IV.

METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING • "Climate change is causing an increase in the

frequency and intensity of natural disasters
• NEWS REPORT/WEATHER ADVISORY worldwide." "
- EXAMPLE : Heavy rainfall may experience in • Reading books is more beneficial for personal
Cagayan and Isabela due to Shear line today growth than watching television."
(January 16,2025) Moderate to Heavy (50-100
mm)-PAGASA • OPINIONS
- These statements go beyond providing facts.
• DEBATES -
- EXAMPLE : "Social media improves - They also provide conclusions or perspectives
communication." regarding certain situations.
- it also shares what someone thinks or feels
• ADVERTISEMENT AND MARKETING about a situation. It’s like adding a personal point
EXAMPLE : Slogan: This is the best shampoo for of view or judgment.
shiny hair. - They go beyond just giving information and
often include a personal point of view or
• KNOWLEDGE judgment.
- It is the clear awareness and understanding • EXAMPLE :
of something. - Fact: The sky is blue.
- It is the product of questions that allow for - Opinion: The sky looks most beautiful when it’s
clear answers provided by facts. blue.
- Our knowledge consists of ideas and beliefs that - Some of the statements even advance a belief
we know to be true. It is through knowing that we about a certain thing or person.
are able to determine what is true. - Opinions are also the bases for making
arguments and convicting people that a certain
• PROPOSITION claim is a fact.
- statements about the world or reality. It may - A judgment based on certain facts. The facts that
or may not carry truth. It is usually stated as short form the bases of a conclusion may not be
statements or sentences. disputed but the conclusion itself could still be
- in simple terms, a proposition is just a sentence contested or questioned.
that says something about the world, and we
can check if it’s true or not. • CONCLUSION
- A conclusion is a decision or opinion that
TWO TYPES OF PROPOSITIONS someone makes after looking at certain facts.
Because people can see facts differently or have
1. TRUTH different perspectives, the conclusion can still be
- Propositions or statements which are questioned or debated.
observed to be real or truthful. - For example: Fact: A student scored 85% on a
test. Conclusion: "This student is very good at
2. CLAIMS math."
- Propositions or statements that cannot be
taken as true since it is simply not immediately • BELIEF
evident. Further examination is required to - Statements that express convictions that are
establish whether it is true or false. not easily and clearly explained by facts. To
judge the truthfulness of belief, we must also
EXAMPLES OF CLAIM consider things such as a person’s experiences or
views.
- Beliefs aren’t always backed up by clear For example: Fallacy: "Everyone is buying this new
evidence, judging whether they are true or not phone, so it must be the best one."
often depends on understanding the person’s
background, culture, or viewpoint. V. EVALUATING OPINIONS
• CONVICTION • AMBIGUITY-the quality of being open to more
-strongly believe in being truthful no matter than one interpretation; inexactness.
what.
1. CLARITY
• EXPLANATION Example of an unclear opinion: "School times are
- Statements that assume the claim to be true bad."
and provide reasons why the statements is Example of a clear opinion: "Schools should
true. implement later start
- Reasons to show why they believe a statement times to improve student health and academic
or claim is true. performance."
- Tells you why something is true by
giving logical reasons or facts to 2. EVIDENCE
back it up. • Does it have supporting data or examples?
- For example: Claim: "Plants need sunlight to Evidence refers to credible data, research findings,
grow." Explanation: "This is because sunlight or specific examples that back up the opinion.
helps plants make food through a process called This makes the opinion more persuasive and
photosynthesis." reliable.

• ARGUMENTS 3. LOGIC
- Series of statements that provide reasons to • Is the reasoning valid and free of fallacies?
convince the reader or listener that a claim or Explanation: Logic refers to whether the opinion is
opinion is truthful. Arguments are made with the structured with sound reasoning and avoids
assumption that the truth of the claim or opinion common fallacies like overgeneralization, false
is still to be determined. cause, or emotional appeals.
- It starts with the idea that the claim hasn’t been • Example of logical reasoning: "Students who
proven yet, so the speaker or writer gives reasons, sleep more are better able to concentrate in class,
evidence, or logic to try to convince others to as shown by numerous sleep studies. Therefore,
agree. later school start times can enhance learning
- For example: Claim: "Recycling helps protect the outcomes."
environment." Argument: "Recycling reduces
waste in landfills, saves natural resources, and 4. RELEVANCE:
lowers pollution. That’s why it helps protect the - Is it applicable to the topic?
environment." - Relevance means the opinion directly relates to
the topic being discussed. Irrelevant opinions
• FALLACIES might stray from the subject or address unrelated
- Arguments may be based on faulty reasoning. issues.
Some of theses fallacies are intentional, as the - Example of relevant opinion: "Starting school
person making the claim is desperate to convince later aligns with adolescent sleep cycles, which
you to accept his or her argument. naturally shift toward later wake times during
- Fallacies are mistakes in thinking or reasoning puberty."
that weaken an argument.
- Example of irrelevant opinion: "Schools should • APPEAL TO FORCE: "If you don’t work overtime,
provide free lunches because students are I’ll cut your bonus this month."
hungry."
3. APPEAL TO EMOTION
SAMPLE FALLACIES - Using emotions such as pity or sympathy. Tries
to persuade someone by making them feel a
1. AD HOMINEM certain way, like pity, fear, or sympathy, instead of
-Attacking the person presenting the argument using logic or facts.
instead of the argument itself.
EXAMPLES:
EXAMPLES : 1. “all these charges are baseless; this is just plain
1. “Malamang sasabihin niyang lahat ng lalaki ay harassment- can’t you see how this is affecting
manloloko kasi sino ba naming magseseryoso sa my family?”
pangit na (While emotions can add depth to a discussion,
2. CONTEXT: A debate about climate change it’s important to back arguments with facts and
policies. logic for stronger persuasion.)
• ARGUMENT: "We need to reduce carbon
emissions to combat climate change." 2. CONTEXT: A student is explaining why they
• AD HOMINEM RESPONSE: "Why should we listen didn’t submit homework on time.
to you? You're not even a scientist." • LOGICAL APPEAL: "I wasn’t able to submit my
homework because I mismanaged my time. I’ll
WHY AD HOMINEM IS A PROBLEM? improve my time management in the future."
• It shifts focus away from the actual topic.
• It doesn’t prove whether the argument is right or • "I didn’t submit my homework because I felt so
wrong. sad and overwhelmed. Can you give me another
• It can lead to unfair judgments and shut down chance, please?"
meaningful discussions.
4. APPEAL TO POPULAR
2. APPEAL TO FORCE - The idea is presented as acceptable because a
- Using the threat of force or an undesirable event lot of people accept it.
to advance an argument.
EXAMPLES:
EXAMPLES: 1. “maraming mga tao ang nagkakaanak bago
1. “If this peace agreement will not be signed by ikasal kaya dapat hayaan nalang natin silang
the government, then we will have no recourse but gawin ang gusto nila.”
to go to war.” 2. CONTEXT: A group of friends is talking about
2. CONTEXT: A parent is convincing their child to fashion.
clean their room. • LOGICAL ARGUMENT: "I like this style because
• ARGUMENT: "Cleaning your room helps you stay it’s comfortable and suits my personality."
organized and find things more easily." • APPEAL TO POPULAR: "You should wear this
• APPEAL TO FORCE: "If you don’t clean your style because everyone at school is wearing it!
room, I’ll take away your phone for a week." 3. CONTEXT: A debate about trying a new food.
3. CONTEXT: A boss asks employees to work • LOGICAL ARGUMENT: "I want to try sushi
overtime. because it’s healthy and a new experience."
• ARGUMENT: "Working overtime will help us meet • APPEAL TO POPULAR: "You should try sushi
the project deadline and impress the client." because everyone on social media is eating it."
5. APPEAL TO TRADITION 8. FALLACY OF COMPOSITION
- The idea is acceptable because it has been true - Assuming that what is true of a part is true
for a long time. for the whole.

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLES :
1. “Ang kasal nuon pa man ay sa pagitan lamang 1. “napapdalas na ang balita ng mga nararape sa
ng lalaki at babae at mananatiling ganun yun Pilipinas kaya and bansang ito ay lupain ng mga
hanggang ngayon.” tigang.”
2. "Each player on the basketball team is talented,
6. BEGGING THE QUESTION so the team must be unbeatable."
- Assuming the thing or idea to be proven is true, 3. "All the ingredients in this dish taste good on
also known as “circular argument” their own, so the dish will taste good too."
- This assumes the person always tells the truth to
prove they’re trustworthy, but it doesn’t actually 9. FALLACY OF DIVISION
prove it. - Assuming that what is true for the whole is true
- When someone begs the question, they aren’t for its parts
giving real evidence or reasons to support their - vice versa / kabaligtaran ng fallacy of
claim. Instead, they repeat or assume the thing composition.
they’re trying to prove.
EXAMPLES:
EXAMPLES : 1. “galing sila sa pamilya ng mga manloloko kaya
1. “I have the right to free speech, therefore you dapat mag ingat ka at baka lokohin ka niya.”
cannot stop me from talking.” 2. "The team is the best in the league, so every
2. “We know he’s the best player because he’s player on the team must be the best in the
better than everyone else.” league."
(This doesn’t explain why he’s the best —it just 3. "This car is very expensive, so every part of the
restates the assumption in different words.) car must be expensive."
4. "This university is prestigious, so every
7. CAUSE AND EFFECT professor here must be brilliant."
- Assuming a “cause-and-effect” relationship
between unrelated events.
- It’s like saying, "This happened, so it must have
caused that," without any proof that one actually
caused the other. Just because two things happen
together doesn’t mean one caused the other.

EXAMPLES:
1. “magmula nung dumating siya sa buhay natin
nagkanda leche leche na, dapat na siyang
palayasin.”
2. "I wore my lucky socks, and we won the game.
My socks made us win!"
3. "Every time I wash my car, it rains. Washing my
car causes rain!"