To build an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusor for

research purposes.
EPQ Artefact Report - Cesare Mencarini
June 2024

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Contents
1 Introduction 3
1.1 Understanding Fusion: Plasma States and Stellar Energy Production . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Diverse Approaches to Fusion: Confinement and Experimental Methods . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Aspects of fusion reactions in an IECF and why it is possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Possible Pathways for Nuclear Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Nuclear Binding Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 Statistics and Probabilities of Nuclear Fusion Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.4 Nuclear Fusion Reactions Cross Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Why is it important to take the next step in human evolution? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Methodology 9
2.1 Acquiring Funding and Safety Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Designing the Reactor and Managing a Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Evolution of the design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3.1 Initial Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3.2 Second Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.3 Third and Final Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Technical description of the reactor and the assembly process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Hazards and safety measures that were taken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5.1 High Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5.2 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5.3 Data Acquisition and Operation Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3 Conclusion 14
3.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Testing and Improving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4.1 Budget Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4.2 Second-Hand Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4.3 Regulatory Complexities for Project Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5 Next Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

References 17

A Appendix 1 – Safety Assessment 19

B Appendix 2 – Graphical User Interface Manual 27

C Appendix 3 – IECD Maintenance Form 33

D Appendix 4 – Nuclear Fusion Reactor Brochure 35

E Appendix 6 – First draft of a budget partitioning spreadsheet with the estimated

cost of the overall project including singular prices for equipment. 37

F Appendix 7 – Final version of a budget partitioning spreadsheet with the final cost
of the overall project, all the components required for its completion and their
respective details. 39

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1 Introduction
In the scope of this Extended Project Qualification, my main focus will be constructing and developing
an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device, commonly referred to as a fusor. This device holds the
potential to accomplish nuclear fusion upon completion. The Artefact Report will comprehensively
document the entire project, encompassing various aspects, some of which are:

• The theory behind nuclear fusion; comprising of physical aspects, such as quantum mechanics
and energy release.
• The construction process, including how the design was established and its different iterations,
the assembly stage and how resources (e.g. funding) were obtained.

• A safety evaluation of the main hazards posed by the fusor and an assessment of how to mitigate
against these issues.
The fundamental objective of the fusor is to produce neutrons through nuclear fusion. Neutrons, in
turn, find practical applications in neutron activation of specific materials, such as silver, and serve
in classroom experiments related to radioactivity. Furthermore, the achievement of nuclear fusion in
a device as compact as a fusor is a tool to “advertise” captivating physical phenomena that spark
curiosity in bright young individuals and put in motion an outreach effort to intrigue the party in
question into embarking on the extraordinary journey of exploring scientific disciplines.

1.1 Understanding Fusion: Plasma States and Stellar Energy Production

When two or more nuclei collide at high enough energy, they can fuse and combine into multiple other
nuclei whilst isotropically (in all directions) firing subatomic particles, such as protons and neutrons
and releasing considerable amounts of energy (measured in electron volts). This phenomenon happens
because the constituent elements are in a state called plasma, also known as the fourth state of matter,
where particles reach such elevated temperatures that electrons are removed, and the gas is ionised. In
this state, the particles achieve enough energy to reach a threshold, the nuclear binding energy, where
nuclei can be disassembled into nucleons [12]. It is essential to bear in mind that for nuclei to achieve
fusion, they have to be in a plasma state; however, you can form a plasma by supplying sub-fusion
energies. In the latter scenario, the involved nuclei only scatter subsequently to a collision and release
energy in the form of light (and X-rays in some instances). As discussed below, this was proven by the
Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device constructed in the present project when, using only 5.000
volts of a potential difference, a purple plasma of gas molecules formed around the cathode.
Most of the visible universe is made out of plasma. These circumstances are also found in our solar
system’s Sun and every other star. Due to the immense mass of this star, the gasses that make it up
are compressed by gravity into a very dense state where fusion can take place. Thanks to the elevated
temperature and pressure, hydrogen nuclei, more accurately, its isotopes, deuterium and tritium (2H
and 3H, respectively), can fuse and form helium as well as neutrons and photons [12]. The latter
is more commonly known as ”sunlight” and is essential for the survival of life on Earth. E = mc2 ,
Einstein’s famous equation illustrates the equivalence between mass and energy, revealing that they
are interchangeable. This principle reveals why these processes result in the generation of energy [21].

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1.2 Diverse Approaches to Fusion: Confinement and Experimental
Methods
There are different methods to get nuclei to fuse, which scientists have experimented with over the
last century. The most common ones aim for plasma confinement, where extremely hot particles
are kept from expanding through different techniques and due to the hot temperatures, some atoms
can fuse. The type that recently made the headlines in 2022 was a beam-target fusion experiment
where 192 lasers were concentrated and fired at a hydrogen-infused pellet containing deuterium and
tritium, imploding it and initiating a fusion reaction [15]. The variant of this technology is beam-beam
fusion, which is based on the same principle but, as the name suggests, has two ion sources firing at
each other. Another intriguing technique is thermonuclear fusion, where elevated temperatures drive
particles close together due to increased average thermal kinetic energy [6]. It can be uncontrolled,
like in Hydrogen bombs, or controlled, where the reaction occurs in a particular environment, and
the energy released is harnessed as a power source. Lastly, the method used in this project is inertial
electrostatic confinement (IEC), where a potential difference is applied between the shell and a cathode
(grid) using a negative polarity high voltage power supply, meaning that the live wire is at a negative
voltage and the positive terminal is neutral. This arrangement allows the stainless-steel chamber to
ionise the internal gasses, which then are accelerated towards the grid. The electric field confines
the plasma and its inertia, which stops it from expanding. The primary fuel used in this reactor is
deuterium, resulting in mostly Deuterium-Deuterium (D-D) fusion reactions. The following section
will discuss this in further detail.

Figure 1: The Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusor fully assembled.

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1.3 Aspects of fusion reactions in an IECF and why it is possible
To understand why nuclear fusion is possible, five key elements and definitions need to be expressed:
• Atomic Binding Energy is defined as “the energy required to separate an atomic nucleus
completely into its constituent protons and neutrons” [10].
• Atomic Cross Section is “the probability that a given atomic nucleus or subatomic particle
will exhibit a specific reaction in relation to a particular species of incident particle” [1].
• Quantum Tunneling is “the passage of minute particles through seemingly impassable force
barriers” [3].
• Nuclear Strong Force is “a fundamental interaction of nature that acts between subatomic
particles of matter. The strong force binds quarks together in clusters to make more familiar
subatomic particles, such as protons and neutrons” [4].
• Deuteron is a “nucleus of deuterium (heavy hydrogen) that consists of one proton and one
neutron. Deuterons are formed chiefly by ionising deuterium (stripping the single electron away
from the atom)” [2].

1.3.1 Possible Pathways for Nuclear Fusion

The IECF (Figure 1) is a “deuteron accelerator-collider”, achieving fusion within the chamber volume.
This volume is filled with what is known as a “velocity space”, or rather an abstract mathematical
concept to describe the range of the particles’ velocities. D-D fusion takes place through many and
varied reactions within this velocity space.
As previously mentioned, the gas that enters the vessel, which is then ionised, is accelerated
towards the central grid. The vast majority of these gas particles never attain the energy required to
fuse. Some tiny fraction of these idealised (i.e. that meet the requirements to initiate fusion) deuterons
will collide head-on with other fusion energy deuterons within the grid. This is the “ideal” fusion and
is rare. Fusion and non-fusion energy deuterons that do not collide within the grid can recirculate
within the fusor’s chamber [13]. Other equally rare fusion events that depend on certain factors (speed
and charge) of the two colliding particles via collisions within this volumetric velocity space can occur;
however, their energy data and occurrence ratios are unknown.

Figure 2: D-D Fusion Reaction Pathways [25] — The current author has annotated (numbered) the
images.

Figure 2 represents the three possible D-D fusion outcomes (1 to 3). Both reaction routes 1 and
2 happen at a 50:50 ratio. One produces a tritium particle and a proton (route 2), while the other

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Figure 3: Atomic Binding Energies per Nucleon for all the nuclei in order of mass number [10] – Fusion
and fission arrows and labels added by the current author.

produces a helium-3 particle and a neutron (route 1). The latter event (1) is what the IECF strives to
achieve. Although the reaction that generates the helium-4 nucleus (3) is so rapid and energetic that
in almost every instance, it quickly decays into the products on the right of Figure 2 (billionth of a
second), there are some rare occurrences (every 25,000 D-D fusions) where a stable helium-4 nucleus
is formed with a significant release of energy [25].

1.3.2 Nuclear Binding Energy

Unlike most systems in classical mechanics, mass during these reactions is not conserved. The actual
mass of an atomic nucleus is not the sum of the masses (mp ) of the Z protons and the masses (mn ) of
the A − Z neutrons of which it is composed. The stable nuclides have a mass defect ∆m where

∆m = [Zmp + (A − Z)mn ] −A mZ (1)

Z is the number of protons, A is the mass number (protons + neutrons) and A mZ is the mass
of the nucleus in question. This mass defect is conceptually thought of as being converted to energy
(calculated by E = mc2 ) when the nucleus was formed, putting it into a negative energy state [23].
Therefore, this mass defect is lost during fusion (and fission) processes and converted into energy.
Scientists can then use Einstein’s equation , where is the speed of light to calculate , which is the
energy released. The latter is also equal to the difference in Atomic Binding Energy of the nuclei on
the right and the ones on the left of a nuclear equation in the form of

(21 )H + (21 )H −→ (32 )He + (10 )n (2)

where (21 )H + (21 )H represents the collision between two deuterons and (32 )He + (10 )n the production
of a helium-3 particle and a neutron, following Figure 2. If the masses are measured empirically,
(32 )He + (10 )n would weigh less than (32 )He + (10 )n , meaning that mass is lost and converted into energy.
The graph in Figure 3 represents all the binding energies per nucleon in Mega-electron-Volts for all
elements according to their mass number. For a nuclear reaction to be energetically favourable, the
increase in binding energy (products heavier than reagents) must be present. This is why fusion occurs

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from the left to the right of the graph while fission proceeds the opposite way [10]. Although fusion
results in the release of energy, it is mostly wasted in the form of heat, missed collisions or scattering
phenomena where the nuclei dissipate the energy gained and X-ray emission during the fusion process.

Figure 4: Depiction of the Coulomb barrier, illustrating the electrostatic repulsion encountered during
a collision between atomic nuclei. This representation highlights the possibility of quantum tunneling
through the barrier, allowing particles to fuse at relatively low energies [18].

1.3.3 Statistics and Probabilities of Nuclear Fusion Reactions

Following the discussion of probabilities in the preceding paragraph, the subsequent analysis delves
into the statistical aspect of nuclear fusion, covering the underlying statistical principles that determine
the feasibility of nuclear fusion. Once particles are accelerated towards the cathode, the number of
nucleons that have acquired sufficient energy to fuse is close to zero. The electric repulsion between
the particles with the same charge is so significant that not even a single pair of protons can overcome
it and fuse [22].
The graph in Figure 4 illustrates the fundamental idea of repulsion force and the strong nuclear
force acting between two deuterons about to collide. The x-axis represents the distance between the
two deuterons involved in the fusion reaction, with the graph moving to the right as the particles
become further apart, while the y-axis describes the repulsion forces (overall, as the particles get
closer, the electrostatic repulsion between them increases to some extent). For the two deuterons to
fuse, the peak of the curve needs to be surpassed so that the strong nuclear force can overcome it (the
strong nuclear force has a small field and can only interact between two particles when these get close
enough). The issue is gaining enough energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier and decrease separation
between the particles; only a tiny fraction of nuclei can do this. Each deuteron can be considered
a quantum particle characterised by a probability function (Figure 5) delineating its position. This
allows for partial overlap of the two wavefunctions of interacting particles, overcoming the repulsive
electric force that previously kept them completely separated. The line that crosses the curve under
the peak (labelled by ”Nuclei can tunnel through the Coulomb barrier”) represents the tunnelling
effect. This path shows how the deuteron does not require the expected amount of energy to pass over
the peak but can ‘jump’ from one position to the other with minimal energy. This is why a simple
IECF can achieve fusion with only 30kV of potential difference [22].

1.3.4 Nuclear Fusion Reactions Cross Sections

To further enhance understanding of the statistical aspect of the IECF, it is crucial to consider a
significant factor: the Atomic Cross Section. As previously described, the process of fusing two

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Figure 5: How nuclear fusion occurs in the Sun Figure 6: Fusion cross-sections of Deuterium
thanks to quantum mechanics, showing prob- Tritium (DT), Deuterium Deuterium (DD)
abilistic relationships between reactions [22]. and proton–Boron (p – 11 B) [20].

deuterons is probabilistic by its very nature. However, scientists have developed a way to comprehend
the relationship between energy and the probability of two particles interacting. Empirical experiments
have derived graphs representing the chances of an event in a nuclear reaction: the fusion cross-section
(σ) chart in Figure 6. Atomic Cross Section is, in reality, a complex effect to comprehend due to
quantum mechanical effects; however, it can be visualised by assuming that the nuclei involved in the
reaction have a circular section with the nucleus in the centre. The larger the circular area, the higher
the probability of collision between the two nuclei, and since, to some extent, this probability increases
when the particles have more energy (move faster), the fusion reaction rate increases [9].
The matching energy of the two particles is represented on the x-axis of Figure 6 (in kilo-electron-
Volts), while the fusion cross section (1 barn = 10 − 24cm2 ) is plotted on the y-axis. The curve of
interest for IECF reactors, fuelled by deuterium, is labelled D-D (referring to Deuterium-Deuterium
fusion). It is visible that the fusion cross-section also increases with the rising kinetic energy of two
deuterons (DD curve), which is achieved by increasing the grid-shell potential difference. However,
This pattern applies only up to 103 keV where the curve plateaus, which means that the most efficient
power supply that can be used in an IECF applies a one-million-volt potential difference; anything
beyond that hardly increases the fusion rate [20].

1.4 Why is it important to take the next step in human evolution?

At a theoretical level, fusion reactors can provide indefinite amounts of energy from simple atoms of
hydrogen isotopes while releasing no greenhouse gases, which are the leading cause of climate change,
and ending the global dependence on fossil fuels. The other benefit is that it does not produce long-
lasting radioactive waste, unlike fusion’s counterpart, nuclear fission, which powers current nuclear
power plants. This technology additionally offers innate safety features due to the time the reaction
ceases, meaning that disasters like Chernobyl or Fukushima are exceedingly unlikely [15].

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2 Methodology
This section is dedicated to a detailed exposition of the design phase and the planning required to
secure the project’s essential resources and financial backing. Furthermore, it will encompass the
assembly process, thoroughly evaluate potential hazards, and elaborate on the corresponding safety
measures carefully implemented.

2.1 Acquiring Funding and Safety Assessment

Initially, before starting with the design and purchase of the reactor, I had to secure monetary funding
from the school, ensuring the project would have been backed up financially. I, therefore, produced a
report (Refer to Appendix 5) stating the general price required to build a fusion reactor and why the
school would be interested in it, as well as a brochure (Refer to Appendix 4) that promotes the project
with the help of renders and images. However, the main concern was safety. As previously mentioned,
the proposal was complemented by an assessment that thoroughly elaborated on each aspect of the
reactor that could threaten one’s health. After extensive consideration, the school invested £5,000 in
the project, 25% of the initial estimated cost. This meant that I had to compromise considerably when
it came to selecting the provider of the parts and components used. Additionally, a PhD researcher
(Jamie Edwards) from the Cambridge University Nuclear Energy Research Group, who had previously
undertaken a similar project, decided to help me with the design while sharing valuable tips from his
experience. This last factor was crucial in incentivising the school to let me proceed with the project.

2.2 Designing the Reactor and Managing a Budget

Due to the broad gap between the estimated cost of the device and the funding received, making the
design as cost-effective as possible was vital to the project’s success. This resulted in the generation
of multiple reactor versions where flaws were analysed and countered to remain within the budget.
This part of the project was particularly complicated due to the excessive costs of every product in
the vacuum industry. The only solution to the problem was designating which components could have
been purchased second-hand. Parts such as the vacuum pumps and one of the valves were purchased on
eBay and from Britvac (a small company based in Cambridge specialising in vacuum systems), which
have lower retail prices than companies such as Kurt J. Lesker, which machines parts with incredibly
precise industrial equipment. Moreover, to keep track of all the required parts, I used an Excel sheet
(Refer to Appendix 6) that contained all the information, such as unit price, sourcing company and
delivery status, to partition the budget more efficiently and understand if further cost reductions were
required.

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2.3 Evolution of the design

Figure 7: A rendering of the first iteration of the fusor’s design.

Figure 8: Multiple renders of the second iteration of the fusor’s design.

Figure 9: Multiple renders of the third and last iteration of the fusor’s design

2.3.1 Initial Design

Figure 7 displays the initial design of the IECF, which consisted of a cylindrical chamber made of
acrylic because of its low cost, ample supply and relatively high strength. The grid was located inside
this container, and a Cockcroft-Walton generator (a circuit where capacitors and diodes were cleverly
arranged in order to convert low-voltage AC into high-voltage DC) was going to supply it with 30kV
to produce fusion. Lastly, to lower the pressure, a rotary vein pump would have been implemented;
however, it was soon discovered after extensive research that one pump would not be enough and that
acrylic would not have been a suitable material for a chamber meant for extremely low pressures. It

10
became apparent shortly after delving into the theory behind IECF that there needed to be a more
suitable design for nuclear fusion from a structural and safety perspective. The latter is because
someone with a lack of proficiency in electronics would have built the high-voltage system.

2.3.2 Second Design

Figure 8 presents the second design, which marked a crucial step as it closely resembled the agreed-upon
final design. During this project phase, the design was solidified, moving towards a more practical form.
However, particular challenges emerged, primarily related to the design exceeding the budget. For that
reason, adjustments were made to significantly reduce the shell’s diameter, effectively reducing the
overall cost. As the project progressed, another issue surfaced: not all ports welded to the chamber were
similar. Some were CF ports, while others were KF type (the difference will be elaborated on in section
2.4). This meant that the permanently welded nipples (ports) had pressure limitations, sacrificing the
future proofing of the reactor. This crucial consideration would accommodate future modifications
for better equipment. Furthermore, an inefficient arrangement of ports was identified, necessitating
extensive welding. Consequently, some ports were removed from the chamber and relocated to other
sections, as seen in Figure 8. This adjustment required incorporating adapters and connector flanges,
a more cost-effective alternative than the shell’s initial welding and milling.

2.3.3 Third and Final Design

Figure 9 presents that the final design is future-proof, featuring solely CF ports welded to the chamber.
This selection ensures an optimal vacuum seal and an efficiently arranged set of ports, promoting robust
vacuum performance while minimising costs due to reduced welding and machining. Additionally, this
design imparts a modern aesthetic appeal. A smaller chamber diameter further facilitates rapid and
easy attainment of an excellent vacuum.

2.4 Technical description of the reactor and the assembly process

Most of the reactor’s components are stainless steel, specifically 304 and 316L. The latter comprises
the two hemispheres, which are spun and welded to other flanges and half-nipple. The Cambridge
University Engineering Department welded all of the parts on the chamber. Three types of ports are
used according to their purpose:
• ConFlat (CF)
• Kleinflansch (KF), which is German for “small flange”, or Quick-Fit (QF)

• International Standards Organization Flange (ISO)

CF flanges (Figure 12a), known for their superior seals and Ultra-high vacuum (UHV) capability, are
positioned around the chamber. These flanges employ nuts and bolts to secure two ports, effectively
pressing them against a copper gasket and creating a seal between the latter and a knife edge. In
contrast, the KF (Figure 12b) type involves clamps to bring two ports together against a silicon O-ring.
While this seal is much easier to install than CF, it can only maintain a high vacuum. Consequently,
KF flanges are used exclusively in the reactor’s foreline (with some exceptions, as seen in Figure 10c),
connecting the roughing pump (Leybold E2), oil traps, and pressure sensors. ISO flanges (Figure 12c)
connect the turbomolecular pump, the throttling valve, and the chamber. ISO-K employs screwable
”hooks” to grasp the pump’s edge, compressing it against a larger silicon O-ring than KF. On the
other hand, ISO-F utilises the same ring but substitutes clamps with bolts to secure and seal the two
ports.

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(a) This image shows the assembly (b) This image shows the (c) This image shows the primary
of the two hemispheres. viewport and high voltage components assembled on the chamber.
feedthrough assembled.

Figure 10: Images a, b and c all present stages of the assembly process, which involve 16 CF and KF
ports.

(a) This image shows the assembly of the (b) This image shows the final assembled reactor.
turbomolecular pump and throttling valve.

Figure 11: Images a and b present the final stages of the assembly process, including the final product.

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 (a) CF Port with gasket. (b) KF Port with clamp and (c) ISO-F and ISO-K Port.
O-Ring.

Figure 12: Images a, b and c all present stages of the assembly process, which involve 16 CF and KF
ports.

The main problem encountered during assembly was the copper gasket between the two hemi-
spheres, which was wider than expected. This issue was probably caused by thermal deformation of
the steel when it was welded or a slight manufacturing error regarding the diameter of the gasket.
Using a metal file, the gasket was filed down until the outer diameter was small enough to fit inside
the knife edge on the flange. Once the flanges were assembled, the roughing pump was turned on,
and the bolts tightened until the pressure gauge showed that all leaks had been sealed. This solution
worked surprisingly well and held a perfect vacuum. The project encountered additional challenges
with the Pfeiffer TCP 121, the controller for the turbomolecular pump, and the Edwards Active Gauge
Controller. The TCP 121, sourced from eBay to manage costs, presented an immediate hurdle as it
failed to power on. Subsequent examination by Pfeiffer revealed irreparable damage to the controller.
In response to this setback, the decision was made to replace the turbomolecular pump with a dif-
fusion pump. While the diffusion pump offers a more straightforward system with fewer potential
failure points, it operates at a slower pace and with less efficiency. Unexpectedly, after procuring two
additional controllers (another TCP 121 and a TCP 040), both were tested and found to function
optimally, enabling the project to return to its original course of utilising the turbomolecular pump.
However, the diffusion pump will be retained as a contingency plan in case of any failures with the
high vacuum pump. Simultaneously, the Edwards Active Gauge Controller faced persistent electrical
issues, including recurrent circuit failures that demanded frequent component replacements.

2.5 Hazards and safety measures that were taken

Producing neutrons using an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device has the potential to be dan-
gerous due to multiple hazards, especially considering its placement inside a sixth-form college. For
this reason, before starting the project, a safety report (refer to Appendix 1) was compiled, presenting
critical assessments regarding all the various dangerous aspects of the reactor.

2.5.1 High Voltage

The first hazard is the high-voltage power supply, which can reach 30kV and above, while the current
ranges from 10 mA to 120 mA. Any current above 100 mA is highly lethal and requires a complete
analysis of the situation to ensure student safety. This problem was solved by the additional and
redundant grounding of the shell and components to a common electrical ground or static conductive
objects, such as radiators.

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2.5.2 Radiation
The next hazard that poses the biggest threat is the radiation emitted from the fusor, ranging from
x-rays, gamma rays and fast neutrons. The latter is the most ionising, which poses a risk to people’s
health [19]. If the radiation emitted by the reactor becomes dangerously high (which is unlikely), it
can be mitigated by using different techniques, for example, shielding the reactor with lead or placing
tanks containing boronated water around the IECF. Anyone close to the reactor during operations
must be at least 2-3 meters from it. SCONE (Stochastic Calculator Of Neutron transport Equation,
a Cambridge University software that uses Monte Carlo models to predict neutron behaviour) has
previously simulated all neutron emissions. This allows us to estimate the radiation emitted by the
reactor at various points in space. I have utilised the code multiple times and familiarised myself with
it.

2.5.3 Data Acquisition and Operation Control System

Lastly, the chamber’s implosion and combustion of flammable pressurised gas (deuterium) can cause
shrapnel to fly in all directions and act as projectiles. These risks and hazards are critical, but if
the appropriate measures are taken responsibly, it is improbable that any harm will be caused. In
fact, regarding the combustible gas, I plan to implement a deuterium production system using PEM
(Proton Exchange Membrane) cells and an electrolysis circuit. Meanwhile, to ensure maximum safety,
the entire system and operation will be supervised by an Operation Monitoring Computer (OMC),
which relies on the following:

• A Raspberry Pi board with Raspbian OS running on it. It will host the Python-based Graphical
Interface (Refer to Appendix 2) that connects the user and the reactor. Through this software,
it will be possible to control the reactor and visualise and store all the data collected. It is also
equipped with a camera looking inside the viewport, where everything is mounted on a custom
3D printed mount.
• 2 Arduino Uno Boards fixed inside an electrical box. Both Arduinos communicate through a
serial port to the Raspberry Pi while relaying data and accepting commands. A high-power fan
cools both circuits, with their independent electrical system powered by 12 Volt adapters. This
is so the stepper motors and sensors can be powered without compromising the built-in power
grid of the Arduinos and avoiding high power loads.

The Raspberry Pis and Arduinos will be shielded and enclosed in Faraday cages to reduce the
damage caused by radiation to the electronics. Refer to the Safety Assessment Report for more details
on danger mitigation and safety measures. Additionally, a Maintenance Form (Refer to Appendix 3)
was compiled to track all work made on the fusor and ensure any adjustments, changes or replacements
are logged.

3 Conclusion
Once fusion is achieved, sensors and cameras can then study the several factors of fusion and how they
affect it. I can also use additional experiments and tools to learn other properties of neutrons, such as
mapping their emissions around the chamber.

3.1 Summary
The reactor successfully generates plasma around a grid, a crucial initial step toward achieving fusion.
The subsequent phase of the project was supposed to allow deuterium nuclei to fuse and produce neu-
trons. Unfortunately, complications arose due to malfunctions in the purchased equipment, resulting
in numerous setbacks that prevented the realisation of fusion within the designated project timeframe.

14
While these issues were anticipated and unavoidable, they impacted the project’s outcome. As a con-
sequence, the final product of this assignment stands as an achievement in generating plasma, ready
for further upgrades to progress towards the next crucial step in the fusion process outside of this
project.

3.2 Evaluation
Upon reflecting on the project execution, I find that no significant areas stand out that require consid-
erable improvement on my part. It’s important to note that this was a part-time project, and as such,
dedicating full attention to it was not feasible. The assembly process performed well overall, apart from
the defect in the big flange copper gasket. This problem was flawlessly countered, helping the chamber
hold an excellent vacuum. Using 3D imaging proved to be a valuable reference throughout the reactor
construction and parts procurement phases. The project timeline aligned with expectations, reaching
the plasma stage as anticipated. The amount of detail positively impacted this project and the work
put into planning the reactor, including the 3D model and the ”shopping list” (Refer to Appendix 7),
which was extremely useful for keeping track of all the purchases and present design.

3.3 Testing and Improving

To enhance the reactor’s performance, expanding its operational range and reducing pump time is
crucial for quicker attainment of the required vacuum levels, facilitating faster pressure reduction. This
involves excellent cleaning of copper gaskets and silicon O-rings with medical wipes and rubbing alcohol,
along with precise tuning of bolts to ensure a uniform seal, minimising air leaks. These steps accelerate
the chamber’s pressure drop. Additionally, achieving a more consistent vacuum is attainable, especially
when manipulating the throttling valve. Further enhancements involve employing more precise sensors,
testing different grids, and optimising design for efficiency. Evaluating the performance of the IECF
involves measuring counts per minute (CPM), which is precisely the neutron production rate; the more
neutrons it produces, the better the performance. This procedure can be performed with a neutron
counter.

3.4 Limitations
This project encountered many challenges and limitations, all of which were systematically addressed
during its progression. The subsequent three paragraphs provide a concise summary of these issues.

3.4.1 Budget Constraints

The financial constraints on this project have necessitated the design adaptation to fit a specific
budget, leading to the acquisition of second-hand components. While this cost-saving approach aims
for a more budget-friendly design, it introduces several challenges. The use of refurbished components
poses concerns related to compatibility, reliability, and integration, potentially requiring additional
time and effort in system development. The limitations of second-hand components may hinder the
overall performance and upgradability of the IECF, possibly necessitating multiple testing iterations.
Balancing the need for a cost-efficient design with the challenges of using used components requires
careful consideration and may necessitate strategic investments to ensure the project’s success within
the specified financial constraints.

3.4.2 Second-Hand Components

The reliance on second-hand components during the project has introduced challenges related to ship-
ping delays and malfunctioning equipment. As a significant portion of the components were acquired
through second-hand suppliers, the project faced setbacks due to extended shipping delays for replace-
ment parts and the need for repairs. This inherent risk of damaged equipment has led to instances of

15
malfunction, requiring additional time and effort to diagnose issues and implement solutions. These
delays, arising from the unpredictability of the condition and availability of second-hand components,
have interfered with the project’s timeline, introducing uncertainties and necessitating a flexible ap-
proach to project management.

3.4.3 Regulatory Complexities for Project Approval

Reiterating an earlier point, the Safety Assessment (refer to Appendix 1) has played a pivotal role
in securing project approval. Given the inherently hazardous nature of this project, it is subject
to various regulatory frameworks, particularly those regarding nuclear reactions. The complicated
process of obtaining regulatory approvals and ensuring strict adherence to safety standards has proven
time-consuming and has presented notable challenges to the project’s advancement. Complicating
matters further, the construction of the IECF is taking place within a sixth-form college, subjecting
it to exhaustive regulatory restrictions. These regulations moderate the use of any unlicensed or
non-regulated ionising radiation sources and the involvement of potentially lethal voltage levels in the
project. Navigating these regulatory requirements is crucial for ensuring both the safety of the project
and compliance with the standards associated with nuclear experimentation within an educational
institution.

3.5 Next Steps

Due to complications outlined in the report, the project’s original objective of achieving fusion was
not attainable. As a result, improving specific systems and acquiring additional equipment to produce
neutrons will be the primary objective beyond the project’s scope, enabling students to utilise the
reactor for further research and experimentation. This will involve:
• Purchasing and installing a new power supply capable of reaching the required parameters of 30
kV and more than 10 mA currents.

• Acquiring heavy water for hydrolysis and implementing a feeding system for the gas.
• Ensuring complete functionality of the turbomolecular pump with the new controller.
• Conclude the voltage-pressure converter currently in development as a replacement for the Active
Guage Controller.

16
References
[1] Britannica. Cross Section. https://www.britannica.com/science/cross-section-physics. 2018.
(accessed: 29 January 2024).
[2] Britannica. Deuteron. 2023. url: https://www.britannica.com/science/deuteron.
(accessed: 4 February 2024).
[3] Britannica. Tunnelling. 2023. url: https://www.britannica.com/science/tunneling.
(accessed: 29 January 2024).
[4] Sutton C. Strong Force. 2024. url: https://www.britannica.com/science/strong-force.
(accessed: 29 January 2024).
[5] Plasma Channel. Building A Nuclear Star In A Jar (Fusor) [Online video]. 2022. url:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VTBZ0VwIgs8&t=5s. (accessed: 3 November 2022).
[6] C. Clifford. Nuclear fusion breakthrough: Scientists generate more power than used to create
reaction. 2022. url: https://www.cnbc.com/2022/12/13/nuclear-fusion-passes-major-
milestone-net-energy.html. (accessed: 17 July 2023).
[7] Real Engineering. A New Way to Achieve Nuclear Fusion: Helion [Online video]. 2022. url:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_bDXXWQxK38. (accessed: 14 December 2022).
[8] Real Engineering. The Problem with Nuclear Fusion [Online video]. 2022. url:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BzK0ydOF0oU. (accessed: 14 December 2022).
[9] P. Grafström. Lifetime, cross-sections and activation [PDF]. 2007. url:
https://cds.cern.ch/record/1047067/files/p213.pdf. (accessed: 30 January 2024).
[10] E. Gregersen. Nuclear Binding Energy. 2023. url:
https://www.britannica.com/science/nuclear-binding-energy. (accessed: 29 January
2024).
[11] R. Hull. FAQ - Voltage-Cross section-Current. 2017. url:
https://fusor.net/board/viewtopic.php?t=11348. (accessed: 19 July 2023).
[12] IAEA. What is Nuclear Fusion? 2023. url:
https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/what-is-nuclear-fusion. (accessed: 25 January
2024).
[13] B. Klopfer. The Fusor. 2012. url:
http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph241/klopfer2/. (accessed: 29 January 2024).
[14] K. Krämer. Explainer: What is quantum tunnelling? 2020. url:
https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/explainer-what-is-quantum-
tunnelling/4012210.article. (accessed: 25 January 2024).
[15] NBC News. What Is Nuclear Fusion And Why Is It Important? [Online video]. 2023. url:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zsZ4l32prGc. (accessed: 21 July 2023).
[16] Nuclear binding energy. 2023. url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy. (accessed: 18 July 2023).
[17] Nuclear fusion. 2024. url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion. (accessed: 18
July 2023).
[18] Jef Ongena. “Fusion: a true challenge for an enormous reward”. In: EPJ Web of Conferences
268 (Nov. 2022), p. 00011.
[19] World Health Organization. Ionizing radiation and health effects. 2023. url:
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ionizing-radiation-and-health-
effects. (accessed: 25 January 2024).

17
[20] Xavier Ribeyre et al. “Multiscale study of high energy attosecond pulse interaction with matter
and application to proton–Boron fusion”. In: Scientific Reports 12 (Mar. 2022). doi:
10.1038/s41598-022-08433-4.
[21] Office of Science. DOE Explains...Nuclear Fusion Reactions. 2022. url:
https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsnuclear-fusion-reactions#:~:
text=The%20process%20releases%20energy%20because,explains%20why%20this%
20process%20occurs. (accessed: 25 January 2024).
[22] E. Siegel. It’s The Power Of Quantum Mechanics That Allows The Sun To Shine. 2015. url:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/ethansiegel/2015/06/22/its-the-power-of-quantum-
mechanics-that-allow-the-sun-to-shine/?sh=38fdb20f43f7. (accessed: 29 January 2024).
[23] W. Stacey. Nuclear Reactor Physics. Weinheim, WILEY-VCH, 2007.
[24] US scientists achieve net energy gain for second time in nuclear fusion reaction. 2023. url:
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/aug/06/us-scientists-achieve-net-
energy-gain-second-time-fusion-reaction. (accessed: 26 November 2023).
[25] A.L. Wehmeyer, Ross Radel, and G.L. Kulcinski. “Optimizing Neutron Production Rates from
D-D Fusion in an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device”. In: ANS Topical Meeting on
Fusion Energy 47 (Oct. 2004), pp. 14–16. (accessed: 26 November 2023).

18
A Appendix 1 – Safety Assessment

SAFETY REPORT
INERTIAL ELECTROSTATIC
CONFINEMENT FUSION REACTOR

Cardiff Sixth Form College

89 Regent Street +44 (0) 1223 903080
Cambridge CB2 1AW [email protected]

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Contents
Introduction ........................................................................................................... - 3 -
1 What is an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device? ................................................- 3 -
2 What is the purpose of the IECD? ...............................................................................- 3 -
3 Why is the safety report required?..............................................................................- 3 -
Identifying IECD safety risks .................................................................................... - 4 -
4 Radiation .................................................................................................................. - 4 -
4.1 Containment Breach and Neutron Flux ............................................................ - 4 -
4.2 Regular Radiation Emissions during operations ................................................ - 4 -
5 Critical Structural Integrity ........................................................................................ - 4 -
5.1 Reactor Imploding due to Pressure Difference.................................................. - 4 -
5.2 Breach in Gas Supply Lines (GSL) ..................................................................... - 5 -
6 Voltage Exposure...................................................................................................... - 5 -
6.1 Voltage Exposure during operations ................................................................ - 5 -
6.2 Post-Operative Radiation and Voltage ............................................................. - 5 -
Risk Prevention and Safety Measures ....................................................................... - 6 -
8 Common Electrical Ground ....................................................................................... - 6 -
9 Emergency Shutdown System (ESS) ......................................................................... - 6 -
10 Lead and Boron Shielding ...................................................................................... - 6 -
11 Operations Monitoring Computer (OMC) ................................................................- 7 -
12 High Voltage Feedthrough (HVF) ............................................................................- 7 -
13 Sensors, Detectors, and Cameras ............................................................................- 7 -
14 Safety Precautions and Manual for External Use .................................................... - 8 -
Reference ............................................................................................................... - 8 -

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Introduction
1 What is an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device?
1.1 An Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device (IECD) is a fusion power class that uses electric
fields to accelerate ions, reach fusion conditions, and confine the plasma inside a vacuum. The IECD
pulls ions across a potential well and fuses the particles using their inertia. The device consists of a
central grid, which is made from nickel or tungsten (depending on the application), which is negatively
charged, while the rector’s shell is grounded. A potential difference is therefore induced between the
chamber and the cathode. This allows the fuel used in the reactor to fuse with itself or other elements
added to the mixture after being ionized by the electron flow in the electric field. The hydrogen isotope
deuterium (2H) is commonly used in IECD as the fuel and, therefore, will fuse into an energetic form of
the Helium-4 isotope (4He) which will decay into stable Helium-3 isotope (3He) and one emitted neutron
or into a Tritium atom (3H) and a proton.

2H + 2H  4H  3He + n or 3H + p or 4H by releasing energy through other form.

2 What is the purpose of the IECD?

2.1 An Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device is purely for research since it’s not a viable design
for sustainable electricity production due to the energy loss during the whole process. However, seeing
that it achieves fusion, the IECD becomes a neutron generator with a wide range of applications
requiring a controlled and high output of neutrons. This ability makes it possible for it to be used to
make products such as Molybdenum-99 and Nitrogen-13 or medical isotopes used for PET [6] scans. In
addition, the easy monitoring of the neutrons emitted allows students and researchers to observe and
study the behaviour of neutrons during particle collisions in a controlled environment while
experimenting with activating different materials inside the harsh conditions of a fusion chamber.
Additionally, with the adequate equipment, a process called etching can be accomplished by
bombarding a masked sample (masked using a technique called electron lithography) with neutron and
etch it.

3 Why is the safety report required?

3.1 First, an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device utilises very high voltages required to achieve
fusion, usually in the range of 30-100kV [7], making the device a potential hazard if the necessary
measures are not taken. Secondly, while the IECD is operating, since it is designed to achieve fusion,
radiation is emitted in the form of “fast” neutrons and x-rays. Even though the reactor is going to run
for short periods and exposure times are going to be low, radiation is still dangerous even in small
quantities, and the safety features need to be discussed and assessed with attention to ensure the
safety of the operators and the public.

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Identifying IECD safety risks

4 Radiation
4.1 Containment Breach and Neutron Flux
The IECD will be constructed out of Stainless Steel (SS204 and SS216) which is a reliable and
long-lasting material; however, there still is a non-zero chance of the shell being damaged or cracked,
allowing a very dense neutron flux to escape the containment unit, resulting in potentially lethal
neutron radiation. The latter is considered the most dangerous type of emissions due to the high kinetic
energy of the neutrons, which can penetrate most bodies and be very ionising; if an average human
body is struck with 200 to 1000 rad [8], severe illnesses are developed and, in some cases, this has fatal
outcomes. If the containment unit is compromised due to the high stress it is under, safety measures
should be implemented, as well as Emergency Shutdown Procedures, to ensure the safety of the
observers. It is essential to notice that fusion reactions are inherently safe, meaning that is fusion
conditions are not met (e.g. Ultra-High Vacuum is lost, or the potential difference is removed) the fusion
reaction will naturally cease and so does the production of neutrons.

4.2 Regular Radiation Emissions during operations

During its operation, the IECD, which achieves nuclear fusion at its core, continuously emits a
product of this reaction: a neutron. The unstable Helium-4 atom releases this particle, which becomes
hazardous when it’s not contained inside a nucleus. The unstable neutron has a kinetic energy of ≈2.5
MeV [9] and a life span of 10 minutes. If produced in large quantities, this product combined with the
discharged X-Rays can have a high Relative Biological Effectiveness [10] (RBE), damaging tissues of
surrounding biological entities if not contained and shielded correctly. Another potentially harmful
aspect of neutron emission is that when they come in contact with other atoms that have a large cross-
section (σ), they tend to be absorbed, leading to “neutron activation”, making the absorbing body
radioactive. However, the radiation emission can be drastically reduced by taking safety measures like
shielding, using boronated water, graphite or lead and maintaining distance from the machine.

5 Critical Structural Integrity

5.1 Reactor Imploding due to Pressure Difference
To achieve fusion, the IECD’s chamber must reach very low pressures so the fuel ions can
accelerate enough to merge. A rotary vane and a turbomolecular vacuum pump are installed in series
to achieve the optimal pressure between 0.1 and 1.3 Pa [11]. The consequences of this vacuum
environment are high loads and stress on the steel shell of the fusor, including every seal installed on it
(Hinged Viewport, Internal Access Port, Sensor cavities, HV Feedthrough). If any of these weak points
crack or break under strain, the pressure difference will heavily damage the component allowing it to
detach from the device and compromising the structural integrity of the IECD. The implosion could also
lead to unexpected and uncontrolled shrapnel firing into the surrounding space. This is likely to
happened if the viewport is scratched or damaged which will lead to structural failure.

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5.2 Breach in Gas Supply Lines (GSL)

To achieve fusion, the selected fuel needs to be introduced inside the vacuum chamber by a Gas
Supply Line [2] (GSL), where the gas containment or production unit is connected to and regulated,
achieving the desired quantity of fuel inside the IECD. However, to make this process as efficient as
possible and achieve optimal results, the gas must be injected into the chamber during the final
depressurisation phase. This results in the flow of very flammable gas in pressure-sensitive
environments since a vacuum is already present. In some cases, the GSL might break due to its size,
which is necessary to achieve a controlled flow, resulting in a leak of high-pressure combustible gas. It
is essential to ensure the safety of this system due to the presence of high-voltage electrical
components, which could cause a fire or explosion if any arc or spark is exposed to the leaked gas. The
system our IECD will use however, produces the deuterium on-site and on-demand through a Proton
Exchange Membrane (PEM) Cell which can hydrolyse heavy water into oxygen and deuterium. This
device is directly connected to a series of small containers and one-way valves which will feed the fuel
to a needle valve for precise control.

6 Voltage Exposure
6.1 Voltage Exposure during operations
The IECD will run thanks to a ≈30kV variable supply connected to the ground and the HV
Feedthrough. This supply will be located beside the fusor for easy access and control of the voltage. The
current rating considered fatal is between 0.1 and 0.2 Amp, which the electrical supply can easily reach.
Therefore, no exposed metal surface must be charged or in direct contact with it. In addition, very high
voltages, like the ones achieved by the supply, can quickly charge air particles and, therefore, arch,
meaning that even being in the vicinity of the device is extremely dangerous if the problem is not dealt
with correctly. The necessary safety measures must be taken, especially considering the presence of
capacitors in the electrical system of the IECD.

6.2 Post-Operative Radiation and Voltage

During the operation of the IECD, high voltages run through many electrical components and
conductive materials, which presents a danger not only during the fusion process but even during the
post-operative state of the reactor, where some components can still be charged during this period.
This is caused by the high voltages passing through them, which could even damage some if attention
is not paid to the power ratings.
In addition, some surrounding material made of atoms with high cross sections can absorb the neutrons
emitted from the IECD and risk “neutron activation”, the effect when an object becomes radioactive
after exposure to neutrons. In conclusion, taking the necessary safety measures to prevent bodies from
becoming radioactive and cautiously discharging electrical components is essential.

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Risk Prevention and Safety Measures

8 Common Electrical Ground
8.1 One of the main risks argued previously is the high voltage to which the machine is subject. One
of the preventive methods that will be implemented is to electrically ground all equipment used (e.g.
power supply, reactor shell, sensor reader, etc.) in multiple points to ensure a that no exposed metal
surface is charged. In order to achieve this we will primarily run a cable, attached to the ground of a
power socket, to the fusor and establish electrical connections between it and any metal component at
risk of being charged. By doing this any charge that accumulates on a metal will be safely drained.
Multimeters and other measuring devices will be connected to the ground so if equipment is being
discharged the necessary measures can be taken to understand where the leak is and mitigate the issue.
Additionally, other grounding measures can be taken such as connecting certain points of the IECD to
other external objects, such as radiators, and enforcing a minimum distance of 3 meters to anybody in
the same room as the IECD during its operations. This enforcement is also due to radiation as explained
later on.

9 Emergency Shutdown System (ESS)

9.1 One of the essential safety systems required to run the IECD is an Emergency Shutdown System
(ESS) mainly to mitigate safety concerns 4.1 and 5.1 where, to ensure the safety of everyone occupying
the room, an immediate and secure shutdown of the reactor is required to reduce the level of harmful
radiation. The ESS is a computer-guided protocol consisting of a safe process to secure the reactor in
an emergency. This will be carried out by cutting essential power supplies that drive the fusion reaction
and then by ensuring a secure re-pressurization of the chamber to avoid further damage to the reactor
shell. The ESS will also comprise the evacuation protocol in case of an incident listed previously.
Additionally, in case of complete loss of the reactor’s control system, mechanical countermeasures are
also present to electrically isolate the system and shut it down forcefully. However, bear in mind this is
a last-resort measure and will significantly damage the turbomolecular pump due to the premature
venting and all sensor data will be lost.

10 Lead and Boron Shielding

10.1 One of the main risks is radiation generated and emitted by the fusion reaction in the form of
neutrons. These are dangerous and uncontrollable particles released by the IECD that can “activate”
other elements and damage organic tissues. To counter this product, shielding can be used to reduce
emissions. This consists of plating the reactor’s shell with specific materials such as lead and boron.
These two have the unique ability to absorb neutrons and avoid their spread throughout the
surrounding environment. Lead is solid and can be easily modelled to fit around the reactor and act as
an extra layer to reduce the radiation propagated into the surroundings. However, if this shield is
insufficient to maintain a low radiation level during nominal operations, an additional shielding layer

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will be introduced as a boron compound, either in the solid state or in an aqueous state around the
reactor.

11 Operations Monitoring Computer (OMC)

11.1 To ensure the overall and complete safety of the IECD, a new system needs to be introduced to
monitor and control all other implemented safety features and make the reactor operation safer and
more efficient. The Operations Monitoring Computer [4] (OMC) will be a central processing unit that
allows all data collected by the sensors to be analysed and graphed. This also allows the operator to
remotely control the reactor reducing the exposure intensity and period to the radiation while all of the
functions required to run the IECD are automated and carefully monitored. In addition to this
technology, a control panel will be implemented, consisting of displays and the access point of the OMC
to operate the reactor while maintaining distance from it. The added benefit of this central processing
unit does not only regard the research aspect of the fusor, where all data can be collected and viewed,
but will even reduce the risk of a major incident due to a machine’s decreased response time compared
to a human operator. However, it is essential to note that the OMC can be easily overridden in case of
failure by using the manual control panel for the reactor. Currently, the system relies on:
- A Raspberry Pi board with Raspbian OS running on it. It will host the Python based Graphical
Interface responsible for connecting the user and the reactor. Through this software, it will be possible
to control the reactor and visualize, collect and store all the data collected. It is also equipped with a
camera looking inside the viewport, where everything is mounted on a custom 3D printed mount.
- 2 Arduino Uno Boards fixed inside an electrical box. Both Arduinos communicate through a
serial port to the Raspberry Pi while relaying data and accepting commands. Both circuits are cooled by
a high-power fan, and both have their independent electrical system powered by 12 Volt adapters. This
is so the stepper motors and sensors can be powered without compromising the built-in power grid of
the Arduinos and avoiding high power loads.
Both the raspberry pi and the Arduinos will be shielded and enclosed in Faraday cages so to reduce the
damaged caused to the electronics by the radiation.

12 High Voltage Feedthrough (HVF)

12.1 One of the main sensitive components is the High Voltage Feedthrough, which allows the power
supply access to the tungsten grid inside the reactor. This part is made of ceramic that insulates the
exposed wire to prevent it from interacting with the environment. However, without undermining its
role, the HVF [5] has to be chosen and treated with caution since it is one of the weak points of the
chamber.

13 Sensors, Detectors, and Cameras

13.1 As previously emphasised, the autonomation of the IECD is a critical aspect of its function.
Therefore, to improve safety scores and research precision, sensors such as digital Geiger Counters,
Neutron and X-Rays detectors, and more basic ones like Temperature and Pressure sensors must be
implemented and installed in sealed compartments of the fusor. All the data collected by these

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components will then be fed into the OMC to be processed and compiled onto external computers. This
allows more accessible collection of precise data while ensuring safety and constant monitoring of the
IECD’s status. In addition, a camera will be mounted on a viewport to safely display the inner activity of
the reactor and reduce the risk of high radiation exposure.

14 Safety Precautions and Manual for External Use

14.1 To ensure safety among the operators and observers when the IECD is running, it is imperative
to develop a “Safety Manual” that lists all the protocols and how to carry them out to reduce radiation
exposure in case of an incident. This text will briefly describe how the machine works, a detailed risk
assessment, and the evacuation protocol in case of a compromised reaction chamber. It is essential that
every person occupying the room while the reactor is functioning has read and understood the dangers
and safety precautions taken to prevent any harm. Furthermore, an additional booklet titled “User
Manual” should be provided with the control panel with primary operative and emergency procedures
required to function the IECD, as well as a brief table explaining the different features found on the
screens when data is being processed to ensure safe monitoring of the reactor.

Reference
1. IECD = Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device (Fusor / Fusion Reactor)
2. GSL = Gas Supply Lines (Fuel Dispense Unit or System)
3. ESS = Emergency Shutdown System
4. OMC = Operations Monitoring Computer (Central Processing Unit)
5. HVF = High Voltage Feedthrough
6. PET = Positron Emission Tomography
7. kV = Kilo Volts (1 Volt x 103)
8. Rad = Absorbed Radiation Dose (1 rad = 0.01 Gray = 0.01 J/kg)
9. MeV = Mega Electron-Volt (1 eV x 106)
10. RBE = Relative Biological Effectiveness
11. Pa = Pascal (105 Pa = 1 Bar)
12. Geiger Counter = Electronic instrument used for detecting and measuring ionising radiation.
13. Safety Manual = Document informs the reader of the basics regarding an IECD, potential risks and
dangers, and safety protocols to ensure a safe environment.
14. User Manual = Document informing the reader on basic procedures to run the IECD safely.
15. Observer = whoever occupies the region near the IECD for observation/research purposes.
16. Operator = whoever is in charge of running the IECD and monitoring its status.

Safety Assessment reviewed and approved by _______________________________________

on the date _______________.

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B Appendix 2 – Graphical User Interface Manual

Cardiff Sixth Form College Cambridge

INERTIAL ELECTROSTATIC
CONFINEMENT DEVICE GUI MANUAL
VERSION 1.0
25/01/2024

Made by Cesare Mencarini

[1]

27
 1. Main Systems Configuration Section

• High Voltage Supply  Turn on and off the power supply and start camera recording
(.avi file is saved in /GUI/Recordings).
• Rotary Vein Pump  Turn on and off the rotary vein (roughing) pump.
• Turbomolecular Pump  Turn on and off the turbomolecular pump.
• Viewport Camera  Toggle viewport camera feed (based on OpenCV library).
• Cooling System  Turn on and off additional cooling system.
• Throttling Valve Control System  Turn on and off the throttling valve system.
• Deuterium Gas Supply System  Turn on and off PEM cell for deuterium
production and activate gas valve control.

Notes:
-The throttling valve, high voltage supply and pump will not accept values if offline.
-Turning the gas supply system on will initially close all valves.

• Tab panels
o High Voltage Supply  Select the panel to set the desired voltage applied to
the central grid (Accepted Values: 0 - 30).
o Turbomolecular Pump Select the panel to set the desired speed
percentage for the turbomolecular pump (Accepted Values: 0 - 100).
o Throttling Valve  Select the panel to set the desired opening percentage of
the throttling valve cross-section (Accepted Values: 0 - 100).
Notes:
-If an attempt is made to change the settings of an offline system an error will be
returned, prompting the user to enable the desired system before making any changes.
-If the value requested in not an integer or is outside of bounds an error will be returned
and no changes will be made to the system.

[1]

28
2. Sidebar Panel

• Reboot System  The Raspberry Pi will perform a complete

reboot of the computer. Any unsaved data or changes will be lost
except of the log cache file.
• Shut Down System  The python program running the GUI will
stop executing and the user will exit the interface. Unlike the
reboot, the python program will exit but the RPi will not take any
actions. Any unsaved data or changes will be lost except of the log
file which will be saved in the /GUI/Logs folder.
• Check Connections  This will send a serial message to both
Arduinos to assure they are operational. All the results of this test
will be reported in the log. Check Notes section for further details.
• Start / Stop Recording Data  These two functions allow the
user to choose whether the GUI is recording data or not.
• Plot Graph  This function will start a matplotlib instance and
plot recorded data according to the desired settings chosen in the
plotting menu discussed below.

• Sava Data File  Allows the user to save the collected data in a
csv (Comma-Separated Values) format using the name provided
in the Current File Name textbox.
• Set Valves  When the Deuterium Gas Supply System (See Section
1) is enabled, this CTA will also be enabled, and the user will be
allowed to manipulate the gas valves using the sliders (See
Section ….) and by pressing the button when a change is desired.

Notes:
-The Check Connections function consist of sending a status request message to both Arduinos, which
then are expected to reply with a status code (100 OK, 200 Master is not armed, 300 The Master is armed
but there is another issue). The codes will not be shown to the user and are only part of the response from
the Arduinos to aid in debugging. The actual status will be displayed in comprehensible language on the
log panel. Additionally, to ensure the Arduinos are communicating on the correct port, to facilitate
debugging, the Status (Green) LEDs will blink 5 times first for Arduino 1 and then for Arduino 2. In case
this doesn’t happen or occurs the other way around, check the code for errors.
-The Plot Graph function can plot data in real-time if Sequential Indexes (See Section …) Mode is selected,
otherwise, in the case of Other Variable (See Section …) Mode, data recording must be stopped with Stop
Recording Data (above) button.
-When the GUI is plotting data in real-time the user will not be able to interact with the graph. In case that
is desired, the user must stop data recording, use the x icon on the top right of the matplotlib graph
instance and initiate another one through the Plot Graph (above) button.
[2]

29
 3. Data Display Panel

• Voltage  Displays the voltage • Ludlum X – Neutrons  Displays the

difference between the grounded shell number of neutrons hitting the detector
and the internal grid. It is measured in in a minute measured in Counts Per
Kilo-Volts (kV) and the maximum value Minute (CPM). The detector is a Ludlum.
of the meter is 30kV. • Foreline Pressure  Displays the
• Current  Displays the current passing pressure in the Foreline, which is the
through the grid. It is measured in milli- section between the intake of the rotary
Amperes (mA). vein pump and the exhaust of the
turbomolecular pump. This pressure will
• Chamber Temp.  Displays the be measured by an Edwards Pirani
chamber temperature in degrees Celsius Gauge.
(°C). If the chamber becomes too hot the
meter will become red to indicate an • Chamber Pressure  Displays the
issue and proper measures should be pressure in the Chamber, which consists
taken. of the atmosphere before the intake the
turbomolecular pump. This pressure will
• X  Placeholder meter for future data be measured by an Edwards Inverted
and expansion. Magnetron Gauge.
• Geiger – X-Rays  Displays the amount
of X-Ray and other forms of radiation
measured in Counts Per Minute (CPM) or
micro-Sievert per hour (µSv/hr).

[3]

30
4. Data Plotting Options Panel

• Sequential Index  This plotting mode • Other Variable  This plotting mode
allows the user to select which data allows the user to select two variables,
variable to plot on the matplotlib graph one for the X-axis and one for the Y-axis,
when the Plot Graph (See Section 2) is to plot on the matplotlib graph when the
pressed. Every listing is a checkbox and Plot Graph (See Section 2) is pressed. For
more than one can be selected at a time. each axis choose the desired Variable
If the plotted variable(s) wants to be from the dropdown menu, so it can be
changed, the user must make sure the plotted on a scatter graph. If the plotted
graph instances (if previously opened) is variable(s) wants to be changed, the user
closed using the x icon on the top right must make sure the graph instances (if
corner of the graph and then use the Plot previously opened) is closed using the x
Graph again. This mode supports plotting icon on the top right corner of the graph
when data recording is both on and off. and then use the Plot Graph again. This
mode only works when data recording is
stopped.

[4]

31
5. Logging Panel

• Logging Panel  Every action

taken on the GUI is shown here
and recorded.
• Logs are backed as cache .txt that
constantly updates throughout the
use of the GUI. By doing this, if the
interface ever shuts down due to
power loss, malfunction, etc., there
will always be logs to retrieve.
• When the Shut Down (Section 2) is
pressed the python program will
terminate and save an exact copy
of the Logging Panel in a .txt
format. At the top it will reference
the Cache log file name.
• Any status check results from
Check Connections (Section 2)
button will appear here.

6. Valve Regulation Panel

• Logging Panel  These sliders have a step of 10, a minimum value of 0, and a maximum
value of 100. The input is mapped to several steps on the stepper motor where the full slider
represents five turns (every step on the slider is half a turn on the stepper motor).
• The Arduino updates the progress bar, not the GUI. For the bar to update, some time will be
required, allowing the Arduino to send back a message saying the action of turning the
stepper motor is concluded.
• To rotate a stepper motor, select the desired rotation on the slider and then choose the Set
Valves (Section 2) button to send the serial message. When complete, the full-colour blue
progress bars will be updated.

[5]

32
C Appendix 3 – IECD Maintenance Form

IECD Maintenance Form

Date (dd/mm/yyyy):

Name & Surname:

Purpose of maintenance:
 Regular Scheduled Maintenance

 Concern with System Integrity

 Other: _________________________________________________

Select all systems that were checked:

 Chamber

 Sensor / Experimental tube

 Gas Supply System

 Vacuum System

 Electrical System

 Software

 Other: _________________________________________________

89 Regent Street
Cambridge CB2 1AW
+44 (0) 1223 903080
[email protected]

33
 IECD Maintenance Form

Notes: (Please include pictures if required)

Was the IECD tested after maintenance?

 Yes

 No

Is the IECD ready for operation?

 Yes

 No

If No is selected state the reason:

__________________________________________________________________

Signature: Approved by:

Name: __________________________________

_______________________________ Signature: _______________________________

89 Regent Street
Cambridge CB2 1AW
+44 (0) 1223 903080
[email protected]

34
 D

NUCLEAR
FUSION
REACTOR

35
Cardiff Sixth Form
College Cambridge
89 Regent Street
Cambridge CB2 1AW
+44 (0) 1223 903080
Appendix 4 – Nuclear Fusion Reactor Brochure

“Allowing students to experience the power of the Sun from a classroom” https://www.ccoex.com/
 RISKS NUCLEAR FUSION
Hazards and Safety What happens in the Sun?

Achieving nuclear fusion is quite In order for the Sun to constantly

dangerous due to many hazards provide energy, its core undergoes
present while operating the Fusor, nuclear fusion, where hydrogen
however if safety measures are taken atoms are fused together to release
it is completely safe. other particles such as photons and
There are 3 main risks to be aware of: neutrons, and energy. The Inertial
Electrostatic Confinement Device
• High Voltage (IECD or Fusor) replicates this
• Radiation Emission phenomenon inside of a steel shell.

• Structural Failure The Fusor consists of a metal shell

under vacuum where hydrogen atoms
are introduced and fused using high
voltages and electric fields. This

36
SAFETY MEASURES
reaction releases energy in the form
Safety is the Priority of fast neutrons. Ultimately, Nuclear
Fusion will be the power source of
the future.
In order for the fusor to meet basic
safety regulations the previous
hazards need to be mitigated. This is
done in various ways. Firstly the IECD
is grounded in numerous points to
safely discharge it. Additionally all
bystanders are required to stand at
least 3 meters from the reactor to
ensure safety from electricity,
possible implosion due to structural
failure and radiation. The latter is
relatively low at such distances and
has very low impact your body.
E Appendix 6 – First draft of a budget partitioning
spreadsheet with the estimated cost of the overall project
including singular prices for equipment.

IECD Budget Partition TOTAL FUNDING REQUIRED:

ESTIMATOR £16,771.92
DESCRIPTION Optional AMOUNT Total Qty

Vacuum Chamber £6,341.00

SP1800S £6,341.00 £6,341.00 1

Vacuum Pump Turbomolecular £2,598.60

Leybold TurboVac SL 80 £2,486.00 £2,486.00 1

DN63CF-HDKIT - Bolting Kit, For DN63CF (4.50" OD) Flange £70.60 £70.60 1

800102V0002 - Mains Cable with CEE 7/7 Plug (Northern Europe) £42.00 £42.00 1

Vacuum Pump Rotary Vein £1,924.19

KJLC-RV212SSH PUMP, ROTARY VANE £1,668.00 £1,668.00 1

KJLSS19 Hydrocarbon Oil (1 quart) £14.00 £14.00 1

Power Supply, KJLC 275i or 300, UK Plug End £72.00 £72.00 1

RN-C51Q22-60 Nipple, Adaptor, 60mm OAL, DN63CF Fixed, Thru Holes, KF25 £153.19 £153.19 1

QF25-HDKIT Clamping Kit, For QF25 Flange £17.00 £17.00 1

Flanges, Nipples, Bolts £3,026.88

DOOR 6" OD NO VIEWPORT DS-LL0600 £797.80 £797.80 1

VPZL-800XLG VIEWPORT £600.75 £600.75 1

F0275X000NM FLANGE, SS, BLANK 2.75" OD #Bolts 6 M6 £21.15 £169.20 8

F0450X000NM FLANGE, SS, BLANK 4.5" OD #Bolts 8 M8 £57.00 £228.00 4

F0600X000NM FLANGE, SS, BLANK 6"OD #Bolts 16 M8 £137.75 £137.75 1

F0800X000NM FLANGE, SS, BLANK 8" OD #Bolts 20 M8 £127.45 £764.70 6

FN-C5115-300 Nipple, Full, 300mm OAL, DN63CF Fixed £207.68 £207.68 1

HBKM6X25 Bolts £11.40 £34.20 3

HBKM8X35 Bolts £12.40 £86.80 7

Sensors and Instruments £827.75

Tungsten Wire £48.00 £96.00 2

Geiger Counter £60.00 £60.00 1

KJL300804 CONVECTION GAUGE INTEGRATED CONTROLLER & DISPLAY £574.00 £574.00 1

GA-0275 1/4 Hard OHFC Gasket, DN40CF £14.35 £14.35 1

HBS25028138 Bolt & Nut Set for DN35CF-N40CF, 25 per package £11.40 £11.40 1

KJLPS401UK Power Supply for KJL275i and KJL300 series gauge £72.00 £72.00 1

High Voltage Tools £1,547.50

High Voltage Power Supply LS Series (Working on quote) £9,000.00 £0.00 0

EFT6012156 ELECTRICAL FEEDTHROUG £1,547.50 £1,547.50 1

Additional Tools £65.00

TorrSeal® Base 82 grams Torr Seal® Hardener 36 grams £65.00 £65.00 1

Valves £441.00

37
DESCRIPTION Optional AMOUNT Total Qty

F0275XVALVE ADAPTER,SS,2-3/4"UHV FLANGE TO 1/4" UP-TO-AIR £441.00 £441.00 1

DN35CF-DN40CF (2.75" OD) Pneumatic Bellows Sealed SS Angle Valves Yes £528.00 £0.00 0

Additional Optional Gauge

KJL275804LL TRANSDUCER, CONVECTION GAUGE INTEGRATED CONTROLLER Yes £388.00 £388.00 1

390511-2-YG-T TRANSDUCER, 390 MICRO-ION, WIDE RANGE GAUGE Yes £1,903.00 £1,903.00 1

Usable Budget £0.00

K.J. Lesker Company

Spellman High Voltage Electronics Corporation

38
F Appendix 7 – Final version of a budget partitioning
spreadsheet with the final cost of the overall project, all
the components required for its completion and their
respective details.

Item
SS Hemisphere
FLANGE,UHV,SS,BORED,FXD,8"OD, 6"C-BORE

VIEWPORT,ZERO-LENGTH,4-1/2"UHV,W/LEAD GLASS DISK

NIPPLE,HALF,SS,2.46"OAL,2-3/4" OD UHV,1-3/4"OD TUBE

Ball Valve as Air Admitance valve

Pressure Gauge + Controller

FLANGE,UHV,SS,BLANK,FXD,2.75" OD
NIPPLE,HALF,SS,2.46"OAL,2-3/4" OD UHV,1-3/4"OD TUBE
ELECTRICAL FEEDTHROUGH, 30KV 2.75

FLANGE,UHV,SS,BLANK,FXD,4.50" OD
NIPPLE,HALF,SS,4.12"OAL,4-1/2" OD UHV,2-1/2"OD TUBE

HEX BOLT, NUT & WASHER SET, STAINLESS STEEL, (25) 5/16-24 X 2.00" LONG HEX BOLTS, (25) HEX NUTS, AND (50) FLAT WASHERS
HEX BOLT, NUT, & WASHER SET, STAINLESS STEEL, (25) 1/4-28 X 1.38" LONG HEX BOLTS, (25) HEX NUTS, AND (50) FLAT WASHERS
BOLT AND NUT SET 4X20MM FOR 34MM OD FLANGE, 25 DN16CF
Hex Bolt, Nut & Washer Set, Stainless Steel, (25) 5/16-24 x 2.25" Hex Bolts, (25) Hex Nuts, & (50) Flat Washers Big Flanges
BOLTS,FLANGE,QF63 BOLTED TO TAPPED,M8 X30,4/SET ISO63F

FORELINE TRAP
ANTI SUCK-BACK VENT VALVE,QF25 100VAC,50HZ
Needle Valve

Rotary Vein Pump

Pfeiffer TPH 062 Turbo Molecular Vacuum Pump
CENTERING RING,QF63,SS INNER, AL OUTER,FKM O-RING
ELBOW,SS,45 DEG,RADIUS,2.75" FLG,1.50"OD TUBE,"A"-1.74"
TEE, SS, 2.46"A, 1.5"OD, 2.75" FLANGE
Nipple, Adaptor, 38mm OAL, ISO63 bolt , DN40CF Fixed, Thru Holes 41.2mm OD Tube
VAT vacuum valve - ISO 63 manual isolating valve
CLAMP, SINGLE CLAW FOR QF63- 100, 4REQ, METRIC BOLT M8
NIPPLE,HALF,SS,2.46"OAL,2-3/4" OD UHV,1-3/4"OD TUBE
ADAPTER,SS,2-3/4"UHV FLANGE TO QF16 FLANGE

GASKET, COPPER, SILVER PLATED, DN35CF-DN40CF (2.75" OD) FLANGE, 1.895" OD, 1.450" ID, (1) PER PACKAGE
GASKET, FKM, FLAT, DN35CF-DN40CF (2.75" OD) FLANGE, 1.915" OD, 1.687" ID, (5) PER PACKAGE
GASKET, COPPER, ANNEALED, DN63CF (4.50" OD) FLANGE, (5) PER PACKAGE
GASKET, COPPER, DN35CF-DN40CF (2.75" OD) FLANGE, 1.895" OD, 1.450" ID, (10) PER PACKAGE
Gasket, Copper, DN160CF (8.00" OD) Flange, 6.743" OD, 6.007" ID, (10) Per Package
GASKET, COPPER, DN63CF (4.50" OD) FLANGE, 3.241" OD, 2.506" ID, (10) PER PACKAGE
CENTERING RING,SS,QF16,FKM O-RING,3/4"

39
CENTERING RING,SS,QF25,FKM
Premium Vacuum Pump Oil, 1 Litre, 1000ml
KF 16 Clamp and Rings
KF 25 Clamps and Rings
KF 16 Hose
KF 16 Elbow
Adapter KF 16 to 25

CENTERING RING ASSY,ADAPT,SS, QF10-QF16,FKM

CENTERING RING,SS,QF16,FKM O-RING,3/4"
CLAMP,ALUMINUM,QF16,CAST 1/2" & 3/4"
FLANGE,BLANK,SS,QF10
NIPPLE,HALF,SS,1.5"OAL,1-1/3" OD UHV,3/4"OD TUBE DN16CF
ADAPTER,SS,1.33"UHV FLANGE TO QF16 FLANGE
GASKET, COPPER, DN16CF (1.33" OD) FLANGE , 0.837" OD, 0.640" ID, (10) PER PACKAGE
Multi Stage Hydrogen Regulator Side Entry
TEE,AL,QF16 FLGS,3/4"OD TUBE, "A"-1.57".
Ball Valve

Neutron Detector https://www.ebay.co.uk/itm/363948854305?chn=ps&norover=1&mkevt=1&mkrid=710-134428-41853-0&mkcid=2&mkscid

Power Supply
Geiger Counter

Additional Products to Purchase

CENTERING RING,QF63,SS INNER, AL OUTER,FKM O-RING QF63-AAVR
CENTERING RING,SS,QF16,FKM O-RING,3/4" QF16-075-SRV
CLAMP,ALUMINUM,QF16,CAST 1/2" & 3/4" QF16-075-C
GASKET, COPPER, ANNEALED, DN35-DN40CF (2.75" OD) FLANGE, (5) PER PACKAGE
CENTERING RING,SS,QF25,FKM QF25-100-SRV
CLAMP,ALUMINUM,QF25,CAST 1" QF25-100-C

40
Qty Cost per unit Cost overall Comments Arrived?
2 134 268
2 76.7 153.4

1 151 151 VP
3 30.05 90.15

2 59.99 119.98 UTA Valve

1 1026 1026 Pirani Pressure Gauge

0 30 0
0 30.05 0 30kV FT with FT Port and Lid
1 204.75 204.75

1 48.25 48.25
1 97.25 97.25 60kV FT with FT Port and Lid

1 18.5 18.5
2 11.4 22.8
1 9.25 9.25
2 21.65 43.3
1 13.15 13.15

1 49.99 49.99 Filter for Vac Pump

0 555 0 Auto Shut Valve
1 397 397

1 300 300 https://www.ebay.co.uk/itm/273882770842?hash=item3fc4af6d9a:g:62oAAOSwh7Zc~XZS&amdata=

1 699 699 https://www.ebay.co.uk/itm/134487950421?hash=item1f501b4455:g:NWYAAOSw-dBTssuq&amdat
1 15.9 15.9
1 91.85 91.85
1 125 125
1 189.02 189.02
1 180 180 https://www.ebay.co.uk/itm/284075782762?mkcid=16&mkevt=1&mkrid=711-127632-2357-0&sssp
4 2.75 11
0 30.05 0
1 40.4 40.4

2 4.45 8.9
1 34.55 34.55
1 13.8 13.8
1 14.35 14.35
1 65.7 65.7
1 38.45 38.45
6 2.85 17.1

41
4 4.35 17.4
0 15 0
6 6.98 41.88
4 7.98 31.92
1 19.99 19.99
1 14.99 14.99
3 15.99 47.97

2 5.15 10.3
1 2.85 2.85
3 3.05 9.15
1 5.1 5.1
1 25.5 25.5
1 40.4 40.4
1 9.05 9.05
0 150 0 https://engweld.co.uk/product/a110654-multi-stage-hydrogen-regulator-side-entry?gclid=Cj0KCQjw
2 25.8 51.6
0 59.99 0

2 13.8 27.6
2 2.85 5.7
2 3.05 6.1
1 13.8 13.8 61.1
1 4.35 4.35
1 3.55 3.55

42
Total Cost
£4,946.99

Spent Money
£4,617.89

Arrived Money

Lesker Order 2051.67

Britvac Order 2086.22

Ebay 480

43