Module 1: Introduction to Statistics

FoEd 203- Statistics

1. The Meaning of Statistics

Definition of Statistics
Statistics is that branch of science which deals with the collection, presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of data.

Most introductory statistical texts begin with an obligatory opening paragraph or possibly a separate
box on “What is Statistics?” Here are a few examples: (Retrieved from
https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-statistics-022513-115703)
a. “Statistics is a way of reasoning, along with a collection of tools and methods, designed to help
us understand the world” (De Veaux et al. 2006, p. 2).
b. “Statistics is the art of making numerical conjectures about puzzling questions” (1999)
c. “Statistics is a set of concepts, rules, and methods for (1) collecting data, (2) analyzing data, and
(3) drawing conclusions from data” (Iversen & Gergen 1997, p. 4).
d. “Statistics helps provide a systematic approach for obtaining reasoned answers together with
some assessment of their reliability in situations where complete information is unobtainable or not
available in a timely manner” (Johnson & Tsui 1998, p. 2).
e. “Statistics is the art and science of gathering, analyzing, and making inferences from data”
(Mosteller et al. 1961, p. 2).
f. “Statistics is the art of learning from data. It is concerned with the collection of data, its
subsequent description, and its analysis, which often leads to drawing conclusions” (Ross 1996, p. 5).
g. “Statistics is a collection of procedures and principles for gaining and processing information in
order to make decisions when faced with uncertainty” (Utts 1996, p. 5).
h. “Statistics is a body of methods for making wise decisions in the face of uncertainty” (Wallis &
Roberts 1962, p. 11).

Statistical methodology may looked upon as being of three types:

a. Descriptive- descriptive statistics gives us information about, or describes the sample we are
studying.
b. Correlational- the results of correlational work is useful in making predictions of future
behaviour. If we know that a relationship exists between two variables, then scores on one may be used to
predict scores on the other. Results of correlational analysis are also used to study the reliability and
validity of educational and psychological tests.
c. Inferential- the use of inferential statistics is basic experimental research in all branches of
science. Usually when samples are studied, the investigator is interested in going beyond the sample and
making an inference about the population from which the sample was drawn. Populations are frequently
so large that the only way their characteristics will ever be known is through study of sample drawn
systematically from the population. It follows, then, that from the measures of average and variability
based upon samples we make inferences about the size of the same traits in the population.

2. Population and Sample

Definition. A population is a collection of all the elements under consideration in a statistical
study.
A sample is a part or subset of the population from which the information is collected.
Example: A manufacturer of kerosene heaters wants to determine if customers are satisfied
with the performance of their heaters. Toward this goal, 5,000 of his 200,000
customers are contacted and each is asked, “Are you satisfied with the performance of the
kerosene heater you purchased?” Identify the population and the sample for this
situation.

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 Answer: The population is the 200,000 customers and the sample is the 5,000 customers.

Definition. A parameter is a numerical characteristic of the population.

A statistic is a numerical characteristic of the sample.
Example: In order to estimate the true proportion of students at a certain college who smoke
cigarettes, the administration polled a sample of 200 students and determined that the
proportion of students from the sample who smoke cigarettes is 0.12. Identify the
parameter and the statistic.
Answer: The data of 200 students is a parameter while the proportion of students from the sample
who smoke cigarettes which is 0.12 is considered as the statistic.

3. Variables and Measurement

Definition. A variable is a characteristic or attribute of persons or objects which can assume
different values or labels for different persons or objects under consideration.

Definition. Measurement is the process of determining the value or label of a particular variable
for a particular experimental unit.

Definition. An experimental unit is the individual or object on which a variable is measured.

Classification of Variables
a. Discrete vs Continuous
Discrete variable - a variable which can assume finite, or, at most, countably infinite
number of values; usually measured by counting or enumeration
(e.g. number of crew in a ship, number of car collections)
Continuous variable - a variable which can assume infinitely many values
corresponding to a line interval (e.g. age, weight, height)

b. Qualitative vs Quantitative
Qualitative variable - a variable that yields categorical responses (e.g., political affiliation,
occupation, marital status)
Quantitative variable- a variable that takes on numerical values representing an amount or
quantity (e.g., weight, height, no. of cars)

4. Scale of Measurement/ Levels of Measurement

a. Nominal Level (or Classificatory Scale)
The nominal level is the weakest level of measurement where numbers or symbols are
used simply for categorizing subjects into different groups.
Examples:
Sex M-Male F-Female
Marital status 1-Single 2-Married 3-Widowed 4-Separated

b. Ordinal Level (or Ranking Scale)

The ordinal level of measurement contains the properties of the nominal level, and in
addition, the numbers assigned to categories of any variable may be ranked or ordered in
some low-to-high-manner.
Examples:
Performance ratings 1-poor 2- fair 3-good 4- excellent
rd nd
Rank of Deck Officers 1-3 Mate 2- 2 Mate 3- Chief mate 4- Captain
Rank of Engine Officers 1- Chief Engr. 2-2nd Engr. 3- 3rd Engr. 4- 4th Engr.

c. Interval Level
The interval level is that which has the properties of the nominal and ordinal levels, and
in addition, the distances between any two numbers on the scale are of known sizes. An
interval scale must have a common and constant unit of measurement. Furthermore, the

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 unit of measurement is arbitrary and there is no “true zero” point.
Examples: IQ, Temperature (in Celsius)

d. Ratio Level
The ratio level of measurement contains all the properties of the interval level, and in
addition, it has a “true zero” point.
Examples: Age (in years), Number of correct answers in an exam

5. Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

Definition. A sampling procedure that gives every element of the population a (known) nonzero
chance of being selected in the sample is called probability sampling. Otherwise, the
sampling procedure is called non-probability sampling.

Definition. The target population is the population from which information is desired.

Definition. The sampled population is the collection of elements from which the sample is actually
taken.

Definition. The population frame is a listing of all the individual units in the population.

Methods of Non-Probability Sampling

a. purposive sampling - sets out to make a sample agree with the profile of the
population based on some pre-selected characteristic
b. quota sampling - selects a specified number (quota) of sampling units possessing
certain characteristics
c. convenience sampling- selects sampling units that come to hand or are convenient to
get information from
d. judgment sampling - selects sample in accordance with an expert’s judgment

Methods of Probability Sampling

a. Simple random sampling
b. Stratified random sampling
c. Systematic sampling
d. Cluster sampling
e. Multistage sampling

Ø Simple Random Sampling

Description of the Design
Simple random sampling (SRS) is a method of selecting n units out of the N units in the
population in such a way that every distinct sample of size n has an equal chance of being drawn.
The process of selecting the sample must give an equal chance of selection to any one of the
remaining elements in the population at any one of the n draws.
Random sampling may be with replacement (SRSWR) or without replacement (SRSWOR).
In SRSWR, a chosen element is always replaced before the next selection is made, so that an element
may be chosen more than once.

Sample Selection Procedure

Step 1: Make a list of the sampling units and number them from 1 to N.
Step 2: Select n numbers from 1 to N using some random process, for example, the table of
random numbers. n is distinct for SRSWOR, not necessarily distinct for SRSWR.
Step 3: The sample consists of the units corresponding to the selected random numbers.

Advantages
- The theory involved is much easier to understand than the theory behind other sampling
designs.
- Inferential methods are simple and easy.
Disadvantages

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 - The sample chosen may be widely spread, thus entailing high transportation costs.
- A population frame is needed.
- SRS results in less precise estimates if the population is heterogeneous with respect to
the characteristic under study.

Ø Stratified Random Sampling

Description of the Design
In stratified random sampling, the population of N units is first divided into
subpopulations called strata. Then a simple random sample is drawn from each stratum, the
selection being made independently in different strata.

Sample Selection Procedure

Step 1: Divide the population into strata. Ideally, each stratum must consist of more or less
homogeneous units.
Step 2: After the population has been stratified, a simple random sample is selected from each
stratum.

Advantages
- Stratification may produce a gain in precision in the estimates of characteristics of the
population
- It allows for more comprehensive data analysis since information is provided for each
stratum.
- It is administratively convenient.
Disadvantages
- A listing of the population for each stratum is needed.
- The stratification of the population may require additional
prior information about the population and its strata.

Ø (1-in-k) Systematic Sampling

Description of the Design
Systematic sampling with a “random start” is a method of selecting a sample by taking
th
every k unit from an ordered population, the first unit being selected at random. Here k is
called the sampling interval; the reciprocal 1/k is the sampling fraction.

Sample Selection Procedure

Method A
Step 1: Number the units of the population consecutively from 1 to N.
Step 2: Determine k, the sampling interval using the formula k = N/n.
Step 3: Select the random start r, where 1 < r < k. The unit corresponding to r is the first unit
of the sample.
Step 4: The other units of the sample correspond to r + k, r + 2k, r + 3k, and so on.

Method B
Step 1: Number the units of the population consecutively from 1 to N.
Step 2: Let k be the nearest integer less than N/n.
Step 3: Select the random start r, where 1≤ r ≤N. The unit corresponding to r is the first unit
of the sample.
Step 4: Consider the list of units of the population as a circular list, i.e., the last unit in the list
is followed by the first. The other units in the sample are the units corresponding to r + k,
r + 2k, r + 3k,...,r+ (n-1)k.

Advantages
- It is easier draw the sample and often easier to execute without mistakes than simple
random sampling.
- It is possible to select a sample in the field without a sampling frame.
- The systematic sample is spread evenly over the population.

Disadvantages

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 - If periodic regularities are found in the list, a systematic sample may consist only of
similar types. (Example: Store sales over seven days of the week – estimating total sales
based on a systematic sample every Tuesday would be unwise.)
- Knowledge of the structure of the population is necessary for its most effective use.

Ø Cluster Sampling
Description of the Design
Cluster sampling is a method of sampling where a sample of distinct groups, or clusters, of
elements is selected and then a census of every element in the selected clusters is taken. Similar to
strata in stratified sampling, clusters are non-overlapping sub-populations which together comprise
the entire population. For example, a household is a cluster of individuals living together or a city
block might also be considered as a cluster. Unlike strata, however, clusters are preferably formed
with heterogeneous, rather than homogeneous elements so that each cluster will be typical of the
population.

Clusters may be of equal or unequal size. When all of the clusters are of the same size,
the number of elements in a cluster will be denoted by M while the number of clusters in the
population will be denoted by N.

Sample-Selection Procedure
Step 1: Number the clusters from 1 to N.
Step 2: Select n numbers from 1 to N at random. The clusters corresponding to the selected
numbers form the sample of clusters.
Step 3: Observe all the elements in the sample of clusters.

Advantages
- A population list of elements is not needed; only a population list of clusters is required.
Thus, listing cost is reduced.
- Transportation cost is also reduced.
Disadvantages
- The costs and problems of statistical analysis are greater.
- Estimation procedures are more difficult.

Ø Multistage Sampling
Description of the Design
In multistage sampling, the population is divided into a hierarchy of sampling units
corresponding to the different sampling stages. In the first stage of sampling, the population is
divided into primary stage units (PSU) then a sample of PSUs is drawn. In the second stage of
sampling, each selected PSU is subdivided into second-stage units (SSU) then a sample of SSUs is
drawn. The process of subsampling can be carried to a third stage, fourth stage and so on, by
sampling the subunits instead of enumerating them completely at each stage.

Advantages
- Listing cost is reduced.
- Transportation cost is also reduced.
Disadvantages
- Estimation procedure is difficult, especially when the primary stage units are not of the
same size.
- Estimation procedure gets more complicated as the number of sampling stages
increases.
- The sampling procedure entails much planning before selection is done.

References:

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De Veaux RD, Velleman PF, Bock ED. 2006. Intro Stats Boston: Pearson/Addison Wesley, 2nd ed.
Retrieved at https://testbankdeal.com/sample/intro-stats-5th-edition-veaux-solutions-manual.pdf
Degroot, M. & Schervish, M. (2012) Probability and statistics. 4th ed. Pearson Educ, Inc.
Fienberg, Stephen E. (2014). What is Statistics? Retrieved at https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-statistics-
022513-115703
Freedman, David. From association to causation: some remarks on the history of statistics. Journal de la
Société française de statistique, Volume 140 (1999) no. 3, pp. 5-32.
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Iversen GR, Gergen M. 1997. Statistics: The Conceptual Approach New York: Springer. Retrieved at
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Johnson RA, Tsui K-W. 1998. Statistical Reasoning and Methods New York: Wiley
Mood, A., Graybill, F. & Boes, D. (1974) Introduction to the theory of Statisitcs. 3rd ed., Tokyo: McGraw-
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Mosteller F. 2010. The Pleasures of Statistics: The Autobiography of Frederick Mosteller SE Fienberg,
DC Hoaglin, JM Tanur New York: Springer. Retrieved at
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Ross SM. 1996. Introductory Statistics New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Utts JM. 1996. Seeing Through Statistics Belmont, CA: Duxbury. Retrieved at
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Wallis WA, Roberts HV. 1962. The Nature of Statistics New York: Free Press. Retrieved at
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Walpole, R. et.al. (2012) Probability & Statistics for Engineers and Scientists. USA: Pearson Education,
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