MODERN WORLD HISTORY NOTES

WERE THE PEACE TREATIES OF 1919-23 FAIR?

● The first world war ended with an armistice on 11 November 1918

● On the winning side were the allies-France, England, Italy, USA
● On the losing side were Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey.
● The war was termed a total war-it impacted every sphere of life and was not restricted
to one area.
● In order to establish peace, the allies camp up with peace treaties at the Paris Peace
Conference based on Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
● He drew up the points in 1917 as a basis for ending the war fairly so a future war could
be avoided.

THE FOURTEEN POINTS

1. No secret treaties
2. Free access to seas in peacetime or wartime
3. Free trade between countries
4. All countries to work towards disarmament
5. Colonies to have a say in their own future
6. German troops to leave Russia
7. Independence for Belgium
8. France to regain Alsace Lorraine
9. Frontier between Austria and Italy to be adjusted.
10. Self determination for the people in Eastern Europe
11. Serbia to have access to the sea
12. Self determination for the people in Turkish Empire
13. Poland to become an independent state with access to the sea
14. League of nations to be set up

THE PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE 1919-20

● Took place at the palace of Versailles

● Lasted 12 months
● 32 nations were supposed to be represented but no defeated nation was invited
● 5 treaties were drawn to deal with each defeated power.
● All the important decisions of fate for Germany under the Treaty Of Versailles were
taken by Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Woodrow Wilson-The Big Three
 ● They were supported by a huge army of diplomats and expert advisors, but they often
ignored their advice.
● Issues to be dealt with
○ Take back territory like alsace lorraine
○ Reparations from the losing nations
○ Weaken germany
○ Peace and security- mainly french borders
○ Ensure future peace-LON
○ Fulfill expectations of the british and french people
○ Demilitarize
○ Decide how much to blame germany- war guilt

WILSON’S AIMS AND MOTIVES

● Don’t be too harsh on Germany

○ maybe one day they could rise back and take revenge.
○ The communists could also exploit the resentment amongst the Germans and
take over Germany just the way they took over Russia in 1917
■ This was a threat to the capitalist nation as it opposed their fundamental
belief of profit.
● Strengthen democracy in defeated nations
○ He wanted to strengthen democracy so people would not let their leaders go to
war.
● Give self determination to countries that were a part of the European Empire
○ Wanted Poles, Czechs and Slovaks to rule themselves and not be a part of
Austria-Hungary.
● International Cooperation
○ Wanted to establish the League of Nations

LLOYD GEORGE’S AIMS AND MOTIVES

● In Public, he praised Wilson and his aims but in private he did not agree
● Once said to his official - ‘Wilson came to Paris like a missionary to rescue European
savages with his little sermons and lectures’
● He was not happy with the idea of Self Determination as it meant that England would
lose their colonies- ‘The sun never sets in Britain’
● He did not want free trade either as his country was very well off when it came to trade.
● AIMS
○ Agreed to rebuild trade with germany
■ Germany was the 2 largest pre war trade with Britain and revival of trade
was vital so that they could pay back war loans to Japan and USA.
○ He wanted to punish Germany not too harsh, but enough because
 ■ his party came into power by promising the people that they will ‘Squeeze
the German lemons until the pips squeak.’
■ If they became too poor they would turn to communism which could affect
trade and spread communism.
■ It would humiliate germany and then they would want revenge-another
war
○ Help secure france against germany but prevent france from becoming too
powerful and creating a balance of power so no one country could threaten
others.

○ End german threat to british navy and empire by limiting german navy size and
winning some of their colonies
○ Gain reparations to pay for the damage caused by the war

CLEMENCEAU’S AIMS AND MOTIVES

● He aimed for revenge, security and compensation

● France had bitter memories of their loss of alsace lorraine in 1870 due to germany
● They also suffered the most in world war 1- ⅔ of the french army had been killed or
injured.
● He had pressure from the generals and civilians to make germany pay.
● He thought wilson was too idealistic because US was not directly affected by the war
● He wanted france to be secure even if it meant splitting up germany
● He wanted to make rhineland independent of german forces
● He wanted to make poland and czechoslovakia independent so they could be added to
the east german borders
● Take over Saar and return alsace lorraine
● Wanted compensation
○ Rebuild
○ Families who lost people
○ Weaken germany
○ Pay off war loans.

PROBLEMS AT VERSAILLES

● Clemenceau and Wilson clashed over many issues

○ USA had not suffered as badly as france in the war
○ Clemenceau resented wilson’s generous attitude towards germany
 ○ Disagreed about what to do with Rhineland and Saar coalfields
○ Wilson had to give way in the end
○ However he got what he wanted in terms of self determinations
○ Mainly affected the other treaties and not TOV
● Clemenceau clashed with Lloyd George
○ Over lloyd george’s desire not to treat germany too harshly
○ Thought that they wanted to treat germany fairly only because france was under
more threat than Britain
○ But they were not happy with germany keeping their navy and colonies because
that threatened britain.
● Wilson and Lloyd George did not agree
○ Lloyd george did not want nations to have free access to the seas
○ Did not want self determination as it threatened british empire as they ruled
millions of people all across the world.

TERMS OF THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES

Announced on 7 May
● War Guilt
○ Germany had to accept the blame of starting the war
● Reparations
○ The allies agreed that germany had to pay the amount for the damage caused by
the war without consulting germany
○ Exact amount was not decided until 1921 but it was set to 6,600 Million Pounds
○ If the amount was not changed by the Young Plan in 1929, Germany would not
have finished paying until 1984.
■ Germany practically signed a ‘blank cheque’
● German territories and colonies
○ German’s european borders
■ Rhineland became demilitarized
■ Saarland was to be run by the League for 15 years followed by a
plebiscite
■ Union between germany and austria was forbidden- Anschluss
■ Upper Silesia, West Prussia and Posen went to Poland
■ East prussia went to lithuania
■ Danzig became a free city and was run by LON and given as a free port
to Poland
■ North Schleswig was given to Denmark after a plebiscite
■ Eupen, Moresnet and Malmedy went to belgium.
■ Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia became independent states-Germany took
them from Russia in 1918.
■ Alsace Lorraine given to france
 ○ Germany’s overseas empire was taken away and given was mandates to the
LON-effectively meant that B&F controlled them
■ Tanzania, Cameroon, German Samoa, namibia, pacific colonies were all
given away
○ Lost 10% of land in europe
○ All overseas colonies
○ 12.5% of population
○ 16% of coalfields
● Germany’s armed forces
○ Army limited to 100,000 men
○ Conscription was banned and soldiers had to be volunteers
○ Armoured vehicles, submarines and aircrafts were forbidden
○ Navy was limited to 6 battleships and 1500 naval officers
○ Rheinland became demilitarized
○ All wartime metal was to be melted to scrap
○ Allies were to keep an army at the west bank for 15 years.
● League of Nations
○ Set up as an international police force
○ Germany was not invited to join it until they proved themselves as a peaceful
country.

Germans called the treaty a Diktat, something forced on to them.

WHY DID THE BIG THREE HAVE TO COMPROMISE?

● They all had pressure of rebuilding their countries and there was a fear of a pandemic
● They had pressure of time
● The armistice was only a temporary truce and a formal treaty was yet to be signed
● They feared the spread of communism
● There was a conflict of interests
● German blockade still continuing
● War loans had to be paid back to the USA
● Decisions were complex
● Media and democracy forced them to compromise.
● There were secret treaties and wartime commitments
● Deals with countries like italy and japan

Bitter compromise between european fears and american dreams

HOW DID GERMANS REACT TO THE TOV?

● War Guilt and reparations

○ They thought they should have shared the blame
 ○ Did not feel that they started the war
○ Bitter that they had to pay for all the damage even though the economy was very
weak.
○ Worried that they signed a blank cheque.
● Disarmament
○ Felt that the terms were unfair
○ An army of 100000 was too small
○ Army was a symbol of their pride
○ None of the other nations disarmed even though it was a part of the 14 points
● German Territories
○ Blow to pride and economy
○ Germans were losing colonies as B&F were gaining and taking control of german
territories in africa.
● 14 Points and TOV
○ Thought that their treatment did not match the 14 points
○ Self determination was being awarded to estonia latvia etc but german speaking
people were being hauled off to czechoslovakia
○ Anschluss was forbidden
○ Insulted as they were not invited to the LON.
● Non Representation
○ Angry that their govt was not represented at the peace talks
○ Had no choice about the treaties
○ Thought that they did not lose the war and thus should not be treated as
defeated.

IMPACT OF THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES

● Political violence
○ Kapp Putsch attempted revolution in 1920 in germany due to hatred of the treaty.
■ Wanted to get rid of the november criminals
■ Wanted to reverse the govts orders to immobilize soldiers in accordance
with the TOV
■ Socialist Workers created the red army and controlled the regions for
several months
■ Govt suppressed them with troops and freikorps.
○ Murder squads sent out to kill ‘traitors’
■ People associated with TOV were killed
■ Right wing extremists carried out 354 murders between 1919-23
■ Germany’s foreign minister was murdered in 1922
○ Hitler lead a rebellion called Munich Putsch in 1923
■ Hitler used hatred towards weimar republic and the treaty as a method of
gaining power.
● Conflict in the Ruhr, 1923
 ○ Germany paid 50 million of their reparation amount in 1921 but none in 1922
○ German leader Ebert tried to negotiate concessions but the french and british ran
out of patience
○ French and Belgian soldiers entered Ruhr and took over whatever was owed in
the form of raw materials in 1923
○ German govt ordered workers to go on strike so they would not produce anything
for the french to take
○ French reacted and killed over 100 workers and expelled over 100000
○ Germany had no goods to trade and no money
○ Lead to hyperinflation
● Hyperinflation
○ Govt printed extra money
○ Money became virtually worthless so prices shot up
○ Govt and big industrialists were able to pay off huge debts in worthless marks but
pensioners were wiped out
○ Amount of money that could have bought a house now can only buy a loaf of
bread
○ Eventually recovered but left a bitter memory

TO WHAT EXTENT WAS THE TREATY FAIR?

FAIR
● It Was less harsh than Treaty that Germany has put on Russia
● Germany did follow an extremely aggressive foreign policy
● They were given the chance to end the war once before
● It was believed that the treaty would bring about peace
● Taking back alsace lorraine was right
● Their army was not completely taken away
● Hyperinflation was because of the govt not TOV
● Germany was not completely destroyed
● A more generous treaty would not have been acceptable to the B & F people
● Govts had to meet expectations post the battle
● The League was created to solve further problems
● They worked under time limit
● Fear of communism
● Stability was needed
● Leaders had met post the worst war in history and were willing to do whatever it takes to
prevent another one.
● Germany took part in the arms race with britain which created tension
● Germany took the first major action of the war by following the Schlieffen Plan and
invading Belgium and then invading France.
 ● Germany had caused massive damage to the infrastructure of Belgium and France.
Even in retreat, the Germans deliberately destroyed mines, railways, factories and
bridges.
● ‘Reparations were only 2% of Germany’s annual production.’

UNFAIR
● Germany was forced to take blame for the entire war
● They had no say in the matters
● Signed a blank cheque
● Stripped off everything they needed to rebuild their country
● Left insecure, humiliated
● Left out of alliances and LON
● Their new govt was not so much at fault
● Denied self determination
● Only ones forced to disarm
● Only ones who were not allowed to keep colonies
● Reparation amount was exceedingly high- big three had to change it 2
● Everyone and some wrongly punished in germany
● Ultimately war broke out in 1939.
● Ww1 was because of stockpiling of weapons and was plan and alliances made by all
european countries not just germany

TREATY OF ST GERMAIN 1919

● Dealt with austria

● Army limited to 30000 men
● Anschluss forbidden
● Austrian hungary empire broken up creating yugoslavia and czechoslovakia
● Large minorities in new states- germans in sudetenland area of czech
● Austria suffered severe economic problems

TREATY OF NEUILLY 1919

● Dealt with bulgaria

● Bulgaria lost land to greece, romania and yugoslavia
● Army was limited to 20000 men
● 10 million euro reparation
● Treated less harshly than any other german allies

TREATY OF TRIANON 1920

 ● Dealt with hungary
● Hungary lost territory to romania, czechoslovakia and yugoslavia
● Tianjin to china
● Due to pay reparations but economy so weak that they never paid

TREATY OF SEVRES 1920 August

● Dealt with turkey

● Turkey lost land to bulgaria, italy and greece
● Lost tunisia and morocco
● Turkish tax system, finances and budget to be controlled by allies
● Defined zones controlled by Britain, France and Italy
● Armenia and Kurdistan became independent
● Army limited to 50000 men and no air force

What the big three said in public

● Turkey had been unstable
● Many countries did want independence
● Turkey to be punished for supporting germany
● Armenia should get self determination
● Agreed that turkey should not get so much power

Behind the scenes

● Italy wanted turkish territory for supporting allies in ww1
● Allies wanted to protect commercial interests
○ Britain wanted iraq and iran oil fields
○ Britain promised arabs in return for their help in ww1 but was unwilling to honour
the promises pg 20??

The treaty soon had to be revised as the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 as the new govt lead by
Mustafa Kemal Pasha began to resist the treaty by force.

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

1920s

● Formed in 1920 after the first world war by woodrow wilson, president of the USA
● Supposed to be a world parliament

Expectations for the league

 ● Wilson: world parliament
● Britain: a simple organisation like the conference of ambassadors
● France: a strong league with its own army

The Covenant- It was the league’s constitution. It was the bases of the league and how it was
governed. It had all the aims, rules and procedures and the details of the running of the
organisation. It laid the methods in which problems would be tackled and all members were
bound to follow the covenant

Ways in which the league settled disputes

● A hearing by an impartial neutral country
● Pass a ruling by the international court of justice
● League of nation council involved
● COLLECTIVE SECURITY(article 10)- It was a principle on which the league was based.
In order to safeguard world peace, all countries had to agree to go to defence of the
nation subjugated to aggression by other nations. This way, they act as a deterrence
preventing any future war.
●
● Moral persuasion
○ Diplomatic pressure would be put on the aggressor by identifying and
condemning actions and lining up world opinion against them.
○ Offer to arbitrate.
● Economic sanctions
○ Member nations would refuse to trade or stop financial dealings with the
aggressor and thus pressurise them
● Military force
○ Armed forces of member countries would be joined together and used against
the aggressor.

Aims of the League

● COLLECTIVE SECURITY(article 10)- It was a principle on which the league was based.
In order to safeguard world peace, all countries had to agree to go to defence of the
nation subjugated to aggression by other nations. This way, they act as a deterrence
preventing any future war.
● Prevent another war and aggression and ensure peace and security
● Encourage cooperation for business and trade
● Improve living and working conditions globally after everything got destroyed and plague
hit the world
● Improve living standards
● Promote disarmament to prevent another war
● Uphold the TOV and other treaties passed after ww1
Structure of the League
● The Assembly- all member states that met once a year
● The council- four permanent members ( Britain, France, Italy and Japan)
○ Had veto power
○ Decided agenda for assembly, sanctions and military actions
● The International Labour Organisation
● Refugee committee
● Slavery committee
● Health committee

Structural Strengths
● Unanimous decisions
● Rotating non permanent members of the council gave nations a chance
● Clearly defined covenant
● Many organisations
● Impose economic sanctions
● Council could come together whenever needed
● Idea of collective security made weaker nations feel protected
● Genuine enthusiasm of LON after ww1
● New technologies like air travel, telephones etc made it easy for members to
communicate and come together

Structural weaknesses
● Economic sanctions would not work as non Violent members don’t follow
● International Court of Justice was not binding and the LON could not compel nations to
follow through
● Assembly only met once a year- difficult to make decisions
● The council had veto power and had final say over the decisions of the assembly.
● Did not have an army of its own- had to rely on other nations
● Secretariat was understaffed
● Unanimous decisions slowed down decisions.

Membership weaknesses
● Absence of the United States

REASONS
○ The senate did not ratify the decision even though president woodrow wilson
championed it
 ○ The League enforced the TOV while many in the USA hated the treaty itself as
people had german ancestors
○ USA lost a lot of soldiers in WW1 and did not want to further involve its army in
european problems and conflict around the world.
○ Americans were anti empire and colony and did not want to safeguard british and
french colonies.
○ They feared If the sanctions were imposed american business might be impacted
and they would lose out on trade
○ Worried they were signing a ‘BLANK CHEQUE’ as they were practically the only
nation with funds after the ww1
○ Felt that it would be dominated by britain and france who would be against its
ideas of self determination.
○ Decided to follow an ISOLATION policy.

EFFECTS
○ It would make the league inefficient as britain and france would not be able to
administer it as well as it was woodrow wilson’s brainchild.
○ All the burden would have fallen on their hands but they resented it.
○ They opposed ideas of self determination etc.
○ Both countries had their own priorities-
■ Britain focused on rebuilding trade
■ France was preoccupied with a possible threat from germany and the
league not having an army- thought britain won’t send army for help if
needed
○
○ After the world war, most of the countries lacked funds while USA was the only
country with money and a stable financial statues

● None of the defeated nations ( Germany, austria hungary and turkey )were a part of the
league and thus it began to be known as the VICTOR’s CLUB.
○ The tov put the sole blame of the war on germany and thus they were not
permitted to join the league.
○ All decisions would be influenced by allies
○ Some countries felt that the council would have all the power as the allies were a
part of it and they would only look for their own interests. They thus doubted the
efficiency of the league and the working for collective security.
● Russia was not permitted to take part as it was communist nation- a new ideology and
this threatened the capitalist nations
○ Viewed with suspicion and hatred
○ Left the allies side of the war
● Asian and african countries were not a part as independent nations
○ White man’s club- not focus on discrimination and racial issues
○ Self determination would be sidetracked
 ● Japan, Germany and Italy left the league in the 1930s which affected the efficiency of
the economic sanctions

Political disputes

FAILURE
● Vilna-1920
○ Nature of the dispute
■ Vilna was the historical capital of lithuania and after the re establishment
of the country in 1919, it once the likely capital
■ However, after a border dispute the poles seized vilna as it was mainly
inhabited by them 30%
○ League’s response
■ Raised a protest with the poles and called for a plebiscite but they did not
relent or evacuate the city
○ Outcome
■ League identified poland as the aggressor but did not actively pursue a
solution as france did not want to angry their polish allies as they could be
used against germany.
■ England was not ready to go alone
■ The conference of ambassadors intervened and awarded vilna to poland
in 1923
■ Undermined league’s position as it succumbed to pressures put by france
but it kept peace.

● Corfu-1923
○ Nature
■ Italian member of a working party of the conference of ambassadors
killed in greece
■ Mussolini blamed the greek govt and demanded an apology,
compensation, fine and execution of guilty
■ Italy’s navy bombarded the island and occupied it when the greeks
refused, thus breaking the covenant
○ Response
■ Greek took the matter to the league who proposed that italy leave the
island and an investigation was ordered
■ Asked greece to pay money to neutral account till the inquiry took place
■ Mussolini argued and threatened to leave the league
 ■ Council passed issue to COA who got italy a compensation and apology
from greece
○ Outcome
■ War was averted
■ League’s position undermined as they handed over to the COA
■ Italy got its way-showed how stronger powers had a hold

SUCCESS

● Aaland Islands-1920-21
○ Nature of dispute
■ 6500 islands that belonged to Finland were mainly occupied by swedish
people who wanted to be ruled by sweden.
○ League’s response
■ Both countries appealed to the league which decided that the islands
would be governed by finland and promised to protect swedish rights
○ Outcome
■ Not a very popular decision but accepted.
■ First international agreement that was reached solely through League’s
authority

● Upper Silesia-1921
○ Nature of dispute
■ It was a rich coal area inhabited by both germans and poles.
■ Bone of contention between the two countries and led to riots in 1920
■ Plebiscite was held on march 1921 as defined by the TOV to decide the
division of the land
■ British and french troops manned the polling booth where the outcome
was close
■ France wanted to favour poland to strengthen their economy and avoid a
war on two fronts
○ Leagues response
■ Referred by france in 1921
■ LON split the region between germany and poland
■ Germany got more than half the land while populated areas with
industries and raw material sources went to poland.
○ Outcome
■ Germany was unhappy as decision was influenced by allies, messy
compromise

● Bulgaria-1925
○ Nature
 ■ Border fight between greek and bulgaria where greek soldiers were killed.
■ Greeks were angry and invaded bulgaria
○ Response
■ Bulgaria asked for league’s help
■ Council met and condemned the greeks and asked to leave bulgaria
○ Outcome
■ Bulgarian govt told its army to fight back
■ Greece fined for 45000 euros in compensation and was threatened with
sanctions
■ The greeks did as they said and left
■ Decision was accepted but greeks were not happy
■ Accused league of having double standards and having a different set of
rules for smaller nations
■ Doubted if the decision would have been followed through if britain and
france wouldn’t have upholded.

Non-political successes of the league

● Refugee committee
○ Returned 400000 prisoners of war under the ‘Nansen Passport’
● International Labour Organisation
○ Banned the use of poisonous white lead from paint
○ Limited child labour
○ Introduced max 48 hour week and 8 hour day
○ However-lacked funds and accused for only ‘name and shame’
● Health Committee
○ Sponsored research for infectious diseases
○ Developed vaccines for diseases like malaria and leprosy
● Transport
○ Made recommendations on marking ship lanes and produced international
highway code for road users.
● Social problems
○ Blacklisted illegal drug trade companies
○ Freed 20000 slaves in Sierra Leone
○ Decreased death rate amongst african workers (50% to 4%)
○ Kept records for slavery, drug trafficking and prostitution.

Disarmament
● Largely failed in bringing out disarmament
● The league took an initiative to disarm when france agreed only if all other nations do,
however, britain rejected the idea
 ● A plan for disarmament was made in 1926 but it took 5 years to bring out a draft
convention and the conference only happened in 1933.
● 1925 Locarno Treaty ( outside the League )
○ Germany accepted its western borders as set out in the TOV
○ Accepted with great enthusiasm
○ Paved the way for germany to join the league
● 1928 kellogg briand pact ( outside the league )
○ 65 nations agreed not to use force to settle dispute

International Agreements
● 1922 Rapallo treaty
○ USSR and Germany re-established diplomatic relationships
● 1924 The Dawes Plan
○ USA lent money to germany to help them pay their reparations in order to avert a
crisis
● 1929 Young Plan
○ Germany’s reparation amount was reduced.
● Geneva Protocol, 1924
○ This was an agreement which all countries would sign, promising to take any
international dispute to the LON. Br and Fr created it but a general election in
Britain meant there was a govt change and it was never passed

1930s

The Economic Depression

● The highly booming wall street in the USA, crashed in 1929
● Damaged trade and industries for all countries and resulted in a world wide economic
depression
● Businesses went bust leading to unemployment
● Countries introduced taxes on imported goods to protect themselves-worsened trade
and led to more unemployment
● Countries (britain, france, Italy, japan and germany) began to rearm to bring about new
jobs
● As their neighbours re armed, many states feared that their neighbours have plans for
their armies so they too rearmed
● The league could stop countries from invading each other through sanctions- but this
was not possible as the depression made US unwilling to help
● Britain was not willing to help since their economic stature was no good
 ● Japan's main source of income- silk trade with the USA went bust thus forcing them to
resort to taking over weaker nations in order to sustain their countries economy
● The depression affected germany badly and the country was in shambles. This made
them elect adolf hitler, a strong leader in comparison to their previous one.
● Mussolini tried to build an overseas empire in italy to distract the people from the
depression

MANCHURIA
● The first failure of the League in the 1930s was a dispute over the Japanese invasion of
Manchuria.
● In an attempt to overcome the effects of the worldwide depression, Japan took over this
area of China after claiming Chinese aggression against their railway there.
● In response, China asked the League of Nations for help, as specified in the Covenant of
the League.
● The first problem with the League’s response to Manchuria was that it took their
representative, Lord Lytton, over a year to reach a judgement.
● This delay showed their inefficiency at responding to crises, and when they finally did
reach a judgement in February 1933 by ordering Japan to leave Manchuria the
Japanese refused.
● As a result of not liking the decision, Japan left the League instead and stayed in
Manchuria

● The League was left in a precarious situation. Britain and France, the leading powers
within the League, were reluctant to impose trade sanctions or even a ban on weapons
for fear of further damaging their own economies by losing valuable trade.
● Furthermore, they didn’t really consider imposing any military action due to the problems
that would cause.
● The League had been defied by Japan, and its reputation was badly damaged.
● While the League continued its work in the aftermath of Manchuria, dictators like
Mussolini and Hitler almost certainly noted the weakness of the League in dealing with
Japan.

DISARMAMENT CONFERENCE

● Before the fatal blow of the Abyssinia Crisis, the League’s reputation suffered again
during the World Disarmament Conference
● . Despite hold-ups and setbacks the conference did eventually get underway in 1932
but, due to the presence of the new German Leader, Adolf Hitler, it ended in chaos.
Hitler argued that Germany should be allowed to rearm to a level equal to that of the
other powers.
 ● The French representatives at the conference were horrified, and Hitler subsequently
used the French attitude as an excuse to withdraw from both the Conference in 1933
and the League in 1934

ABYSSINIA CRISIS

● Mussolini had long wished to expand its overseas empire, and hoped that seizing
Abyssinia would take the nation’s mind off the current economic difficulties and boost his
popularity for expanding Italian territory.
● Incident at wal wal oasis between italian and ethiopian soldiers in 1934 dec
● Thus in October 1935 the Italian army invaded Abyssinia.

● The leader of Abyssinia, Haile Selassie asked the League for assistance, and quickly
condemned the Italian invasion.
● However, its effectiveness was lessened due to the arguably selfish interests of Britain
and France to maintain good relations with Mussolini as a potential ally against the
growing power of Hitler’s Germany.

● Despite this, the League began to impose some economic sanctions against Italy
including a ban on weapons, rubber and metal.
● However, it was decided not to ban oil exports and not to close the Suez Canal – a
move which could have ended the Abyssinian campaign very quickly.
● These half-hearted sanctions damaged the League's credibility but even more damaging
was the secret deal Britain and France tried to negotiate with Mussolini behind the
League's back.

● Hoare and Laval, the British and French foreign ministers, devised a secret plan that
would give Mussolini two thirds of Abyssinia if he called off the invasion, known as the
Hoare-Laval Pact.
● . It was not enough to save Abyssinia, however. Italy went on to conquer the country and
subsequently leave the League of Nations.
● The League had been destroyed from within, undermined by the scheming of Britain
and France in the Hoare-Laval Pact and now having lost a potential ally against Hitler.
Indeed, Mussolini himself went on to strike a deal with Hitler – the Rome-Berlin Axis –
having seen Hitler use the diversion of the crisis to move into and remilitarise the
Rhineland.
 WHY HAD INTERNATIONAL PEACE COLLAPSED BY 1939? - ROAD TO WAR

ADOLF HITLER

● He had fought for the German army in WW1

● He was awarded for his bravery and contribution
● He hated all those that he blames for the german loss in the war-Jews, communists,
Allied powers and the Weimar govt
● In 1933 he became the chancellor of germany through a democratic process
● He laid out his plans for Germany in a book termed the Mein Kampf in 1924

HITLER’S GOALS- FOREIGN POLICY

● Overturn the treaty of versailles

○ WHY?
■ It was considered as a constant reminder of the loss in WW1
■ Hitler felt that it humiliated the country and promised to overturn it
○
○ HOW?
■ He planned to regain the land he lost to other countries
■ Avoid paying reparations
 ■ Remilitarize rhineland
■ Take back control of the Saar coalfields
■ Begin rearming Germany
■ Unite with Austria-Anschluss
● Establishment of a Greater Germany
○ He wanted to unite all German speaking people and make the country stronger
than ever
● Establishment of Lebensraum
○ He wanted to create more living space
○ More land and resources for the pure bread Aryans who he considered superior
to everyone
○ He wanted to take away land from inferior races such as the Slavs and Jews
(Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Russia)
● Defeat Communism
○ WHY?
■ He felt that the communists played a key role in allowing Germany to lose
the war
■ He also felt that they wanted to take over Germany
○ HOW?
■ He wanted to carve his German empire out of the Soviet Union in order to
attain his objective of overturning communism

HITLER’S TIMELINE

DATE ACTION

1933 Stop paying reparations

Took Germany out of LON and began
rearming

1934 Tried to take over Austria but was prevented

by Mussolini

Signed non intervention pact with poland

1935 Held a massive rearmament rally in Germany

Saar plebiscite

Anglo German naval agreement - 35% army

1936 Reintroduced conscription

Sent german troops to Rhineland
 Made an anti-communist alliance with Japan
Tried German weapons at the spanish civil
war

1937
Made an anti communist alliance with italy

1938 took over austria

Took over sudetenland area of
Czechoslovakia

1939 Invaded rest of Czechoslovakia

Invaded poland
War

ROAD TO WAR - STEPS TAKEN BY HITLER

● Rearmament
○ WHY?
■ A large army would help reduce unemployment which was 6 million
people in 1933
■ In order to overturn the TOV he needed a strong army
■ An army would restore Germany’s stand and bring them pride
■ He believed that the Mutual Assistance Pact signed in 1934 between
USSR, Poland and France was against Germany and thus they needed
protection.
○ HOW?
■ Begins rearmament in secrecy
■ He first deliberately proposes international disarmament at the
conference in 1933 knowing that no country would agree
■ He then withdraws from LON using the above as justification
■ In 1935 he openly stages a large rearmament rally in Nuremberg
■ Introduced conscription in 1936
■ Hitler argued that USSR and France had a large army and so he
increased the number of soldiers from 100000 to 950000 by 1939
■ Hitler ordered 2 new Battleships and 6 Submarines by 1934
■ He knew that countries won’t retaliate and he had Britain’s sympathy
● Anglo German Pact of 1935 allowed Germany to increase the size
of their navy to 35% of the size of Britain’s.
 ■ The German Luftwaffe had been ban under the TOV and in 1933 Hitler
announced that he is setting up and Airforce Ministry to train pilots and
create aircrafts.
■
WARSHIPS AIRCRAFT SOLDIERS

1932 30 36 100000

1939 95 8250 950000

■
■ The govt arms budget increased from 7.4% to 38% in 1940
● The Saar Plebiscite
○ The Saar region were coalfields, iron and steel factories and railway centres on
the French and German border
○ It was taken away by the LON under the TOV
○ A plebiscite was due after 15 years to decide Saar’s fate
○ It was held on Jan 13 1935
○ The Nazi’s launched a massive campaign to persuade saarlanders to join
germany and there was use of terror to intimidate opposition
○ Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels mounted massive campaign
○ Germany won with 90% majority
○ Impact
■ Used as evidence to show that there was a lot of support for the Reich
■ He was successfully uniting german speaking people and that also in a
legitimate and fairly legal manner
■ Boosted popularity and confidence
■ Coal fields helped hitler boost german economy
■ Coal and iron help with rearmament
■ Highlighted the hatred of the TOV-even amongst germans living in a
foreign land.
● Remilitarization of Rhineland
○ Rhineland was a large area that formed Germany’s western borders with France
and Belgium
○ The TOV stipulated that it had to be demilitarized
○ Germany accepted this under the Locarno Treaties of 1925
○ It was essential for french security but in order for Hitler to carry out his aim of
Lebensraum in the east he needed to strengthen his western border
○ The Mutual Assistance pact was used as justification for him to want rhineland
back
○ In march 1936, he moved his troops into rhineland
○ RISK
■ He was unaware about how France would react even though he had
some indication about Britain, who considered Rhineland a justified
grievance.
 ■ The mutual assistance pact could threaten germany
■ Germany’s army was not strong enough to fight the french and british
after depression
■ He himself saw it as a risk because he ordered the troops to draw back of
there was any resistance
■ Sent only a small number of troops
■ Stated that the ‘most nerve racking 48 hours of my life’c
■ The Nazi Generals warned him not to go ahead with this
■ If he would have to ask the troops to draw back he would face humiliation
and lose the trust of the army
■ This was something germany agreed upon at the locarno treaties so he
had no justification
○ NOT A RISK
■ The move was well timed
● The LON was busy with the Abyssinia crisis
● France was in the middle of an election and no leader was
prepared to take responsibility to plunge their country into war by
resisting germany
● By 1936 there was enough indication that britain was ready to give
into germany’s demands
● France would not act without britain
■ The mutual assistance pact had been signed and hitler used it as
justification as germany was under threat.
○ IMPACTS
■ Strengthened Hitler’s popularity as he once again overturned the TOV
■ Resources from rhineland at his disposal
■ Emboldened him as he was now willing to take even more risks to fulfil
his aims
● The Spanish Civil War
○ In 1936 a civil war broke in spain between the republican govt and rebels under
General Franco
○ The USSR supported the republican gov in the form of resources and manpower
t while Italy and Germany supported general franco.
○ The british and french provided no official support to the govt even though they
were democratic nations.
○ They did not want to be seen fighting besides USSR who they thought was the
bigger enemy
○ Private citizens from these countries however did provide republican support
○ 40-60 thousand people from 50 nations came together as volunteers to support
the govt under the International Brigade organised by the Comintern- however
everyone was not communist.
■ Gave these people an opportunity to prevent rise of dictatorship and
fascism
 ○ In the beginning germany and italy also did not want to intervene but ultimately
went against this
○ Italy sent troops as volunteers
○ Germany sent aircrafts and pilots who were involved in most major war
campaigns
○ Took part in bombing of civilian population- devastating image captured by
Picasso’s Guernica )
○ They helped transport Franco’s forces from north africa to spain
○ The support germany gave in the form of personnel and resources helped franco
win the war.
○ WHY DID HITLER JOIN?
■ Opportunity to test out weapons and military tactics, give combat
experience to forces- known as the Dress Rehearsal for the european
war he was planning.
■ Opportunity to gain alliances with other fascist countries and leaders-
Mussolini and Franco
■ Opportunity to gain spanish resources
● In 1938 the Montana Project gave 75% of spanish mining share to
germany
■ By defeating the Republicans, he also defeated USSR and in the end
communism and their forces.
● Militarism and the Axis
○ Mussolini was becoming increasingly powerful in Italy
■ Taken over abyssinia
■ Trying to assert authority over the Mediterranean and North Africa
○ General Tojo gaining power in east japan
■ Wanted to extend japan’s empire to compete with the USA
■ Took over china- Manchuria
○ Hitler and Mussolini found that they had much in common with Japan
○ Germany and Japan signed an anti comintern ( communist ) pact in 1936
○ Italy joined this pact in 1937 and it was termed the Axis Alliance.
○ A full military alliance was signed between Germany, Italy and Japan in 1940-
Pact of Steel
● Anschluss with Austria-1939
○ Why did Hitler want anschluss?
■ To create greater germany- austria had largest number of german
speakers outside germany
■ He believed that the countries were culturally linked and explicitly stated
in the Mein Kampf that they belonged together.
■ It gave him a further opportunity to break the TOV
■ It would help strengthen his army
■ There was a strong nazi party base in austria
■ There was support for anschluss in austria as they had suffered
economically due to the treaty of St Germain
 ■ Hitler was born in Austria
○ How did hitler obtain anschluss?

1934 Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss ban the nazi

party thinking they would tear the country
apart.
Hitler attempted a coup but was stopped
due to Italian intervention.
Dolfus was murdered

New Chancellor, Schuschnigg was

pressured to agree to Anschluss but he
turned to B & F for help- they were unable
to provide it.
Schuschnigg felt that he had no option but
to call for a plebiscite.
He was made to resign by Hitler as he did
not like the idea of a plebiscite because
he was scared that he will not win.

12 March 1938 New puppet leader Seyss Inquart

requested Hitler to restore law and order
in Austria.

14 March 1938 Hitler sent his troops without any

resistance or bloodshed.

10 April 1938 The plebiscite was held and it was

organised by the Nazis.

99.75% Austrians voted for Anschluss.

■ The results of the Anschluss are said to be rigged but it must be kept in
mind that although there was pressure from the Nazis, many Austrians
did want anschluss as it gave them the opportunity to be a part of the
Glory and Success of the Reich.
■ Anschluss was completed without any intervention from B & F.
■ British prime minister Chamberlain felt that Austrians and Germans had
the right to be united.
■ Hitler was doing as he liked and B & F were not intervening
■ The Treaty was suspected as B & F were not willing to defend a flawed
treaty.
○ Results
■ Successfully broken another term of the TOV
■ Increased territory, population and resources for germany
■ Increased german military strength
■ Increased his confidence in his plan.
Hitler created the 4 year plan to make sure Germany was ready for war by 1939.

APPEASEMENT

● It was a policy followed by B & F in the 1930s

● They gave into the reasonable demands of aggressors to avoid war
○ Italy-Abyssinia
○ Japan-Manchuria
○ Germany- everything hitler did
● Why did they follow appeasement?
○ Desire of peace
■ There was a desire of peace after the devastating ww1
■ A Peace Pledge Union collected over 100000 members who were against
war
■ War at this time would increase civilian casualties due to the newly
developed aircrafts for bombing
■ Huge debts and unemployment- cannot afford war
○ Sympathy for germany
■ Many felt that the treaty was unfair especially in britain
■ Germany should re arm and take back german land like rhineland.
○ Threat of communism
■ B & F were more concerned with the spread of communism
■ USSR was seen as a more dangerous enemy than Germany
■ They saw a potential ally against communism in Hitler
■ Stalin’s purges made USSR even more unreliable
○ Not rearmed
■ B & F felt that their army was not powerful enough after the ww1
■ With the depression they found it increasingly difficult to provide capital
for re armament
■ A rearmament programme to prepare britain for war and keep up with the
technological advances only began in 1935-36.
■ The plan for Britain was to complete re armament till 1940 and till then
they needed to avoid war- hence appeasement
■ The french needed time to fortify the Maginot Line- defence strategy
○ Concern for empire
■ The British and french empire was under threat in the 1930s as japan was
slowly trying to expand theirs
 ■ Thus they needed to avoid a european war
■ The self governing colonies of the British Commonwealth ( Canada,
Australia and NZ ) had made it very clear that they would not support
them at the time of another war.
○ Lack of allies
■ B & F lacked effective and strong allies
■ USA was following the policy of isolation
■ US had also not spend much on their defence during the 1920-30s and
thus did not have a strong army
○ Ineffectiveness of the LON
■ The league did not have the countries with aggressive policies like Japan,
Italy and Germany
■ They were unable to make effective and consistent decisions due to the
personal interests of leading member nations.
● Results of appeasement
○ B & F missed opportunities to stop the aggressive nations when they were not
too powerful.
○ Alarmed the USSR that B & F were not going to stop Hitler as fear of
communism was greater- lead to the signing of the Nazi Soviet Pact, key short
term cause of ww2.
○ Did not prevent war and fueled hitler’s aims of international domination

SUDETENLAND - CZECHOSLOVAKIA 1938

Why Sudetenland?
● To avoid a war on two fronts- USSR could invade Germany through czech as they had
an alliance
● Czech was created as a part of the treaty of St Germain which was unfair on the
Austrians
● Hitler hated the czechs as he considered them inferior- slavs
● There were 3.5 million germans living there
● To gain lebensraum
● Sudetenland had the largest ars factory - Skoda
● Coal deposits

How did Hitler take over Sudetenland?

● Czech leader, Benes, was worried that Germany would take over his country after hitler
successfully united with Austria.
● Benes went to B & F to ask for support if hitler attacked and they reluctantly agreed as F
was bound by a treaty and B felt that they should support F
● Chamberlin asked Hitler if he had plans to take over Czech and Hitler blatantly denied
● Hitler’s threats
○ Despite ensuring chamberlain, hitler had plans to take over Czech
○ The country created due to the TOV had a large number of germans who were
former subjects of the Austrian-Hungary Empire- Sudetenland
○ Hitler urged the leader of the Czech Nazi party- Henlein to demand the govt to
increase germans rights in Czech but this was of course not enough.
○ In april 1938, hitler amassed his troops into Czech border and they too mobilized
their troop to resist.
○ Czech was not a walkover for hitler like austria- B, F & USSR had promised to
support them.
○ Benes was ready to fight as without Sudetenland forts, railways and industries
they would be defenceless
○ In Sept- hitler encouraged Sudetenland nazi’s to riot but they were crushed by
the Czech govt.
○ Things were going out of hand and so on the 15 of September, Chamberlain flew
over to meet hitler
■ after discussions, chamberlain convinced Czech govy to transfer those
parts of sudetenland that had a majority of german population
■ Felt that this was correct as it was not right to keep the germans away
from home
■ Thought that if he did this, hitler would finally be happy.
■ This idea was subjected to approval by French and Czech govt.
○ In another meeting held on 22 September
■ Hitler upped his demands and wanted the entire sudetenland region and
threatened to go to war if his demands were not met
■ He claimed that the czech govt was mistreating the germans and he
needed to rescue them by 1 october.
■ Chamberlain told him that his demands were unreasonable and mobilized
british navy.
○ Munich Agreement
■ Mussolini persuaded hitler to attend a 4 power ( Germany, Italy, Britain
and France ) conference in Munich on 29 September.
■ Czech and USSR were kept out of the conference.
■ It was decided that Sudetenland was to be given to Germany and the
Czechs were made to sign the agreement.
■ Britain and Germany signed another agreement stating that they would
not go to war with each other for the next 10 years.
■ Chamberlain returned home a hero who had averted war
■ Hitler promised that this was his last territorial claim in europe.
■ Consequences
● Czech lost a strong defence system
● Lost key industrial areas and factors
● Action of sudeten germans stirred other nationalities in Czech to
demand a return to their nation
 ● Under pressure from the slovaks, czech govt demanded self
governance to them
● Czech lost territory to poland and hungary
● In march 1939, the new czech govt appealed to hitler for help who
marched in and took over czech
● B and F could not oppose it as Nazis had been invited by the
czechs
● Marked the end of appeasement as B & F no longer trusted Hitler
and saw him as an aggressor who must be stopped.
● The guessed his next claim would be Poland and threatened war
if he went ahead with it
● Hitler did not believe they would resist after so many years of
appeasement.
USSR, BRITAIN & FRANCE

● Logically Hitler’s next step was to take the Polish corridor region given to Poland under
the TOV
● Convinced that B and F would not go to war over this but unsure about USSR.

Stalin’s Fears
● Threatened by Hitler since he came to power as he denounced communism and wanted
to take over Russia
● Joined the League hoping for protection but realised it would not be very helpful as they
succumbed to pressure put by Mussolini etc
● Stalin signed a treaty with france in 1935 agreeing to protect USSR if they were under
threat by Germany, but did not trust france to stick with it as they failed to even stop
hitler from invading rhineland- something on their border
● Munich agreement increased stalin’s concerns as he was not consulted and he realised
that B and F would be happy to see Hitler take over USSR.
● Stalin wanted a full military alliance with B & F but they did not agree to it
○ Hated communism
○ Suspected that stalin wanted to control eastern europe.
● Chamberlain was reluctant to commit britain into an alliance and Stalin was getting
impatient.

THE NAZI-SOVIET PACT, 1939

● Stalin was receiving visits from the Nazi Foreign Minister in 1939
● On 23 August, Hitler and Stalin signed the Nazi Soviet Pact
● They agreed not to attack each other
● Privately decided to split up poland.

Why was the pact important for Hitler?

 ● Left only B & F to fight Germany- avoided war on two fronts
● Gave him half of poland- Resources + Greater Germany + Lebensraum
● Last clause of the TOV to break
● Avoided alliance between B, F & USSR

Why was the pact important for Stalin?

● Gave territory that was once a part of Russia- buffer zone against german attack
● No war with germany over poland
● Gave time
○ Stalin never trusted hitler or B & F
○ He knew he would have to fight hitler at some point and so he needed time to get
his forces ready for an unavoidable attack.

Consequences
● B signed a treaty with Poland promising to defend german attacks as they were now re
armed
● B & F tried to get the poles to negotiate with germany but they resisted
● On 1 September, Hitler attacked poland, ignoring the ultimatum given by B & F.
● On 3 September, B & F declared war on Germany
● Germany defeated poland in less than 3 weeks and USSR attacked Poland on the
eastern front
● Single post imp cause of WW2 as germany invaded poland without resistance from any
major power
● Nothing B & F could do once he invaded Poland- Full scale war.
‘

WHY DID EVENTS IN THE GULF MATTER, 1970-2000?

TIMELINE

IRAN DATE IRAQ

Nationalisation of Iranian oil 1951

industry

Overthrow of Mossadeq govt 1953

by Shah

1958 Iraqi army overthrow

monarchy

1968 Baathists seize power

1972 Nationalization of oil industry

Strikes and demonstrations 1978

against Sha’s govt

Revolution and Islamic 1979 Saddam Hussein becomes

Republic proclaimed. President.

US Embassy staff taken

hostage

IRAN IRAQ WAR 1980-1988 IRAN IRAQ WAR

1988 Massacre of Kurds by Iraqi

Army

1990 Iraqi forces invade Kuwait,

leading to the Gulf War of
1991
 1991 Shiite Rebellion crushed

REASONS FOR TENSION IN THE GULF

● Oil
○ Gulf region contains ⅔ of the world’s oil reserves
○ Countries there depend on oil for wealth
○ Western and far eastern countries also depend on the Gulf for oil imports
○ Transport system and manufacturing industry is dependent ^
○ Control of oil supply played a major role in Iran Iraq was and was central cause
of the gulf war.
● Israel
○ Israel is a jewish state carved out of land inhabited by the Arabs in 1948
○ The creation of the state was opposed by all Arab states
○ Israel has been a source of tension
● Religion
○ Split between Sunni and Shia muslims
○ Disagreement between these major branches of Islam have been a cause of
tension ever sense
● Individuals
○ People turn tension into conflicts
○ Saddam Hussein and Ayatollah Khomeini have played roles in raising tension
● National Identity
○ Iranians and Iraqis are proud of their heritage, history and culture
○ However for much of history, the area has been controlled by foreign empires
○ While foreign countries only care about oil, many nationalists care more about
their religion and country than abou oil and money
○ Brought conflict with foreign powers and rulers who cooperate with them.

IRAQ

Ancient Iraq
● Initially part of ancient land of Mesopotamia
 ● Invaded by Arabs in 7 AD and its people adopted Arabic language and islam religion.
British Mandate
● In 1900 it was a part of the Turkish empire.
● After WW1, Iraq became a British mandate as the turkish empire was broken up under
the treaty of Sevres.

King Faisal
● Post a revolution against the British in 1920, a puppet monarchy lead by King Faisal
(member of leading Iraqi family ) was put into place in 1921.
● The British still kept control of Iraq’s foreign policy and kept two air bases.
● Controlled oil through the british owned Iraqi Petroleum company that owned, drilled and
sold all Iraq oil.
Discontent
● The Monarchy of 35 years did bring about changes like that in education but there was
much discontent
○ Inequality amongst rich and poor- dominated by small number of landowners
while rest of the population was poor
○ Britain supported the formation of Israel even though Iraq did not.
○ In 1952 it was decided to split oil profits amongst the british and the govt but the
british still controlled the oil.
Republic
● In 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and became a republic.
● After another coup in 1986, the republic was ruled by the Baath Party.
● Sunnis had been dominant group in Iraq ever since 1921, but Shiites formed majority
population
● Many shiites were brought into the new govt to show unity.
● Economic exploitation continued and built hatred against the west amongst the Iraqis

THE RISE OF SADDAM HUSSEIN

● In 1937, Saddam Hussein was born. He grew up in a peasant family in Tikrit, near
Baghdad
● At the age of 20, saddam joined the Baathist Party as he grew up with an
anti-western/british attitude.
● He went ahead to become the leader of the Iraqi Intelligence in 1963
● Even though iraq had become a republic in 1958, it wasn’t really efficient.
● He was responsible to plan a coup in 1968 and overthrew King Faisal and brought the
Baathist party into power.
● In 1968 Saddam’s cousin, Ahmed Al Bakr became President while Saddam was Vice
President
How did Saddam rise to power and become President of Iraq in 1979?

● Strong power base

○ Just like Stalin, Saddam was dedicated to build a power base
○ He made sure he had control of the key positions of the Baath party
○ Controlled most imp govt departments
○ Controlled army
○ Many of his close advisors came from his Takrit clam
○ Family members held most imp posts- two sons
○ Saddam placed friends and allies in imp positions of the army
○ Kept military commanders happy by spending on defence.
● Popularity
○ Nationalised iraqi oil industry in 1972
■ Used iraqi oil wealth to develop education, infrastructure, health and
welfare services amongst the best in the world.
■ Recognised by UN for making iraq the most modern public health system
in middle east
○ In 1973, Iraq joined the Arab oil producing states to reduce oil production and
sale to the west : OPEC
■ Done to punish west for supporting israel in a war against syria and egypt
■ Drove up oil prices by 400% and iraq’s oil income increased from 575
million USD in 1972 to 26500 million USD in 1980.
○ Saddam extended electricity to countryside
○ Agriculture was increasingly mechanised
○ Roads, bridges, hospitals, schools, dams built
○ Urban middle class of lawyers, businessmen and govt officials emerged.
● Control
○ Extended baathist party control over trade unions, schools and sports clubs
○ Membership of baathist party determined who would be appointed positions in
the govt
○ Conditioned children to develop an anti- western and nationalistic attitude.
● Repression
○ Leader of army by 1976
○ Effective leader of Iraq as president became old and frail
○ Extended govt control over army and secret police
○ High military spending kept army happy
○ Kept under control by regular indoctrination and rotation of officers
○ Imprisonment and execution of disloyalty
○ Increased reports of torture and rape of those held in prison
○ Secret police under saddam's rule dominated army and baath party
○ Most recruits came from rural, tribal areas in sunni dominated areas and from
Saddam’s on tribe
 ○ In 1979 saddam forced the ailing president to resign and formally became
president of iraq.

NATURE OF SADDAM HUSSEIN’S RULE

● Purges and terror

○ First few things he did was relieve the secretary general of the Revolutionary
Command Council- Mashhadi of his duties
■ He accused him of being part of a plot to overthrow the baathist party
■ A detailed fabricated confession of his crime was delivered
■ All because he demanded a vote on saddam’s credibility.
○ Show trials inspired by Stalin
■ Televised trial of many opponents; 21 of which who were executed
○ After an assassination attempt on saddam in Dujail village in 1982, he got 150
villagers in relation killed by his security forces.
○ Hundreds of party members and military officers were purged because of alleged
disloyalty
○ Death penalty for those who left the Baathist party and joined any other party
○ 66 conspirators were tried in special courts of which 55 found guilty- 22 killed and
33 sent to prison.
● Waging war on his own people.
○ Kurds
■ Key aim was to unify Iraq but Kurds ( 20%) of population wanted
independence.
■ Kurds had a fair amount of self governance and in 1974-75 saddam killed
most of their leaders and took away the self governance.
■ Kurds took help from Iran which increased during the iran iraq war of
1980 and soon the kurds regained control of the kurdish northern iraq
■ Ferocious campaigns against the Kurds in 1987-88 and 1991
■ Destroyed half of kurdistan’s villages and towns
■ Saddam’s cousin ( ‘chemical ali’ )Carried mass executions -180000 killed
■ Killed thousands of people with mustard gas and cyanide
■ Displaced millions
■ Many fled to iran or turkey while some were housed in concentration
camps in the dessert
■ Most appalling attack in town of Halabja in march 1988
● Iraqi planes spread poison gas over the area killing 5000 men
women and children and inflicting injuries on another 10000.
○ Shiites
■ 60% population hostile towards sunni dominated govt
■ Wanted inclusion in Iraq, not separatism like kurds
 ■ After islamic revolution in shiite iran, saddam became suspicious of his
own shiite population
■ In 1980-81, 200000 shiites were deported as they were proven disloyal
● Many of them were successful businessmen and their businesses
were handed over to the govt.
■ In 1991, suppressed revolts as Republican Guard invaded rebel
strongholds carrying out arrests and mass executions.
○ Attacked Marsh Arabs who were coming in the way of saddam building a
waterway- population dropped from 250000 to 30000.
● Cult of personality
○ Carrot to his carrot and stick policy
○ Exhibition of his life put up in Baghdad
○ Featured in newspapers and magazines
○ Autobiographical film produced
○ Songs written in his praise
○ Statues and portraits hung in public buildings
○ When referendum held on his presidency, he got 99 vote.
○ Censorship in media-no bad views on saddam
○ Various baath party youth organizations.
● Infrastructure
○ Improved health, education and services for many people in iraq
○ Daily life of many iraqis improved due to modern roads and water supply
○ Electricity in villages
○ Uni education and healthcare was free
○ painters , musicians and artists helped by govt subsidies flourished
○ Freedom of religious expression
○ Govt in iraq was relatively free from corruption
○ All these benefits depended on people not getting on the wrong side of the
regime
○ Economy was mix of state owned and private but all production was geared
towards state needs.
○

● Military expansion
○ Ussr, france supplied arms
○ Purchased tanks, helicopters, bombers, transport aircraft, surface to air missiles,
artillery and electronic equipment.
○ Army increased from 10 to 12 divisions.
○ Increases chemical, biological and nuclear weapons

*add points from how he got to power like- membership in baath party determined if you could
be a part of govt/military etc
IRAN

British and Iran

● Not part of any empire and run by the Shah
● Oil fields controlled by british company that paid shah’s govt for the right to operate
● After ww2, iranians demanded to take control of their oil or get at least half the profit
● Leading iranian nationalist Mohammed Mossadeq championed this cause.
● Shah made him PM after huge popular support in 1951
● Passed a law to nationalise oil industries and made Mossadeq a hero in and out of Iran
● In retaliation the british withdrew their work force and persuaded other western oil
companies not to buy oil from iran
● British navy imposed blockade on iranian ports refusing to allow any ships to enter or
leave.

Overthrow of Mossadeq’s govt

● British persuaded US to join them in overthrowing mossadeq
○ Used the threat of communism as USSR shared a border with Iran and could get
ahold of the oil supplies
○ Height of cold war so US agreed
● Under pressure from americans and british shah dismissed mossadeq and put a pro
western PM in place
● Mossadeq was put onto trial and imprisoned
● Group of western oil companies agreed with the shah to restart production in return for
40% of oil profits
● Shah’s new govt along with turkey, britain and iraq signed an anti soviet treaty
● Iran grew rich from oil industry income
● Shah introduced reforms
○ Shared land amongst poor
○ Gave women right to vote
○ Increased number of schools
○ Raised literacy rates

Opposition to the Shah

● In the 1970s, the mullahs criticized the wealth, luxury and corruption of the Shah and his
supporters
● Shah held huge celebration at the alleged 2500th anniversary for the persian monarchy
○ Many did not believe the claim
○ Shah spent 330 million usd on the occasion
○ Shocking as many were so poor in the country
 ● Criticized shah’s close relations to the west
○ Saw him as USA’s pawn
○ Supported existence of israel
○ Mullahs held street demonstrations to target banks because close relation to
west
○ Cinemas for showing foreign, often sexual ‘unislamic films’.
● In response
○ Shah’s secret police arrested, exiled, imprisoned and tortured thousands of
critiques including mullahs
○ Leader of opposition- ayatollah khomeini was forced into exile by shah’s govt
■ Went to turkey in 1964 and then paris
■ His speeches were smuggled into iran in the form of cassettes.

Islamic Revolution of 1979

● In 1978 huge demonstrations for shah to abdicate
● Soon in sept ‘78 introduced military rule - killed 500 people in a demonstration
● Wave of strikes in oct which brought oil production to halt
● By end of 1978, many soldiers refused to fire on crowds (conscripts) and sympathised
with protestors
● Shahs advisers assured him it was only a small uprising
● In jan 1979, Shah left iran for a cancer treatment and never returned
● Khomeini returned triumphed and declared an Islamic revolution
● Shah’s PM fled the country and most of the army showed support for the revolution
● A national referendum produced a large majority in favour of abolishing monarchy and
establishing the islamic republic.

The establishment of an Islamic state

● Despite ayatollah, other opposition like communist group who wanted western style
democracy
● However khomeini’s supporters organise and dominated key positions in the Islamic
Republic party
● Not PM but held position of ‘supreme leader’ of shiite iran
● Made rules based on quran
○ Women had to cover their heads in public
○ Alcohol, western music and films banned
○ Mass trials and execution for shah’s former supporters
○ Keen to spread islamic revolution across the corrupt un islamic regimes in the
rest of the muslim worlds
○ Denounced ties which bound other states to the west.

Storming of the US Embassy- Nov 1979

● US, former ally of the shah was the biggest enemy for Iran- known as “the great Satan”
 ● When US govt allowed Shah in america for medical treatment in nv 1979, iranian
students stormed US embassy and took 50 of the american staff as hostage
● US govt declared iran as international ‘outlaw’
● Many in the muslim world-arab or not- admired Khomeini for standing up to the west

Neighboring iraq was prime target for export for the iranian revolution
Non religious secular govt and growing opposition with large shiite population who were
excluded from the govt.
Khomeini accused iraq govt for being atheist and corrupt

The Iran-Iraq War 1980-881

Why did Saddam decided to invade Iran in 1980?

● Khomeini had called upon the Iraqi shiite muslims to overthrow saddam
○ They were majority of the population while saddam and the govt was shia-
THREAT
● Saddam hed evidence that iran was involved in assassination of leading members of the
baathist party and was worried that they would target him too
● Saddam saw an opportunity to gain valuable territory
○ Iraq had a narrow coastline with only a few ports unlike iran
■ Saddam wanted to gain the Shatt al-Arab waterway to gain a secure
outlet to the sea
○ Thought he might be able to seize parts of oil rich south west iran
● Iran was week so it now seemed like the right time
○ Chaotic economy post fall of shah’s regime
○ Western boycott of trade after US embassy capture
○ Iranian forces were demoralised.
● Hoped to strengthen his regime and become the leading power in the oil rich gulf

War reaches stalemate

● Initially, when irani forces invaded iran in september, it was presumed that they would
easily win
● Proved wrong when halted at iraniani dessert within a month.
● Restored to sending firing missiles across cities and led to large civilian casualties ‘war
of the cities’
● Iraq had superior firepower but iran had a large population that was sent n the form of
human waves
● Hundreds of thousands of new recruits who were willing to be martyrs were sent
● Believed they were fighting good against evil
● Within two years iran took back all its land and captured iraq 's only port
● Called for ceasefire but iran said they would not settle for anything but Saddam's
overthrow.
 ● When iran declared they wanted to seize baghdad- iraqi soldiers united
● By 1984 the two sides were bogged down in trench warfare along the 1000 mile border

Foreign involvement
● Most arab states supported Iraq
○ Specially sunni rulers of Gulf States
○ Opposed spread of iranian revolution
○ Feared that if they won they would establish an iraqi state loyal to khomeini
○ Feared that iran would influence their shiite minorities
○ Feared iran as they posed a threat to their oil fields
○ Saudi arabia, jordan, egypt supplied money and arms to iraq
○ Jordan provided export route through port of aqaba
■ Vital since iran cut off their access
● Syria supported iran since it had rivalry with iraq
○ Shut iraqi pipelines that passed the mediterranean-in return they received iranian
oil.
● France, Germany, USSR and USA sided with Iraq
○ Opposed iranian revolution
○ France became largest non arab supplier of arms to iraq
○ Thought of revolutionary iranians controlling so much terrified the americans and
many arab states
○ Feared khomeini might be able to control world oil prices
○ Iranian victory would lead to collapse in any remaining western regimes in the
gulf
○ Using satellite technology, US kept Iraq informed about Iran's moves
○ Provided material for chemical warfare to iraq
● From 1986 fighting focused on the Gulf-vital routed through which iran and iraq exported
oil
● Iraqi air force controlled skies but iranian navy was stronger
● Iran attacked kuwaiti ships because they supported iraq
○ USSR offered to help kuwait
○ US swept in and provided protection to kuwait ships to pre empt USSR aid and
maintain influence over oil rich gulf
● Iran cut of iraq's access to Shatt al Arab waterway
○ US provided protection for iraqi ships and destroyed much of iranian navy.

Ceasefire, 1988
● After iran's economy was ruined and stream of martyrs had subsided they feared a direct
war with US and accepted a ceasefire in 1988 july
● No one won and no treaty was signed
● Both countries went back to rearm
● Longest and most destructive war since ww2
 ● Million iranians and ½ million iraqis died
● Although stalemate- many civilians died during war of the cities
● Both sides hoped that minority ethnic groups within the enemy country would rise up and
welcome invaders : did not happen.

Consequences for Iran

● Khomeini was upset about agreeing to a ceasefire
● Died in 1989
● Still revered by millions of iranians for his prod, defiant stand after years of humiliations
● 12 million people attended his funeral in tehran
● Islamic republic continue to attract wide support
● Still a population of 55 million and a strong power despite losses
● Did not succeed in exporting its revolutionary, shiite brand of islam

Consequences for Iraq

● Economy suffered
● Health and education for many destroyed
● More on weapons spent and less on hospitals and schools
● Life expectancy fell and infant mortality increased
● Debt of 80 billion usd
● Saddam spent money on developing arms and expensive technology
● 4 largest army in the world
● By 1990 more aircrafts and tanks than B & F combined
● Fall on oil prices in the market as exports declined due to tattered economy
● Unemployment due to jobless oil people and demobilized soldiers
● Riots and strikes and opposition coordinated at mosques
● Army could not attack mosque
● Army felt cheated of victory over iran and some privately blamed saddam
● Several attempt to overthrow him
● Officers executed for conspiracy
● Needed to divert population from growing military ciris in baghdad.

Kuwait Invasion 1990

Background
● Small oil rich state on southern iraq border
● Run by britain post ww1 until 1961
● Iraq wanted to claim kuwait but arab states did not allow
● 1963 reluctantly recognised their independence
 ● In 1990 iraq was invading kuwait again
● Needed to increase oil production in iraq as he had debts to pay off
○ But iraq was part of opec
○ Controlled oil production to keep prices high
○ Too much production would drop prices
○ Leading states like kuwait and Saudi arabia refused saddam’s request
○ Saddam was angered and saw this as an insult as iraqi lives had defended
kuwait ships
○ Accused kuwait of drilling under iraws borders and taking oil which did not belong
to them.

Saddam’s invasion to Kuwait, August 1990

● Facing discontent amongst military and population saddam decided to invade kuwait
● On 2 aug 1990 300000 iraqis crossed the border
● Took only 3 days to invade the country and took rest of the world by surprise
● Arab states condemned saddam's action
● UNSC imposed trade sanctions until troops backed out of Kuwait.
● Most complete and effective sanctions ever imposed by UN

Saddam’s response to UN sanctions

● Declared kuwait as an iraqi province
● Tried to draw support by saying he would withdraw his forces if israel withdrew theirs
from palestine
● Palestinians were thrilled but rest still condemned
● Iraqi troops gunned down kuwaiti protesters
● Saddam ordered detention for hundreds of foreigners, mostly western caught in iraq or
kuwait as hostages
● Used as human shields by being kept near military targets
● Women and children, sick and old released but still widespread condemnation of iraqi
behaviour.

American Reaction
● Iraqi forces massed on kuwait's border with saudi arabia
● Feared iraq could gain control of the largest saudi oil fields and control more than half of
the worlds.
● Saudi arabian king requested US for support if they were attacked and they obliged
● Built large naval, land and air forces.

Multi-national force
● UN deadline : withdraw from kuwait by 15 jan 1991 or face military force
● 700[‘000 troops assembled at saudi arabia
○ American, british and french troops
○ Egypt, syria, pakistan, bangladesh, saudi arabia
○ 34 countries joined coalition
The Gulf War, January-March 1991 operation desert shield

● Began with 5 week air assault

● Saddam tried to involve israel in hope for splitting the west and the arab states but the
US persuaded israel not to react
● Iraqi forces were no match to coalition and were defeated quickly
● Iraqi forces tried to pour oil into the gulf and set fire to kuwaiti oilfields
● US forces called upon the kurds and shiites to overthrow saddam
● No fly zone put in place to protect kurds in kurdish north
● US wanted to invade baghdad and get rid of saddam but arab states did not agree and
their UN mission was restricted to only liberate kuwait
○ Coalition would split if US invaded
● On 28 Feb a ceasefire was called

Weapons inspections
● UN searched and destroyed iraqi weapons a month after ceasefire
● Iraq cooperated due to serious effect of sanctions
● 3 years later they destroyed all material to make nuclear weapons
● Saddam's son in law had a fall out with him and went to jordan and spread talks about
saddam's son hiding iraqi weapons of mass destruction
○ Saddam pardoned him and called him back and ultimately shot him dead within 3
days
● Americans got suspicious and decided to only lift trade sanctions if saddam's regime
changed.

Impact of sanctions in iraq

● Blockade prevented import of machinery, fertilisers, medicines, books
● Oil sale was ban at first and then was limited
● Food import stopped and people become malnourished
● Chlorine to purify water was ban as it could be used to make chemical weapons.
○ Contaminated water lead to spread of dysentery
● Humanitarian crisis : UN allowed iraq to sell oil in order to buy food
● Sanctions did not build up opposition for saddam’s regions
○ Used violence and terror
○ Controlled resources
○ Rewarded those who were loyal supporters
○ All top jobs went to sunnis, especially saddam’s family
○ Army unit to protect the president
○ Rebuild electricity in sunni areas
○ Army still largest
● Saddam filmed the poverty and suffering and broadcasted it on Arab television
 ○ Portrayed Iraq as a victim of the greedy and uncaring west : international opinion
against sanctions began to change

Iraq emerges from isolation

● Did not allow inspectors from UN and CIA in the Iraqi special secret services
● American and british planes began to bombarded iraq military sights even though they
allegedly had no more WMD
● Arab states did not agree with bombing campaign and were turned against the US
● Several states began trading with iraq again after the US became too cruel
● American firms also began accepting iraq as a growing oil trade hub
● In 1999 UN approved unlimited oil trade from iraq and saddam’s regime had restored
diplomatic relations with all neighbours.
● Most fearful army in arab region
● Saddam challenged the UN and USA and still survived