (oxygen) gas readily with a bright,
golden yellow flame to form normal oxide of sodium monoxide.
Equation:

 Sodium also burn in excess supply of air (oxygen) gas readily with a bright,
golden yellow flame to form a pale solid of sodium peroxide a temperature of
about 600K.
Equation:

 Magnesium burns with a brilliant bluish-white flame in air when heated

forming oxides which are white in colour.
Equations:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
3Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(s) White solid
 When heated in air, Powdered Aluminium burns to form a white oxide and a
smaller amount of nitride.
Equations:
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) 2Al2O3(s)
2Al(s) + N2(g) 2AlN(s)

129
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  Amorphous Silicon burns readily in oxygen at red-heat, but, in air, oxidizes.
Silicon dioxide is produced.
Equation:

 White phosphorus catches fire spontaneously in air, burning with a white

flame and producing clouds of white smoke-a mixture of phosphorus (III)
oxide and phosphorus (V) oxide.
Equations:
P4(s) + 3O2(g) P4O6(s) Phosphorus (III) oxide
P4(s) + 5O2(g) P4O10(s) Phosphorus (V) oxide
Notes:
The proportions of these depend on the amount of oxygen gas available. In an
excess of oxygen gas, the product will be almost entirely phosphorus (V)
oxide.
 Sulphur burns in air (oxygen gas) on gentle heating with a pale blue flame.it
produces colourless sulphur dioxide gas.
Equation:
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
 Traces of sulphur trioxide gas is also formed, which gives a misty appearance
to the gas.
Equation:
V2O5 Catalyst
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
Note:
The sulphur trioxide gas formed is by combination of sulphur dioxide gas
formed with oxygen gas in the presence of Vanadium (V) oxide as a catalyst.
 Both Chlorine and Argon DONOT react with air in any condition.
(b) Reaction with hydrogen gas.
 Sodium reacts with heated dry hydrogen gas to form a white solid of sodium
hydride.
Equation:

 Magnesium reacts with heated dry hydrogen gas to form a white solid of
magnesium hydride at a temperature of about 350C.
Equation:
Mg(s) + H2(g) MgH2(s)
 Aluminium, Silicon and Phosphorous DO NOT react with hydrogen gas.
 Sulphur combined directly with hydrogen gas to form hydrogen sulphide.
Equation:
S(s) + H2(g) H2S(g)
 Chlorine combined directly with hydrogen gas in the presence of activated
charcoal with absorption of hydrogen chloride in water.
Equation:

130
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Cl2(g) + H2(g) 2HCl(g)
(c) Reaction with chlorine gas.
 The chlorides of both sodium and magnesium are formed by heating the
metal in air until it burns, and lowering it in to the vessel containing chlorine
gas.
Both sodium and magnesium continues to burn in chlorine gas to form a
white products coating the walls of the reaction vessel.
Equations:
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
White solid
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2(s)
 A stream of dry chlorine (or hydrogen chloride) gas is passed over heated
aluminium. It sublimes at a temperature of about 456K and exist as
Al2Cl6.and aluminium chloride condenses as a white powder.
Equation:
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) Al2Cl6(s)
White powder

Note:
The structure of Al2Cl6.This anhydrous form of results from AlCl3 molecules
forming dimers: Chlorine atom donate lone pairs of electrons in to the vacant
orbital in the valence shell not the aluminium atoms.
 Amorphous silicon ignites spontaneously in chlorine to form a colourless
liquid of silicon tetrachloride.
It can also be prepared by heating a mixture of silicon (IV) oxide and carbon
in a dry current of chlorine gas.
Equations:
Si(s) + 2Cl2(g) SiCl4(l)
Colourless liquid
SiO2(s) + 2C(s) + 2Cl2(g) SiCl4(g) + 2CO(g)
 Heating phosphorus in excess chlorine gas forms phosphorus pentachloride,
excess phosphorus forms trichloride.
Equations:
P4(s) + 10Cl2(g) 4PCl5(s) Excess Cl2
P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) 4PCl3(l) Excess P4
Note:
Phosphorus pentachloride and trichloride is a liquid at room temperature
and 1 bar.
 Sulphur combined directly with dry chlorine gas when heated to form a red
liquid of disulphur dichloride.
Equation:

131
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 2S(s) + Cl2(g) S2Cl2(l)
Red liquid
(d) Reaction with water (steam).
 Sodium reacts with cold water vigorously to form sodium hydroxide solution
and hydrogen gas.
Equation:
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Note:
A lot of heat is liberated, the heat causes sodium to melt but doesn’t burn in
flame. The resultant solution is alkaline when tested.
 Magnesium hardly reacts with cold water but instead burns brilliantly in
steam to form magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas.
Equation:
Mg(s) + H2O(l) MgO(s) + H2(g)
White solid
 Aluminium DOES NOT react with water because of the formation of a
protective layer of the oxide which prevents the reaction.
 Silicon reacts with steam when heated strongly to form silicon (IV) oxide and
hydrogen gas is also liberated.
Equation:
Si(s) + 2H2O(g) SiO2(s) + 2H2(g)
 Red phosphorus is insoluble in water while white phosphorus is soluble but
does not react with water, meaning that red phosphorus reacts with water
when vaporized to form phosphorus (III) oxide and hydrogen gas.
Equation:
4P(s) + 6H2O(l) P4O6(s) + 6H2(g)
 Sulphur does not reacts with water.
 Chlorine gas reacts with cold water to form chloric (I) and hydrochloric acid.
Equation:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HOCl(aq) + HCl(aq)
(e) Reaction with alkalis (sodium hydroxide solution).
 Both sodium and magnesium DO NOT reacts with alkalis because they are
basic and electropositive.
 Aluminium is amphoteric and reacts with concentrated sodium hydroxide
solution to form sodium tetrahydroxo aluminate (III) and hydrogen gas.
Equation:
2Al(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 6H2O(l) 2Al(OH)4-(aq) + 3H2(g)
 Silicon reacts with hot concentrated sodium hydroxide solution to form
sodium silicate and hydrogen gas.
Equation:
Si(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) SiO32-(aq) + 2H2(g)
- 2-
Si(s) + 2OH (aq) + 4H2O(l) Si(OH)6 (aq) + 2H2(g)

132
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  Phosphorus reacts with hot concentrated sodium hydroxide solution to form
sodium hypophosphate and phosphine gas.
Equation:
P4(s) + 3OH-(aq) + 3H2O(l) 3NaH2PO2(s) + PH3(g)
 Sulphur reacts slowly with hot concentrated sodium hydroxide solution to
form sodium sulphite, sodium sulphide and water.
Equation:
3S(s) + 6OH-(aq) SO32-(aq) + 2S2-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Note:
 However, with excess sulphur, sodium thiosulphate is formed instead of
sodium sulphite.
Equation:
4S(s) + 6OH-(aq) S2O32-(aq) + 2S2-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
 Chlorine gas react with cold concentrated sodium hydroxide solution to
form sodium chloride, sodium chlorate (I) and water.
Equation:
Cl2(g) + 2OH-(aq) Cl-(aq) + OCl-(aq) + H2O(l)
 Chlorine gas also reacts with hot concentrated sodium hydroxide solution
to form sodium chloride, sodium chlorate (V) and water.
Equation:
3Cl2(g) + 6OH-(aq) ClO3-(aq) + 5Cl-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(f) Reaction with acids.
(i) Dilute mineral acid (Dilute non-oxidizing acids).
 Sodium reacts with both dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acid to
form hydrogen gas, chloride, Cl- and sulphate, SO42- ions respectively.
Equations:
2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
2Na(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2(g)
 Magnesium reaction with both dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acid
to form salts and hydrogen gas.
Equation:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2SO4(s) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
 Aluminium reacts rapidly with hot dilute hydrochloric acid BUT do
not reacts with dilute sulphuric acid perhaps because of the
insolubility of the oxide layer in the acid.
Equation:
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
 Silicon, phosphorus, sulphur do not reacts with any dilute mineral
acids BUT silicon is attacked ONLY by hydrofluoric acid.
Equation:
Si(s) + 6HF(l) H2SiF6(l) + 2H2(g)
Reason:
133
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Silicon, Phosphorus & Chlorine DONOT reacts with acid because they
are acidic in nature.
Golden tips:
 Nitric acid is an oxidizing acid so Magnesium is the ONLY metal that
reacts with dilute nitric acid the rest of the period members DONOT
reacts with oxidizing nitric acid.
Equation:
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
(ii) Concentrated mineral acid.
 Magnesium reacts with hot concentrated nitric acid while oxidizes
metals to nitrates and is itself reduced to nitrogen monoxide (or
nitrogen dioxide gas).
Equation:


3Mg(s) + 8HNO3(aq) 3Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 2NO(g)
Magnesium also reacts with hot concentrated sulphuric acid to yields
sulphur dioxide gas and other useful products.
Equation:
Mg(s) + 2H2SO4(l) MgSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)
 Aluminium reacts with hot concentrated sulphuric acid to form
sulphate, SO42- ion, water and sulphur dioxide gas.
Equation:


2Al(s) + 6H2SO4(l) Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 6H2O(l) + 3SO2(g)
Sulphur is oxidized by both hot concentrated sulphuric and nitric acid
to useful products.
Equations:
S(s) + 2H2SO4(l) 2H2O(l) + 3SO2(g)
S(s) + 6HNO3(aq) H2SO4(l) + 6NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
 Phosphorus is oxidized by hot concentrated nitric acid to useful
products and is itself reduced to nitrogen dioxide gas.
P4(s) + 20HNO3(Conc.aq) 4H3PO4(l) + 4H2O(l) + 20NO2(g)
P(s) + 5HNO3(Conc.aq) H3PO4(aq) + H2O(l) + 5NO2(g)

PREPARATIONS OF COMPOUNDS OF PERIOD (III) ELEMENTS:

A. PREPARATION OF PERIOD (III) OXIDES.
 Sodium oxide (sodium monoxide) is prepared by heating sodium in limited
supply of air (oxygen gas).
Equation:
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
White solid
 Sodium peroxide is manufactured by heating sodium metal in excess supply of
air (oxygen gas) at a temperature of about 600K.
Equation:
2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s)
Yellow solid

134
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  Magnesium oxide is prepared by burning either magnesium metal in air (oxygen
gas) or by decomposition of either magnesium carbonate or nitrate.
Equations:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
MgCO3(s) MgO(s) + CO2(g)
2Mg(NO3)2(s) 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
 Aluminium (III) oxide is prepared by burning aluminium metal in excess supply
of air (oxygen gas) or thermal decomposition of either aluminium (III) nitrate or
hydroxide by heat.
Equations:
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) 2Al2O3(s)
4Al(NO3)3(s) 2Al2O3(s) + 12NO2(g) + 3O2(g)
2Al(OH)3(s) Al2O3(s) + 3H2O(l)
 Silicon (IV) oxide is prepared by burning silicon in oxygen gas (air).
Equation:
Si(s) + O2(g) SiO2(s)
 Silicon (IV) oxide is also prepared by burning silicon over steam at red heat.
Equation:
Si(s) + 2H2O(l) SiO2(g) + 2H2(g)
 Silicon (IV) oxide is prepared by burning silane over air (oxygen gas).
Equation:
SiH4(g) + O2(g) SiO2(s) + 2H2O(g)
 Phosphorus (III) oxide is prepared by burning phosphorus in limited supply in
air (oxygen gas).
Equation:
4P(s) + 3O2(g) 2P2O3(s)
 Phosphorus (V) oxide is prepared by burning phosphorus in excess supply in air
(oxygen gas).
Equation:
4P(s) + 5O2(g) 2P2O5(s)
 Phosphorus (V) oxide is prepared by burning phosphine in air (oxygen gas).
Equation:
4PH3(g) + 8O2(g) P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l)
 Phosphorus (V) oxide is prepared by burning calcium phosphate (V) and silica at
a higher temperature.
Equation:
2Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 3SiO2(s) 6CaSiO3(l) + P4O10(g)
 Sulphur dioxide gas is prepared by burning sulphur in limited supply of air
(oxygen gas).
Equation:
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
S(s) + 2H2SO4(Conc. l) 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)

135
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  Sulphur trioxide gas is prepared by burning sulphur in excess supply of air
(oxygen gas).
Equation:
2S(s) + 6O2(g) 2SO3(g)
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
 Dichlorine oxide is prepared by burning chlorine gas in limited supply oxygen
gas.
Equation;
2Cl2(g) + O2(g) 2Cl2O(g)
B. PREPARATION OF PERIOD (III) HYDRIDES.
 Sodium hydride is a white crystalline solid prepared by heating sodium in a stream
of dry hydrogen gas.
Equation:
2Na(s) + H2(g) 2NaH(s)
 Aluminium hydride is a white solid precipitated when lithium hydride is treated
with excess aluminium chloride in a solution of ether.
Equation:
3LiH(s) + AlCl3(s) AlH3(s) + 3LiCl(s)
 Silane is obtained by fractional distillation from a mixture of silicon hydrides formed
when magnesium silicide is treated with hydrochloric acid.
Equation:
Mg2Si(s) + 4HCl(aq) 2MgCl2(s) + SiH4(g)
 However, a more convenient way of preparing silane is by reduction of silicon
tetrachloride with lithium aluminium hydride.
Equation:
SiCl4(l) + LiAlH4(s) SiH4(g) + LiCl(s) + AlCl3(s)
 Phosphorus trihydride (phosphine) is prepared by heating concentrated sodium
hydroxide solution with white phosphorus.
Equation:
P4(s) + 3OH-(aq) + 3H2O(l) 3H2PO2-(aq) + PH3(g)
 Hydrogen sulphide gas is prepared by action of dilute hydrochloric acid on iron (II)
sulphide.
Equation:
FeS(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl2(aq) + H2S(g)
 Hydrogen chloride gas is prepared by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on
sodium chloride.
Equation:
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(Conc.l) NaHSO4(s) + HCl(g)
C. PREPARATION OF PERIOD (III) CHLORIDES.
 Sodium chloride is prepared by neutralization method involving sodium hydroxide
and hydrochloric acid.NaCl is an ionic chloride. This is a very vigorous reaction.

136
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Equations:
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
 Magnesium chloride is prepared by reacting its carbonate, oxide or hydroxide with
dilute hydrochloric acid.MgCl2 is also an ionic chloride. Vigorous reaction when the
elements are heated.
Equations:
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2(s)
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(g) MgCl2(s) + H2(g)
 Aluminium (III) chloride is a white solid prepared by passing dry chlorine gas (or
hydrogen chloride gas) over the heated aluminium. It sublimes at 456K and at
temperature above 456K, it exists as Al2Cl6.
Equation:
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) Al2Cl6(s)
 Aluminium (III) chloride is prepared by heating aluminium metal in either dry
chlorine or hydrogen chloride gas.
Equation:
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2AlCl3(s)
2Al(s) + 6HCl(g) 2AlCl3(s) + 3H2(g)
Note:
 Anhydrous magnesium chloride is prepared by direct synthesis since any attempt to
obtain it from the hydrated magnesium chloride or by evaporation of its aqueous
solution to yields a basic chloride due to hydrolysis.
 Silicon (IV) chloride is prepared by directly combination of dry chlorine gas with
silicon.
Equations:
Si(s) + 2Cl2(g) SiCl4(l)
SiO2(s) + 2C(s) + 2Cl2(g) SiCl4(g) + 2CO(g)
Notes:
Silicon (IV) chloride is conveniently prepared by heating a mixture of silicon (IV)
oxide and carbon in a dry current of chlorine gas.
 Sulphur dichloride or disulphur dichloride combined directly to form chlorides
Sulphur dichloride reacts with chlorine gas at OC and dry chlorine gas is passed
over molten sulphur to form disulphur dichloride.
Equations:
S2Cl2(l) + Cl2(g) 2SCl2(l)
2S(s) + Cl2(g) S2Cl2(l)
 Chlorine gas is prepared by heating lead (IV) oxide with concentrated hydrochloric
acid.
Equation:
PbO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) PbCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
 Phosphorus trichloride is a colourless liquid prepared by passing dry chlorine gas
over heated white phosphorus.

137
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Equation:
P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) 4PCl3(l)
 Phosphorus pentachloride is prepared by passing excess dry chlorine gas over
phosphorus.
Equation:
2P(s) + 5Cl2(g) 2PCl5(s)
Physical properties of chlorides:
NaCl and MgCl2 are ionic chlorides. Since a large amount of energy is required to separate
the ions, the melting point is high.
AlCl3 and SiCl4 are molecular covalent chlorides, and so only intermolecular forces exist
between the molecules. The melting points are thus much lower than the ionic chlorides.
AlCl3 actually exists in polymeric form in the solid state, which is converted to a dimeric
form in the gas phase. This is because the aluminium atom is electron deficient – it has only
3 of its four valence orbitals occupied, so it has an empty orbital with which it can accept a
lone pair of electrons from a Cl atom on an adjacent monomer. At high temperatures, it
reverts to a simple molecular structure.
PCl5 is ionic so its melting point is thus high. On heating, however, it reverts to a simple
covalent structure and sublimes.
D. PREPARATION OF PERIOD (III) HYDROXIDES.
(ATTENTION BOYS ‘READ ABOUT PREAPARATION OF HYDROXIDE’)
COMPOUNDS OF PERIOD (III):
Period (III) elements forms several compounds including:
A. Oxides.
BONDING AND STRUCTURES OF PERIOD (III) OXIDES:
Sodium, Magnesium & Aluminium oxides forms giant ionic structures hence forming
ionic bonds, Ionic character of these oxides decreases with increasing charge
density of the cation. Silicon (IV) oxide forms a giant covalent structure.
The rest of the oxides form simple molecular structures.
MELTING POINTS OF PERIOD (III) OXIDES:
Sodium, Magnesium & Aluminium oxides have giant ionic structures hence form
ionic bonds.
They have high melting and boiling points. The melting points increases from
sodium via magnesium to aluminium (III) oxides. This is because ionic radius
decreases from sodium to aluminium ions and the charges on the cations increases
from Na+ to Al3+.
The oppositely charged ions approach each other closely in Al2O3 and strongly
attracts themselves because of the high charge on Al3+ hence stronger ionic bond in
Al2O3 and high melting and boiling point.
Silicon dioxide has a giant molecular structure with three dimensional network of
covalent bonds. It has high melting point because of the strong bonding structure.
P2O3, P2O5, SO2, SO3, Cl2O, Cl2O7, These consist of small discrete molecules with
simple molecular structure. They have low melting and boiling point because of the
weak Van der Waal’s forces of attraction holding the molecules.
Or:

138
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 The melting point increases from sodium via magnesium to aluminium oxide then
reducing up to dichlorine heptoxide.
Sodium, magnesium and aluminium oxides have giant ionic structures. The ions are
held together by strong ionic bonds.
The melting point increases from sodium oxide to magnesium oxide due to increase
in charge density of the cation, from magnesium oxide to aluminium oxide it
decreases due to very high charge density of aluminium ion which makes aluminium
oxide partly covalent (less ionic).
Silicon dioxide has a giant covalent structure. Its atoms are held by strong covalent
bonds, the rest of the oxides have simple molecular structures.
Molecules are held by weak Van der Waal’s forces of attraction whose strength
decreases with decrease in polarity of the molecules as a result of decrease in
difference of electronegativity of the bonding atoms.
REACTIONS OF PERIOD (III) OXIDES WITH:
1) Water.
 Sodium oxide is a white solid that reacts with water to give strongly (or violent)
basic aqueous sodium hydroxide solution.
Equation:
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
 Magnesium oxide is a white powder which is only slightly (sparingly) soluble in
water to form weak basic aqueous solution.
Equation:
MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(s)
 Aluminium (III) oxide is a white solid and DONOT react with water because it is
very insoluble in water.
 Silicon (IV) oxide is highly insoluble in water and DONOT react with water except
under high temperature.
Equation:
Heat
SiO2(s) + H2O(l) H2SiO3(aq)
 Phosphorus (V) and phosphorus (III) oxide reacts with water to form aqueous
solution.
Equations:
P4O10 Or 2P2O5(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO4(aq)
P2O3(s) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO4(aq)
 Sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide gas reacts with water to form an acidic
solution because of its moderate solubility in water.
Equations:
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)
Note:
Sulphur trioxide gas reacts violently with a hissing sound and much heat is
evolved.
 Dichlorine oxide (chlorine monoxide) reacts (dissolves) with water to form
aqueous hypochlorous acid.
139
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Equation:
Cl2O(g) + H2O(l) 2HOCl(aq)
 Chlorine dioxide reacts with water to form mixed acidic anhydride of chloric (III)
and chloric (V) acid (chloric acid).
Equation:
2ClO2(g) + H2O(l) HClO3(aq) + HClO2(aq)
 Dichlorine heptoxide reacts with water to form aqueous perchloric acid.
Equation:
Cl2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2HClO4(l)
2) Alkalis (i.e. sodium hydroxide solution).
 Sodium and magnesium oxides are basic in nature and therefore DONOT reacts
with alkalis in any condition.
 Aluminium (III) oxide reacts with concentrated alkalis to form a complex salts
(aluminate).
Equation:
Al2O3(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 3H2O(l) 2Al(OH)4-(aq)
 Silicon (IV) oxide reacts with concentrated alkalis to form silicate (complex salts).
Equation:
SiO2(s) + 2OH-(aq) SiO32-(aq) + H2O(l)
 The rest of the peroxide (III) oxide’s members reacts with alkalis to form salts
and water.
Equations:
P2O5(s) + 4NaOH(aq) 2Na2HPO4(aq) + H2O(l)
P4O6(s) + 8NaOH(aq) 4Na2HPO3(aq) + 2H2O(l)
SO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Cl2O7(l) + 2NaOH(aq) 2NaClO4(aq) + H2O(l)
3) Acids.
 Sodium, magnesium & aluminium oxides reacts with dilute mineral acids to form
their respective salts and water.
Equations:
Na2O(s) + 2H+(aq) 2Na2+(aq) + H2O(l)
MgO(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2O(l)
Al2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
 Silicon (IV) oxide doesn’t reacts with any mineral acids except hydrofluoric acid.
Equation:
SiO2(s) + 4HF(l) SiF4(g) + 2H2O(l)
 And the rest of the remaining period (III) oxides DONOT reacts with any mineral
acids.
B. Hydrides.
Bonding and structures:
Sodium is highly electropositive and the hydride is ionic while those of magnesium
and aluminium are ionic too but moving towards the rest of the other remaining
140
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 period (III) elements which are predominantly covalent hence the covalent
character attribute to the small ionic radius and high charge density of the cations.
And the other members of the period (III) hydrides are covalent and simple
molecular held by weak Van der Waal’s forces of attraction hence the acidity of the
hydrides increases across the period from left to right.
REACTIONS OF PERIOD (III) HYDRIDES WITH:
1) Water.
 Sodium, magnesium & aluminium hydrides reacts with cold water to form
aqueous sodium hydroxide (alkaline) solution and hydrogen gas.
Equations:
NaH(s) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
MgH2(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2H2(g)
AlH3(s) + 3H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s) + 3H2(g)
Notes:
The reaction indicates that the hydroxyl, OH-, ions are being removed from
solution, so the solution becomes less basic from sodium hydride to aluminium
hydride via magnesium hydride but the acidity increases.
 Silane is hydrolysed by cold water to form silicon (IV) oxide and hydrogen gas.
Equation:
SiH4(g) + 2H2O(l) SiO2(s) + 4H2(g)
 Silane is also hydrolysed by cold water in presence of an alkali to form sodium
silicate and hydrogen gas.
Equation:
SiH4(g) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) SiO32-(aq) + 4H2(g)
 Phosphine DONOT reacts with water because it’s almost insoluble in water and it
is non-polar since both P and H have almost equal electronegativity values.
 Hydrogen sulphide and hydrogen chloride gas does not hydrolysed in water but
instead ionizes to form acidic solution.
Equations:
H2S(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HS2-(aq)
H2S(g) + 2H2O(l) 2H3O+(aq) + S2-(aq)
HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
2) Alkalis.
 Silane is hydrolysed by water in the presence of an alkalis to form silicate and
hydrogen gas.
Equation:
SiH4(g) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) SiO32-(aq) + 4H2(g)
 Hydrogen sulphide reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to form sodium
hydrogen sulphide and water.
Equation:
H2S(g) + NaOH(aq) NaHS(aq) + H2O(l)
H2S(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2S(aq) + 2H2O(l)

141
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  Aqueous hydrogen chloride reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to form
sodium chloride solution and water.
Equation:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
3) Acids
 Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces both concentrated sulphuric and nitric acid to
very useful products.
Equations:
H2S(g) + 2HNO3(Conc.aq) S(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2NO2(g)
H2S(g) + 8HNO3(Conc.aq) H2SO4(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 8NO2(g)
3H2S(g) + H2SO4(Conc.l) 3S(s) + 4H2O(l)
H2S(g) + H2SO4(Conc.l) S(s) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)
C. Chlorides.
BONDING AND STRUCTURES OF PERIOD (III) CHLORIDES:
Electropositive metals form mainly ionic compounds but the degree of ionic
character reduces as electropositivity decreases across the period. Magnesium and
aluminium chlorides are ionic with some considerable degree of covalent character.
The rest of the chlorides on the right are covalent through the bonds possess some
polarity. Bond type and structure have a big consequence on melting point of the
chlorides.
MELTING POINTS OF PERIOD (III) CHLORIDES:
 Sodium and magnesium chloride have giant ionic structures with strong
electrostatic force of attraction between the appositively charged ions, hence
they have high melting and boiling points.
 Melting and boiling points decreases from sodium to aluminium chlorides.
This is because the ionic radius of the cations decreases from sodium, Na+ to
aluminium, Al3+ ion. The charge on the cations increases for sodium, Na+ to
aluminium, Al3+ ions. This results in aluminium, Al3+ ion having the greatest
polarizing power.
Table:
Ions Ionic radius Charge Polarizing power
Na + 0.095 1 1
=10.5
0.095
Mg2+ 0.065 2 2
=30.7
0.065
Al3+ 0.050 3 3
=60.0
0.050
 Aluminium, Al3+ ion greatly polarizes the chloride, Cl- ion than both
magnesium, Mg2+ and sodium, Na+ ions. Aluminium (III) chloride is more
covalent than both magnesium and sodium chlorides hence low melting
points.
 The other chlorides of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine adopt
simple molecular structures with weak Van der Waal’s forces of attraction
holding them hence low melting and boiling points.
Or:

142
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  Melting point of chlorides generally decreases as the period is traversed from
left to right.
 Sodium and magnesium chlorides form giant ionic lattices though the degree
of ionic character decreases with increase in charge density in the same
direction. Therefore, magnesium chloride has a lower melting point than
sodium chloride.
 Aluminium, Al3+ ion have a very high charge density which induces a very
high covalent character in aluminium (III) chloride hence low melting point.
 Silicon tetrachloride is covalent consisting of molecules held by weak Van der
Wall’s forces of attraction holding them hence low melting point.
 Phosphorus trichloride is also simple molecular hence low melting points
 Phosphorus pentachloride has abnormal high melting point because at
ordinary temperature it’s known to consist of PCl4- and PCl6- ions though in
vapour state it consists of PCl5 molecules.
 It is this ionic character that is responsible for its abnormally high melting
points.
 The chlorides of sulphur are simple molecular held by weak Van der Waal’s
forces of attraction. Magnitude of the Van der Waals force decrease with
decreasing molecular mass.
REACTIONS OF PERIOD (III) CHLORIDES WITH:
1) Water
 Sodium chloride and Magnesium chloride dissociate to form neutral aqueous
solution since they are ionic and a lot of energy is required to separate it.
The chlorides of sodium and magnesium are predominantly ionic and are white
solid with high melting points, which dissolves in water.
Note:
Meaning that purely ionic chlorides do not react with water but instead dissolves
in water to form ions
Equations:
H2O(l)
NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
MgCl2(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
 However magnesium chloride dissociates in cold water and the resultant
solution is slightly acidic because it undergoes hydrolysis due to higher charge
density on magnesium, Mg2+ ion.
Note:
Magnesium chloride undergo partial hydrolysis in cold water to form a basic
chloride.
Equations:
MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)Cl(s) or MgCl(OH)(s) + HCl(aq)
However, if heated magnesium chloride undergo hydrolysis to form magnesium
oxide which is a white solid.
Equation:
MgCl2(s) + H2O(l) MgO(s) + 2HCl(g)
Golden tips:

143
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 All the other chlorides of (III) elements have significantly covalent character and
reacts with water. These reactions called Hydrolysis reactions.
 Anhydrous aluminium (III) chloride undergoes hydrolysis liberating hydrogen
chloride gas.
Equation:
AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(g)
Golden tip:
Aluminium (III) chloride fumes in moist air by hydrolysis liberating hydrogen
chloride gas and this explains why its solution is acidic.
 Hydrated aluminium (III) chloride dissolves in water to form an acidic solution.
Equation:


Al(H2O)63+(aq) + 6H2O(l) [Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) or [Al(H2O)5(OH)]2+(aq) + H3O+(aq)
The chlorides of silicon, phosphorus, disulphur dichloride and chlorine gas are
predominantly covalent. They all reacts with water (are hydrolysed) rather
than simply dissolving in water, hence fume in air to form acidic solutions.
 Equations:
SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) SiO2(s) + 4HCl(g)
PCl3(l) + 3H2O(l) H3PO3(s) + 3HCl(g)
PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) H3PO3(aq) + 5HCl(g)
2S2Cl(l) + 2H2O(l) 3S(s) + 4HCl(g) + SO2(g)
2S2Cl(l) +3H2O(l) 3S(s) + H2SO4(aq) + 4HCl(g)
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HOCl(aq) + HCl(aq)
2) Acids.
 Sodium chloride reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid to yields hydrogen
chloride gas.
Equation:
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) NaHSO4(s) + HCl(g)
 Chlorides of phosphorus reacts with carboxylic acids to yield corresponding acyl
chlorides.
Equations:
CH3COOH(l) + PCl5(s) CH3COCl(l) + POCl3(l) + HCl(g)
3CH3COOH(l) + PCl3(l) 3CH3COCl(l) + H3PO4(s)
D. Hydroxides.
Basing on the normal valency of the elements, we would expect the following
hydroxides:
Elements Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Valency 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Expected NaOH Mg(OH)2 Al(OH)3 Si(OH)4 P(OH)5 S(OH)6 Cl(OH)7
hydroxide
Hydroxide ‘’ ‘’ ‘’ H2SiO3 H3PO4 H2SO4 HClO4
formed
Character Strong Weak amphoteric Weak acid Strong acid
Base base
Expected hydroxide Water molecule (s) lost Hydroxide formed

144
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 Si(OH)4 -H2O H2SiO3
P(OH)5 -H2O H3PO4
S(OH)6 -2H2O H2SO4
Cl(OH)7 -3H2O HClO4
Explanation:
However, hydroxides of non-metals splits off (lose) water molecules hence forming
hydroxides shown above. The hydroxides of these non-metals are acidic.
Acid-base character of the hydroxides:
For metallic hydroxides, basic strength increase with increase in ease of loss of the
hydroxyl group in form of OH- ions. The less electronegative the metal, the weaker is
the M-OH bond and consequently the stronger is base.
Electronegativity of the metal atoms increases in the order NaMgAl hence basic
strength reduces in the order of NaOHMg(OH)2 Al(OH)3.
The non-metallic hydroxides (known as oxy-acids) are acidic. Their acidic strength
increases with increase in the ease of loss of a proton.
The acidic strength increases in the order of: H2SiO3 H3PO4 H2SO4 HClO4. This
trend can be explained by considering the structures of the acids (not drawn to
scale) below.
Oxygen atoms attached to the central atom withdraw electrons from the central
atom which in turn withdraws electrons from hydroxyl groups bonded to it, this
increases the partial positive charge on the hydrogen atom making it more easily
lost.
The greater the effect of withdrawing electrons, the stronger the acid. This effect
increases with increase in number of oxygen atoms attached to the central atom and
also with increase in the electronegativity of the central atom.
Electronegativity of the central atom increases in the order of: SiPSCl hence
acidic strength also increases in the same order.
EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM, CHLORINE, SODIUM & SODIUM
HYDROXIDE SOLUTION:
 ALUMINIUM
Ores of aluminium:
 Bauxite or Gibbsite (impure hydrate aluminium oxide), Al2O3.2H2O.
 Cryolite (Sodium hexafloroaluminate (III), Na3AlF6.
EXTRACTION PROCESS:
 During extraction process of aluminium, there are two major processes involved.
And the general method’s name of extraction of aluminium is known is as Hall and
Herout.
Namely:
 1st stage is purification of bauxite by Bayer process to produce anhydrous
aluminium oxide (Alumina).
 2nd stage is reduction of Alumina (anhydrous aluminium oxide) by
electrolysis.
Stage 01: purification of bauxite by Bayer process to produce anhydrous aluminium oxide
(Alumina).

145
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  The crude bauxite contains iron (III) oxide, silicon (IV) oxide (silica) and other
impurities. But silica is an acidic and iron (III) oxide is basic impurities.
 The crude bauxite is roasted over (in) air (oxygen gas) to convert iron (II) in to
iron (III) oxide and then to remove the water of crystallization since the bauxite
contains some water molecule (impure hydrated aluminium (III) oxide.
Equation:
Al2O3.2H2O(s) Al2O3(s) + 2H2O(l)
 The roasted bauxite ore is crushed in to powder is heated with excess
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution under high pressure.
Equations:
Al2O3(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 3H2O(l) 2[Al(OH)4]-(aq)
SiO2(s) + 2OH-(aq) SiO32-(aq) + H2O(l)
Note:
Aluminium oxide since it is an amphoteric oxide, it will dissolves to form
aluminate while silicon dioxide is an acidic, also dissolves in to form silicate.
But both iron (III) oxide and titanium (IV) oxide remains undissolved, and it is
removed by filtration process since both are basic oxide. And they are removed
from the mixture by allowing them to settle out.
 The solution is then filtered off and transferred to a precipitation tank where it is
seeded with crystals of aluminium hydroxide. On seeding, the aqueous sodium
tetrahydroxoaluminate (III) solution decomposes, forming aluminium hydroxide.
Or the solution is then treated with weak acid (e.g. carbon dioxide gas to produce
carbonic acid) in order to produce aluminium hydroxide.
Equations:
[Al(OH)4]-(aq) + H+(aq) Al(OH)3(s) + H2O(l)
-
[Al(OH)] (aq) Al(OH)3(s) + OH-(aq)
[Al(OH)6]3-(aq) Al(OH)3(s) + 3OH-(aq)
2Al(OH)4-(aq) + CO2(g) 2Al(OH)3(s) + CO32-(aq) + H2O(l)
 The aluminium hydroxide crystals are filtered, washed, dried and then heated
(roasted) at a temperature of about 1000C strongly to form pure aluminium
oxide.
Equation:
2Al(OH)3(s) Al2O3(s) + 3H2O(g)
 This method of purification involves chemical methods of concentrating the ore
which includes:
1) Leaching.
By this, ore is treated with a suitable aqueous reagent that dissolves the ore
leaving behind the impurities.
Example:
Pure aluminium oxide is obtained from bauxite using concentrated sodium
hydroxide solution. Aluminium oxide dissolves (since it is amphoteric oxide)
together with silicon (IV) oxide (since it is acidic oxide) but some impurities
do not dissolve.
2) Roasting.
146
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 During roasting, the ore is heated is heated (roasted) (over) in air (oxygen
gas). Roasting may cause oxidation or reduction and may be accompanied by
calcination. Calcination is the heating of the ore to bring about decomposition
with elimination of volatile products.
The volatile products can be carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and steam
in case of sulphites.
Equations:
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
3) Smelting.
This is the method of concentrating the ore by melting it. Two layers are
formed, after melting, which include the molten metal layer and slag. Slag,
being less dense, floats on the metal layer.
Stage 02: reduction of Alumina (anhydrous aluminium oxide) by electrolysis.
 During electrolysis process to reduce the alumina (anhydrous aluminium oxide),a
solvent must be used, since the melting point of anhydrous aluminium oxide is so
high, a molten mixture of the ore cryolite, sodium hexaflouroaluminate, Na3AlF6,
with calcium fluoride and aluminium fluoride is added to lower its melting point
(temperature).
 Aluminium collects at the bottom of the steel tank as shown in the diagram below
and is tapped off at regular intervals since aluminium oxide is dissolved in the
melting process, and electrolyzed at a temperature of about 850C to give
aluminium at the cathode and oxygen gas at the anode respectively.
Equation:
Al2O3(s) Al3+(aq) + AlO33-(aq) Gives rise to the electrode processes

Aluminium is discharged at the graphite lining of the cell which acts as the
cathode.
Equation at the cathode:
Al3+(l) + 3e- Al(l)
 The molten aluminium collects at the bottom of the cell and is tapped off
periodically. Oxygen gas is evolved at the anode.
Equation at the anode:
4AlO33-(aq) 2Al2O3(l) + 3O2(g) + 12e-
Note:
A high voltage is used to avoid decomposition of solvent, cryolite.
The process required a large amount of energy, thus it is uneconomical.
The anod burns in oxygen, thus it has to be replaced from time to time.
The purpose of sodium hydroxide added is to remove aluminium oxide from its
impurities.
DIAGRAM FOR EXTRACTION:

147
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 USES OF ALUMINIUM:
 Since it is a good conductor of heat, it is used to make saucepans.
 Since it has ability to reflect heat and light, it is used for wrapping food.
 Because of its low density and strength, it is used for making bodies of aircrafts.
REACTIONS OF ALUMINIUM:
 Aluminium halides are AlF3, AlCl3, AlBr3, and AlI3.Explains the observations:
 The above halides are largely covalent because of the high polarizing power of the
aluminium, Al3+ ion character increases from AlF3 to AlI3.Iodide, I- ion is the most
polarized because of the big ionic radius of the iodide, I- ion.
 Aluminium fluoride is ionic because of the small ionic radius of the fluoride, F- ion
that makes it to experience negligible polarization.
 Aluminium reacts with carbon to form aluminium carbide which is then hydrolysed
by water to aluminium (III) hydroxide and methane gas.
Equation:
4Al(s) + 3C(s) Al4C3(s)
Al4C3(s) + 12H2O(l) 4Al(OH)3(s) + 3CH4(g)
 Aluminium reacts with sulphur at a high temperature to form aluminium (III)
sulphide which is then hydrolysed by water to form aluminium (III) hydroxide and
hydrogen sulphide gas.
Equation:
2Al(s) + 3S(s) Al2S3(s)
Al2S3(s) + 6H2O(l) 2Al(OH)3(s) + 3H2S(g)
IDENTIFICATION OF ALUMINIUM, AL3+.
1) Using aqueous sodium hydroxide solution.
Procedure:
 To a solution, add sodium hydroxide solution.
Observation:
148
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 White precipitate, soluble in excess sodium hydroxide solution forming a colourless
solution.
Equations:
Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Al(OH)3(s)
White precipitate
Al(OH)3(s) + OH-(aq) Al(OH)4-(aq)
Colourless solution
2) Using aqueous ammonia solution.
Procedure:
 To a solution, add aqueous ammonia hydroxide solution.
Observation:
White precipitate insoluble in excess aqueous ammonia solution.
Equation:
Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Al(OH)3(s)
White precipitate
3) Using sodium carbonate solution.
Procedure:
 To a solution, add sodium carbonate solution.
Observation:
White precipitate, bubbles of a colourless gas is given off.
The white precipitate dissolves in gradually in excess sodium carbonate to form a
colourless solution.
Equations:

4) Using aluminium reagents.

Procedure:
 To a solution suspected of Al3+ ion, acidify the solution with dilute hydrochloric acid
the add 4 drops of aluminium reagent followed by aqueous sodium hydroxide
solution dropwise.
Observation:
A pink lake is formed.
5) To the solution suspected of Al3+ ion, add alizarin solution or litmus paper solution
followed by ammonia solution.
Observation:
Pink solution (Pink lake) is formed.
 SODIUM AND CHLORINE GAS:
 Sodium is extracted commercially from sodium chloride using the Downs cell as
shown below in the diagram. This a cylindrical steel cell, in which molten sodium
chloride is electrolyzed between a central graphite (carbon) anode and a circular
steel (iron) cathode.
Diagram:

149
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  Sodium chloride melts at a temperature of about 800C and the steel cell corrodes
rapidly while some sodium is produced by electrolysis process.
 Calcium chloride is then added to the molten sodium chloride to lowers the
melting points since the melting point of sodium chloride is high. Hence during
electrolysis, the sodium, Na+ ions migrate to the cathode and are discharged while
chloride, Cl- ions migrate to the anode and are oxidized by electron loss to form
liquid chlorine gas.
Equations at the cathode and anode respectively:
At the cathode: Na+(l) + e- Na(l)
At the anode: 2Cl-(l) Cl2(g) + 2e-
Or

 SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION AND CHLORINE GAS:

150
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
  During manufacture of sodium hydroxide solution by electrolysis of brine
(concentrated sodium chloride solution), chlorine and hydrogen gases are
vital by-products.
 Manufacture of sodium hydroxide solution, chlorine and hydrogen gases,
there are three stages involved.
A. 1st stage is electrolysis of concentrated brine.
During electrolysis process concentrated sodium chloride solution is
electrolyzed. Mercury cathode is used to enables sodium ions to be
discharged in preference to hydrogen ions while chloride ion is discharged at
the anode.
Equations:
2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e At the anode
+
2Na (aq) + 2e 2Na(s) At the cathode
B. 2nd stage is formation of amalgam.
Sodium formed at the cathode dissolves in the mercury, forming sodium
amalgam.
Equation:
Na(s) + Hg(l) NaHg(l)
C. 3 stage is the reaction of amalgam with water.
rd

The sodium amalgam formed will flows in to a separate chamber called soda
cell (not shown in the diagram).
In this cell, sodium amalgam is mixed with water producing hydrogen gas
and a liquor sodium hydroxide solution about 50% and a pure mercury is
regenerated during this process.
Equation:
2NaHg(l) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + 2Hg(l) + H2(g)
DIAGRAM:

151
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 PERIOD 4 (TRANSITIONAL METALS) ELEMENTS:
Self - assessment Test .1. © 2014 RUBANGAKENE Js FELIX Jr GEOFREY

Am proud of my chemistry, I can answer all these questions. Am now Good in

Chemistry: Branch Inorganic. I read Chemistry Pamphlets book by
RUBANGAKENE Js FELIX Jr GEOFREY. 100% LUO ACHOLIBOY

1. State any seven properties of periodic table.

2. Explain the following terms:
a) Melting point. b) Boiling point.
c) Atomic radius.
d) Electronegativity. e) Electropositivity.
f) Ionization energy. g) First electron affinity.
3. Describe and explain the variation in electron affinity, electronegativity, ionization
energy,electropositivity & atomic radius:
i. Down the group. ii. Across the period.
iii. Along a period including the first transition series.
4. Explain the variation of melting & boiling points among period 2 & 3 elements of the
Periodic Table.
5. State and explain the factors affecting the above properties of periodic table.
6. The table below shows the ionization energies (in Kj/mol) of five elements lettered
A, B, C, D & E.
Element 1st Ionization Energy 2nd I.E. 3rd I.E. 4th I.E
A 500 4600 6900 9500
B 740 1500 7700 10500
C 630 1600 3000 4800
D 900 1800 14800 2100
E 580 1800 2700 11600
a) Which of the elements is most likely to for an ion with a charge of +1? Give
reasons for your answers.
b) Which two of the elements are in the same group of the period table?
Which group do they belong?
c) In which group of the periodic table is element E likely to occur? Give
reasons for your answer?
d) Which element would require the least energy to convert one mole of
gaseous atoms into ions carrying two positive charges?
e) List three factors which influence the size of the first ionization energy of
an element.
7. Explain the following observations.
a) The first ionization energy of Boron is lower than of beryllium whereas the
second ionization energy of Boron is higher than that of beryllium.
b) The 1st I.E of nitrogen is higher than that of oxygen whereas the 2nd I.E of
oxygen is higher than that of nitrogen.
c) The 1st ionization energy of aluminium is less than that of magnesium.

152
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 d) The electronegativity increases from lithium to fluorine in period 2.
e) Diamond have a higher melting point than boron and nitrogen?
f) The first ionization energy for oxygen lower than for nitrogen.
g) Magnesium carbonate is insoluble in water while sodium carbonate is
soluble.
h) Magnesium carbonate is insoluble in water while magnesium chloride is
soluble.
i) Sodium carbonate is used as a base in acid-base titration.
j) The atomic radius of Group (II) elements increases down the group?
k) Melting points of Group (II) elements decreases down the group?
l) Lithium carbonate decomposes while other carbonates of group I do not.
h) Melting point of group (II) is higher than those of group (I) metals.
i) Ice floats on water.
j) Water boils at 100⁰C while hydrogen fluoride boils at 19⁰C.
k) Magnesium oxide dissolves in dilute sulphuric acid whereas barium oxide
doesn’t.
l) Sodium Nitrite is more stable than Sodium Nitrate.
m) Across the transition elements series, the atomic radius remains almost
constant.
n) The boiling point of beryllium chloride is 487⁰C and that of magnesium
chloride is 1418⁰C.
o) The solubility of sulphates of group (II) elements of the periodic table
decrease down the group.
p) Graphite conducts electricity in solid state but solid sodium chloride
doesn’t.
q) Lithium carbonate is insoluble in water.
r) Aluminium triflouride is ionic while aluminium trichloride is covalent.
s) Boron trichloride is a non-polar molecule whereas Nitrogen trichloride is
polar.
t) Beryllium doesn’t behave likes other S block elements.
u) A solution of Sodium chloride has a higher boiling point than pure water.
8. Explain why Lithium doesn’t form peroxide or superoxide when burn in oxygen.
9. Discuss the action of water on oxides of element of Group (I) metals of the periodic
table.
10. Discuss the action of water on the hydrides of element of Group (I) metals of the
periodic table.
11. State and explain the factors affecting Hydration energy.
12. State and explain the factors affecting Lattice energy.
13. Li, Na, K, Rb and Cs belong to group (I) metal elements of the periodic table.
Describe the reactions of the elements with:
i. Air ii. Water iii. Hydrogen gas
14. Discuss the action of water on oxides of element of Group (I) metals of the periodic
table.
15. Discuss the action of water on the hydrides of element of Group (I) metals of the
periodic table.
153
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 16. Explain the following observations:
a) Successive ionization energy are arranged as 1stI.E ˂2nd I.E ˂3rdI.E ……˂nthI.E.
b) Ionization energy of orbitals are arranged as s˃p˃d˃f.
c) Boron has got a low first ionization potential compare to beryllium.
Chlorides NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3

Melting points 801 746 sublimes

Charge +1 +2 +3

e) The variation in melting point +1, +2, +3.

d) The melting and boiling point of halide of aluminium are in the order of
AlI3˂AlBr3˂AlCl3˂AlF3.
17. Explains why potassium is a stronger reducing agents than Sodium.
(b). State three factors that makes group (I) elements a stronger reducing agents
than group (I) elements.
(c). Give one reason in each case to explain why the elements of group (I) of the
periodic table:
(i) Are monovalent. (ii) Do not form complexes.
(iii) Are strong reducing agents. (iv) Form mainly ionic compounds.
18. Explain why:
(i) The solubility of sulphates of group (IIA) decreases down the group.
(ii) Beryllium forms predominantly covalent compounds
(iii) The elements of group (IIA) form the divalent ion m2+although the
second ionization energies are high.
(b). Calcium reacts with water and dilute hydrochloric acid. By using equations
show how the reactions occur.
(c). Do you think Calcium can react with Sodium hydroxide. Give a reason for
your answer.
19. Name the reagents that can be used to distinquish between each of the following
and in each case state what would be observed & write an equations where possible.
1. Ca2+ and Mg2+ 2. Ca2+ and Ba2+ 3. Ni2+ and Cr3+ 4. Sn4+ and Sn2+
5. Pb2+ and Ag+ 6. C2O4- and HCO3- 7. Cl- and Br- 8. HCO3- and CO32-
9. NO2- and NO3- 10. HCOO- and CH3COO- 11. F- and Cl- 12. SO42- and SO32-
13. SO32- and S2O32-
20. Define the following terms:
(i) Charge density. (ii) Polarization.
(iii) Principal quantum number.
(b). Explain why the value for the second election affinity of oxygen is positive
whereas the value for the first electron affinity is negative.
21. Briefly explain the following observations:
(i) The ions of both potassium, K+ and chloride, Cl- have the same electronic
configuration, but potassium ion is smaller than chloride ion.
(ii) In moving from sodium to chloride along third period, there is a steady decrease
in atomic size.

154
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 (iii) The first electron affinity of oxygen is negative but the second electron
affinity is positive.
22. Write equation(s) for the following reactions:
a) Calcium oxide reacting with water.
b) Sodium Carbonate with water and Carbon dioxide
c) Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate heated.
d) Carbon dioxide is passed in Calcium hydroxide solution. State observation.
(b) What would happen to (d) above if more carbon dioxide is passed. Write equation
and state observation.
(c) Group (II) metals form few complexes. However, the tendency to form
complexes decreases down the group. Explain this observation.
23. Both Boron and Silicon exhibit diagonal relationship.
a) State:
(i). what is meant by the term diagonal relationship?
(ii). three properties in which Boron and Silicon show similarities.
b) Name two other pairs of elements that show diagonal relationship.
c) Write equation(s) for the reaction of Boron and Silicon with water.
d) State five properties in which Beryllium and Aluminium but differs from the
rest of the group (II).
e) Give one reason for the anomalous behavior of Beryllium.
24. Explain the following observations.
a) The salts of group II elements is the periodic Table are generally less soluble
than those of the corresponding group I metal salts.
b) Calcium carbonate is less soluble in water than calcium chloride.
c) Solubility of group (II) A chlorides decreases as the group is descended.
d) Solubility of group (II) A hydroxides increases as the group is descended.
(b). Although beryllium is in group II of the periodic table, its properties resemble
those of aluminium which is in group III.
a) Discuss the similarities in the properties of the two elements.
b) Explain why the two metals show similar properties.
25. A certain oxide of the elements in group (II) was mixed with carbon and heated to a
very high temperature and a compound B was formed. B reacted with cold water to
give gas K which decolourised bromine water.
(i) Identify the element in Group II and the substances B and K.
(ii) Write equations for the reactions leading to the formation of K.
26. Lithium is in group I and magnesium is in group (II) of the periodic table but the two
elements show some common chemical properties.
a) State the name given to this type of relationship.
b) Give FOUR examples of the properties in which the two elements show similarities.
c) Name TWO other pairs of elements that show similar type of relation as
Lithium and magnesium.
Self - assessment Test .2. © 2014 RUBANGAKENE Js FELIX Jr GEOFREY

155
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
Am proud of my chemistry, I can answer all these questions. Am now Good in
Chemistry: Branch Inorganic. I read Chemistry Pamphlets book by
RUBANGAKENE Js FELIX Jr GEOFREY. 100% LUO ACHOLIBOY

1. Write equations to show how hydrides of period 3 elements reaction with water.
(b) Both lead (II) and (IV) chlorides react with water.
a) Write equations show how they react with water.
b) Explain the differences in the reactions above.
2. When red lead Pb3O4 was reacted with nitric acid a solid was formed.
a) Write the equation for the reaction.
b) The mixture from (a) was filtered and the residue warmed with concentrated
hydrochloric acid, state.
(i). what was observed? Explain your answer.
(ii). Write equation for the reaction.
c) The filtrate from (a) was divided into two parts;
(i). to the 1st part was added aqueous potassium iodine. State what was
observed and write equation for the reaction
(ii). the 2nd part was evaporated to dryness and heated strongly: Explain
what was observed and write equation for the reaction that took place.
3. Briefly describe the laboratory synthesis of chlorides of group (IV) elements.
a) Write equations to show how the chlorides of group (IV) elements react with
water.
b) Oxides of group (IV) elements can be in oxidation states +2 or +4.
(i) Name the oxides of group IV elements.
(ii) Explain why oxides in oxidation state +2 become more stable as the
group is descended.
4. Discuss the reactivity of group (IV) element (carbon, silicon, germanium, tin and
lead) of the periodic table with.
(a) Soaps. (c) Water (d) Dilute mineral acids. (e)Concentrated mineral acid.
(b) Dilute sodium hydroxide solution.
5. Write an ionic equation for the reaction between Sodium hydroxide and:
(i). Silicon (IV) oxide. (ii). Lead (IV) oxide.
(b) Write equations and state characters for reaction of group (IV) oxides with
Sodium hydroxide.
(c) State two importance oxidation states exhibited by carbon, silicon and lead.
(e) Describe how the two oxidation states vary from carbon to lead. Use the
oxidation elements to illustrate your answer.
6. Explain why fluorine shows some differences in its properties from the rest of the
elements of group (vii) of the periodic table.
(b) State the differences between the chemistry of fluorine and the rest of group
members of the periodic table.
(c) Write equations to compare the reaction of fluorine and chlorine with:
(i). Water. (ii). Cold dilute sodium hydroxide.
(iii). Hot concentrated sodium hydroxide.
156
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 (d) Write equations for the reaction between hydrofluoric acid and silicon dioxide.
(e) Explain why hydrogen fluoride is a weaker acid than hydrogen chloride.
7. Chlorine gas can be prepared from sodium chloride in the laboratory. State other
reagents and conditions required.
(b) Write the equation of reaction. (c)State how chlorine gas can be tested.
(e)Write the equation of reaction when chlorine gas reacts with:
(i). cold dilute sodium hydroxide. (ii). hot concentrated sodium hydroxide.
8. The boiling of the hydride of group VII elements are given in the table below.

Compounds HF HCl HBr HI

B.P (oC) +19.9 -85.0 -66.7 -35.4

a) Explain the trend in the boiling point of the hydrides.

b) Giving reasons suggest the trend in acid strength of the hydrides.
c) Using equations where possible explain what happens when concentrated
sulphuric acid is mixed with each of the hydrides.
d) Arrange the following compounds in order of their increasing acid strength.
HClO, HClO2, HClO3, HClO4
e) Explain your answer in d above.
9. A solution of halate (V) ion YO3- contains 2.94g/l. 25cm3 of this solution was added
to an equal volume acidified potassium iodide solution. The iodine liberated
required 25.2cm3 of 24.8g/l Na2S2O3.5H2O.
a) Calculate the relative atomic mass of Y hence identify Y.
b) Give the I.U.P.A.C name for the following oxide and calculate the oxidation
number of the halogen in: (i) ClO2 (ii) BrO3 (iii) I2O5 (iv) Cl2O7.
c) Explain the following observations:
(i) The oxidation states of halogen in Oxides are positive.
(ii) Chlorine dioxide is a mixed acid anhydride.
10. State and explain the variation of reactivity of:
a) Group (IV) B elements towards dilute sodium hydroxide solution.
b) Group (VII) B elements towards water.
11. State and explain the trend of acidity among:
a) HF, HCl, HBr & HI. b) HOCl, HOBr & HOI.
c) HOBr, HOBrO, HOBrO2 & HOBrO3.
12. 1.5g of impure tin (II) Oxide was dissolved in excess dilute hydrochloric acid and
the resultant solution made to 250cm3 with distilled water. 25cm3 of this solution
was titrated with 0.02M potassium permanganate until the colour turned pink. The
volume of Potassium permanganate solution used was 20cm3.
a) Calculate the percentage impurity of tin (II) oxide (Sn= 119, O=16)
b) Write an ionic equations when tin (II) ions are added to:
(i) Acidified potassium dichromate solution
(ii) Sodium oxalate solution (iii) Iron (III) chloride solution

157
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 13. When a yellow solid A is heated with air at 450C, a red solid B is formed. B reacts
with hot dilute nitric acid to form a dark brown solid C on precipitation and after
filtration and crystallization of the filtrate; a white solid D is obtained. When C is
heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid, a pale green gas was evolved and when
hydrochloric acid is added to aqueous solution of D at room temperature, a white
precipitate E was formed.
a) Identify the substances A-E inclusive
b) Account for your answers in (a) above with aid of equations of reactions.
14. The standard enthalpy of formation of tin tetrachloride is -508KJmol-1. The standard
enthalpy of atomization of tin and chlorine are +301 and +121KJmol-1 respectively.
The average bond energy of Si-Cl bond is +383KJmol-1.
a) Determine the average bond energy of Sn-Cl bond
b) Comment on the difference between the average bond energies.
c) State a reagent that can be used to differentiate between the following ions
and in each case state what would be observed when each is treated with the
reagent.
(i) Pb2+ & Sn2+ (ii) Pb2+ & Al3+ (iii) Sn2+ & Zn2+.
15. A compound Q contains 90.65% by mass of lead and the rest Oxygen.
a) Deduce the molecular formula of Q if its molar mass is 685g.
b) State what is observed when Q is reacted with the following and in each case
write the equation of reaction.
(i) Dilute Nitric acid (iii) Hot concentrated sulphuric acid.
(ii) Hot concentrated hydrochloric acid
16. Gaseous hydride of silicon diffuses through a narrow hole for 27.8s. The same
volume of carbon dioxide under the same temperature and pressure through the
same in 32.6s.
(i) Determine the molecular formula of the hydride.
(ii) Write the equation of reaction between the hydride of silicon and sodium
hydroxide solution.
17. Tin and to a greater extend, Lead are said to show the inert pair effect.
(i) What is inert pair effect?
(ii) Give a reason for the existence of the inert pair effect.
Self - assessment Test .3. © 2014 RUBANGAKENE Js FELIX Jr GEOFREY

Am proud of my chemistry, I can answer all these questions. Am now Good in

Chemistry: Branch Inorganic. I read Chemistry Pamphlets book by
RUBANGAKENE Js FELIX Jr GEOFREY. 100% LUO ACHOLIBOY

1. (a) Bauxite is the principal ore used for the extraction of aluminium.
(i) Write the formula of Bauxite.
(ii) Name two impurities present in Bauxite
(iii)Briefly describe how pure aluminium can be obtained from bauxite.
(Include appropriate equations where necessary)

158
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]
 (c) Sodium carbonate solution was added to an aqueous solution of aluminium
chloride.
(i)State what was observed.
(ii) Write equation of reaction that took place.

159
PREPARED BY Tr.FELIX RUBANGAKENE GEOFREY EMAIL:[email protected]