Module I: Foundations of Special Education

Introduction to Children Who are Exceptional

An exceptional child is one who deviates physically, intellectually, emotionally or

socially, from the normal or average child so markedly that he cannot receive maximum benefit
from the regular school program and requires modification in the school practices and program
or requires special educational services or supplementary instruction and services to enable
him/her to develop to their maximum capacity. Such a child begins to show signs of
exceptionality from birth or during the developmental stages as the child races ahead of others or
lags behind in terms of growth and development in various dimensions, viz., Physical, Mental,
Emotional, Social and Moral to such an extent that he or she exhibits problems and
maladjustments in academics, the school setting itself, in behavior and in terms of adjustment
problems with other children. An exceptional child has some needs like those of the normal child
and like his peer group children, and does have some different needs pertinent to the child’s own
particular type of exceptionality. Since the child has some special needs, he/she is also referred
to as a child with special needs.

Types of Exceptional Children.

All children exhibit differences from one another in terms of their physical attributes
(e.g., some are shorter, some are stronger) and learning abilities (e.g., some learn quickly and are
able to remember and use what they have learned in new situations. Others need repeated
practice and have difficulty maintaining and generalizing newly acquired knowledge and skills.
These differences among most children are relatively smaller thereby enabling these children to
benefit from the general education program. The physical attributes and/or learning abilities of
some children, however in regard to those children called exceptional children differ to quite an
extent from the norm (either below or above) that they require an individualized program of
special education and related services to fully benefit from education. The term exceptional
child, includes all those children who experience difficulties in learning as well as those whose
performance is so superior that modifications in curriculum, teaching methodology and
instructions are necessary to help them fulfill their potential.

Thus, exceptional children is an inclusive term that refers to children with learning and/or
behavior problems, children with physical disabilities or sensory impairments, and children who
are intellectually gifted or have a special talent. The term ‘students with disabilities’ is more
restrictive than exceptional children because it does not include gifted and talented children.
Learning the definitions of several related terms will help you better understand the concept of
exceptionality. Although the terms impairment, disability, and handicap are sometimes used
interchangeably, they are not synonymous.

Impairment refers to the loss or reduced function of a particular body part or organ (e.g.,
a missing limb). A disability exists when an impairment limits a person’s ability to perform
certain tasks (e.g., walk, see, add a row of numbers) in the same way that most persons do. A
person with a disability is not considered handicapped, unless or otherwise the disability leads to
educational, personal, social, vocational, or other problems. For example, if a child who has lost
a leg learns to use a prosthetic limb and thus functions in and out of school without problems,
she is not handicapped, at least in terms of her functioning in the physical environment.

Handicap refers to a problem or a disadvantage that a person with a disability or having

impairment encounters when interacting with the environment. A disability may pose a handicap
in one environment but not in another. The child with a prosthetic limb may be handicapped (i.e.,
disadvantaged) when competing against nondisabled peers on the basketball court but may
experience no handicap in the classroom. Individuals with disabilities also experience handicaps
that have nothing to do with their disabilities but are the result of negative attitudes and the
inappropriate behavior of others who needlessly restrict their access and ability to participate
fully in school, work, or community activities. In most instances today, the term preferred for use
is ‘the person with disabilities’ rather than using the term ‘handicapped’.

At risk refers to children who, although not currently identified as having a disability, are
considered to have a greater than usual chance of developing one. The term is often applied to
infants and preschoolers who, because of conditions surrounding their births or home
environments, may be expected to experience developmental problems at a later time. The term
is also used to refer to students who are experiencing learning problems in the regular classroom
and are therefore at risk of school failure or of being identified for special education services.

Issues and Trends in Special Education

The term “special education” encompasses educational programs that serve children with mental,
physical, emotional, and behavioral disabilities. In practical terms, special education is largely
defined by the federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1975), which
guarantees a “free, appropriate public education” to children with disabilities and mandates that,
to the “maximum extent appropriate,” they be educated with their nondisabled peers in the “least
restrictive environment.” Special education focuses on helping kids with disabilities learn. But it
doesn’t mean placing kids in a special classroom all day long. In fact, federal law says that kids
who get special education services should learn in the same classrooms as other kids as much as
possible. This is known as the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE). Kids who qualify for
special education have an Individualized Education Program (IEP). They get individualized
teaching and other resources at no cost to their families. Specialists work with kids on strengths
as well as challenges. And families are key members of the team that decides what kids need to
thrive in school.

The landmark IDEA law, first enacted in 1975 as the Education for All Handicapped Children
Act, set in motion a tidal wave of change, bringing into the public schools more than 1 million
children with disabilities who previously had been shut out of school or received limited
educational services. Prior to the law’s passage, the standards for educating children with
disabilities varied tremendously among states. By 2009, U.S. Department of Education estimates
showed that, about 5.8 million of the nation’s schoolchildren, ages 6 to 21, were receiving
special education services through IDEA. About 61 percent of those students have specific
learning disabilities or speech or language impairments. Only about 8 percent are diagnosed with
significant cognitive disabilities, such as mental retardation or traumatic brain injury. More than
half of all students with disabilities spend at least 80 percent of their time in the regular
classroom. The size of that group of students—along with their inclusion in the general
education classroom—has raised concerns about academic expectations, teacher preparedness,
and cost. In addition to advancing the inclusion of special education students in general
education classrooms, the IDEA has brought attention to the academic performance of students
with disabilities. The law mandates that instructional road maps, known as Individualized
Education Programs, be created for each student with a disability. The 1997 reauthorization of
the law required special education students to participate in state tests and states to report the
results of those tests to the public.

Risk factors & children at risk

Risk factors

Risks to child health include low birth weight, malnutrition, not breast feeding, overcrowded
conditions, unsafe drinking water and food and poor hygiene practices. Prior to birth, a mother
can increase her child's chance of survival and good health by attending antenatal care
consultations, being immunized against tetanus, and avoiding smoking and use of alcohol. At the
time of birth, a baby's chance of survival increases significantly with delivery in a health facility
in the presence of a skilled birth attendant. Identifying and caring for illnesses in the infant and
child is very important. Sick children must be taken immediately to a trained health care
provider. The global disease burden due to non-communicable diseases affecting children in
childhood and later in life is rapidly increasing, even though many of the risk factors such as
including indoor air pollution, overweight/obesity, poor diet and physical inactivity. Preventing
injuries due to road traffic accidents, drowning, falls and burns as well as violence require a
multi-sectoral approach but are nonetheless important risks to consider for improving child
health and well-being.

Risk connotes a given probability but does not imply certainty, and not all children who fall
within these categories of increased vulnerability become disabled. The thousands upon
thousands of risk factors can be slotted into three major categories: established risk, biological
risk, and environmental risk. Some children seem to be more resilient than others. Resilience
has been shown to be associated with a number of factors that include good cognitive skills,
curiosity, enthusiasm, and high self-esteem.

Established Risk:-

The established risk category refers to medical conditions and anomalies that invariably result in
a disability or developmental delay. Established risk is most often related to genetic and
chromosomal problems, and includes conditions such as Down syndrome, and fragile X
syndrome. Problems may range from relatively minor through to major difficulties, called the
continuum of reproductive casualty.

Genetic and Chromosomal Differences

All individuals are born with a unique combination of genes that are present from the moment of
conception. One tiny flaw in the genetic structure can have tragic results.

Chromosomal Disorders

Chromosomal problems result from chromosomal dysjunction, a malfunction in cell division.

Problems occur when there is an extra chromosome, or when pieces or parts of chromosomes
attach themselves to other chromosomes.

The most common chromosomal aberration is Down syndrome. Fragile X syndrome is second
only to Down syndrome among genetic abnormalities associated with intellectual disabilities.

Genetic Disorders

There are a large number of confirmed or suspected dominant genetic disorders that can result in
mental retardation and other disabilities. Congenital abnormalities, or hereditary abnormalities,
are present at birth. Patterns of inheritance may be dominant, recessive, or multifactorial.

Inborn Errors of Metabolism

Metabolic problems due to heredity are termed inborn errors of metabolism. Most inborn errors
of metabolism are the result of the action of a single pair of genes. Many result in missing or
defective enzymes. The absence of, or defect in, one of the enzymes means that the normal
chemistry of a cell is altered by the inability to provide or dispose of a critical chemical or
protein, which leads to unusual levels of particular chemicals in the body.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

In PKU, the condition is marked by an inability to normally oxidize the amino acid
phenylalanine, which is found in fish, dairy products, and most protein sources. Early screening
and a special diet eliminates or diminishes the effects of PKU.

Deletion Syndromes
In these rare diseases, is it not a case of aberrant genes. Rather, there is too little genetic material
or there is at least one gene missing.

Syndromes with Abnormal Chromosome Numbers

In a relatively high number of births (1 in 400), a disorder can be caused by an abnormal number
of X or Y chromosomes. The most common variation is Klinefelter syndrome, which is found in
1 in every 700 male births.

Biological Risk:-

Children who are at biological risk have a history of developmental events, such as prematurity,
that place them in the at-risk category.

Prenatal Period

From the moment of conception until delivery nine months later, the human being is more
susceptible to the environment than at any other time. The first trimester, is the most important to
development. Potentially dangerous prenatal factors include infections and intoxicants as well as
chromosomal and genetic aberrations.

Infections and Intoxicants

Many agents act deleteriously on the developing fetus. Teratogens are environmental agents that
can cause damage.

Rubella. Rubella is a potential source of a variety of disabilities; when the mother contracts the
virus in the first trimester of pregnancy, approximately 70 percent of fetuses are damaged. The
fetal organs likely to be affected by rubella are those whose development is underway when the
mother contracts the virus. The eye, ear, nervous system, and heart are especially vulnerable.

Syphilis. Syphilis affects the fetus after the sixteenth or eighteenth week of gestation. It does not
affect the developing organs as does rubella, but produces destructive lesions (abnormal changes
in structure) on already developed organs.

Drugs. Drugs include over-the-counter drugs, prescription drugs, hard drugs, and alcohol and
nicotine. In terms of children's development, researchers are unable to conclusively identify a set
of characteristics that represent prenatal drug exposure. Not only is it difficult to attribute
specific characteristics to certain drugs, but caregiving of the infant serves to strengthen or
mitigate unfortunate outcomes.

Prescription Drugs. Prescription drugs have been shown to have an adverse effect on fetal
development.
Cocaine. Some neurochemical studies on cocaine in utero suggest that if it is present during
gestation it may affect developing fetal neuromotor systems, which could have a significant
impact on the developing nervous system.

Heroin. Heroin passes through the placenta so that infants of addicted women are born addicted.
Withdrawal symptoms can prove fatal to the tiny infant. Survivors suffer a number of
difficulties, but it is not known whether these extend beyond infancy.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. A syndrome is a constellation of findings similar from patient to

patient. A proportion of children of drinking mothers are born with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
(FAS). In children affected by FAS, intellectual disability is a major characteristic. Full-blown
FAS affects the whole body system, causing malformations and anomalies in the nervous
system, the musculoskeletal structure, and internal organs, especially the heart and urinogenital
tracts.

Maternal Smoking. Very heavy smoking in mothers may have a severe enough cumulative effect
to contribute to spontaneous abortions, bleeding during pregnancy, premature rupture of the
amniotic sac, fetal deaths, and deaths of newborns.

Maternal Nutrition. Inadequate prenatal nutrition can affect the relationship between the body's
biochemistry and the functioning of the brain. Severe malnutrition can stunt brain growth and
produce a significant lowering of intellectual ability. Postnatal nutrition, especially during the
first six months of an infant's life, is also a critical factor in brain development.

Unknown Prenatal Influence. There are a number of conditions present at or before birth for
which there is no known cause. Microcephaly is a rare phenomenon in which brain development
is impaired by an abnormally small cranium. Macrocephaly refers to an enlargement of the head,
most frequently caused by hydrocephalus, a build-up of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain.

Birth and Neonatal Development

Birth can be dangerous for the child or the mother.

Neological Impairments

Neological impairments can occur pre-, peri-, or post-natally. Sometimes, inadequate uterine
environments pose additional risks. If the child is overly deprived of oxygen, the condition is
called anoxia; most birth injuries result in deprivation of oxygen to the immature brain, which
then leads to abridgment of nervous system function. If supplies of oxygen to the nerve cells of
the brain are too greatly reduced, brain damage or death can result.

Preterm and Low-Birth-Weight Infants

Prematurity occurs in ten or twelve births per hundred. Preterm or premature babies are generally
defined as those born before the completion of thirty-seven weeks, a full week short of the full
thirty-eight-week term. Research has clearly established that preterm infants have a higher
incidence of developmental problems in childhood than do full-term infants.

An abnormal length of pregnancy can also be problematic. Infants born two weeks or more
beyond the expected due date are said to be postmature. These children are somewhat more at
risk than children born at the normal 266 to 270 days.

CMV and Herpes

Two potentially harmful or fatal conditions transmitted to the baby at the time of delivery are
cytomegalovirus (CMV) and herpes.

Pediatric AIDS

Pediatric AIDS. AIDS contracted by children under thirteen years of age is a cause of
developmental and physical disabilities and death among infants and children in North America.
The vast majority of children with pediatric AIDS obtain their infection during birth from the
mother who used intravenous drugs or was sexually active with an infected partner. AIDS in
children may also be the result of tainted blood transfusions. Rarely, it may be contracted
through the mother's milk.

Postnatal Development

In the postnatal period, infections such as meningitis and encephalitis can present dire sequelae.
Child abuse and child battering are further potent causes of childhood handicapping conditions.

Environmental Risk:-

Both heredity and environmental factors are crucial to child development. A child's growth
factors will be seriously hampered by environmental risks. These are conditions that occur when
a child is biologically normal but does not develop age-appropriate behavior at the normal rate.
In this grouping, at risk refers to students who have characteristics, live in an environment, or
have experiences that make them more prone to developing some form of disabling condition
and/or more likely to fail in school.

Family Structures

Teachers must be aware that today's child population is different from earlier generations. One
factor is destabilization of the institution of the family, shown in mounting divorce rates and
increases in the number of single-parent families. As families change, new problems emerge.

Poverty

Lower socio-economic status (SES) negatively correlates with eight adverse socializing factors-
harsh discipline, lack of maternal warmth, exposure to aggressive adult models, maternal
aggressive values, family life stresses, mother's lack of social support, peer group instability, and
lack of cognitive stimulation.

Cultural and Linguistic Differences

To live and develop in two culturally different systems is sufficiently challenging for students
without exceptional conditions. The difficulties multiply for students who are culturally and
linguistically diverse, and also disabled.

Culturally Different Students with Special Needs

Culturally diverse students are represented in all categories of exceptionality and can experience
any disability that is found in other children. Disability and cultural and linguistic concerns are
not unrelated phenomena; rather, they play interconnected and complementary roles in children's
development and progress. Programs must address the interacting influences of all student
variables.

Collaborating with Parents & Families

Developed and developing nations are progressing at different rates in implementing inclusive
education (Helldin et al., 2011; Lee, 2010). Collaboration is a process of two or more parties
working together hand in hand to achieve a common objective and goal. Effective collaboration
is based on all parties’ efforts in pursuit of similar goals. Collaboration is important for a
reflection of practices and exchange of knowledge. It has been used as a main strategy to
generate creativity and innovation for creating effective educational programs (Adams, 2005).
Teachers face great challenges and often find it difficult to effectively meet the needs of all
students (Narinasamy & Mamat, 2013). The creation of effective inclusive schools requires a
combination of teachers’ and parents’ knowledge and skills on instructional strategies and
assessment practices. Many studies show that an inclusive school can be identified through is its
ability to work as a cohesive team (Ainscow & Sandill, 2010). The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act Amendments (IDEA, 1997) recognize teacher-parent collaboration as an essential
component in effective special educational practices. The underlying assumption of such
partnerships is that teachers and parents should work together to provide the child with the best
education possible. In reality, however, many different ideas and beliefs among teachers and
parents can arise that leads to a disconnection in relationships and communication among them.
In such situations, fluid partnerships between teachers and parents can be challenging and
resulting tensions can emerge which, in turn, can affect a child’s educational experience. A
collaborative approach between teachers and parents is based on its efficiency for decision
making and its potential to produce high quality student outcomes. Teacher-parent collaboration
will optimize students’ monitoring and learning which leads them to achieve their full potential
and achievement. Studies in other countries suggest that teacher-parent collaboration is essential
for teachers and parents to consult, undertake joint efforts and share information in providing
efficient and meaningful education for students with SEN (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001;
Hendersen & Mapp, 2002). Teachers and parents’ needs to collaborate to identify what areas of
students’ development need attention and determine together appropriate goals and objectives to
achieve (Carlisle, Stanley, & Kemple, 2005). Collaboration has often been viewed as the
formation of teams to aid the development of effective education and support for students with
SEN. They expressed the need to create these teams as there might be insufficient human
resources in schools.

Friend and Cook (2007) identified several key concepts that determine the success of teacher-
parent collaboration. These concepts include realizing that collaboration should be voluntary, the
need to share resources, being responsible in decision-making, aim toward common goals,
acknowledge each other’s roles, the ability to work together intuitively to plan a formal program
process, and finally trust and respect for each other. It is very important that teachers and parents
understand special educational needs and the Individualized Education Program (IEP) content,
and the processes involved in order to work as a team. Teacher-parent collaboration is more
difficult to promote and maintain if teachers and parents work as separate units (Braley, 2012).
Teachers and parents require active communication with each other for shared decision-making
and ideas, to plan the IEP program and to discuss ways of improving student performance.
Communication between teachers and parents therefore needs to be in a variety of forms and
should not only be one-dimensional. Teachers’ communication with parents is important for
them to collaborate and share information. Effective communication between teachers and
parents happens when both parties are honest and supportive of each other’s responsibilities and
roles.

Sound educational outcome in teacher-parent collaboration relies on shared responsibilities.

Cramer (2006) says teachers play a vital role by providing support to parents with the resources
available inside and outside the classrooms and as executors of the educational plans while
parents needs encouragement to carry out their roles effectively in their child’s development and
academic performance. Successful student outcomes can be more easily achieved if both
teachers and parents know each other’s roles in the collaboration process.