A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 1]

ADVANCED
COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
th
[6 SEM ETC -ETT601]

PREPARED BY

SRI DEBI PRASAD PATNAIK,

(Sr. Lecturer, E & TC)
&
SRI PARAMANANDA GOUDA
[Lecturer (PTGF), E & TC]

UMA CHARAN PATTNAIK ENGINEERING SCHOOL,

BERHAMPUR-760010
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 2]
[CHAPTER-1]
----------------------------------- RADAR & NAVIGATION AIDS----------------------------------
 INTRODUCTION: -
 RADAR means Radio Detection and Ranging.
 It is a device which can detect the presence of
Target and measure its Range.
 Radar is an electromagnetic system for detection
and location of reflecting objects such as aircrafts,
ships, vehicles, people & natural environment etc.
 It operates by transmitting a particular type of wave form (e.g. pulse modulated sine wave) into space
and detects the nature of echo signal reflected form an objects or targets.
 Radar can‟t recognize colour of objects but it can recognize darkness, fog, smoke, rain, snow etc.
 SIMPLE RADAR SYSTEM:-
 A Radar System consists of Transmitter, Receiver & Antenna.
 A Transmitter generates an EM Signal which is radiated into
space by Transmitting Antenna.
 A portion of the transmitted energy is intercepted by the
target and re-radiated in many directions.
 The radiation directed towards the Radar is collected by the
receiving Antenna and delivers into receiver.
 At the receiver the Signal is processed to detect the
presence of target and determines its location.
 A Single Antenna is generally used in a time shared
basic for both Transmitting and Receiving when the
radar waveform is a repetitive series of pulses.
 The range or distance to a target is found by measuring
the time it takes for the radar signal to travel to the target
and return back to the Radar.
 Radar can also provide information about nature of
target being observed.
 If the target is in motion, there is a shift in the frequency
of the echo signal due to the Doppler Effect.
 This frequency shift is proportional to the velocity of
the target related to the Radar which is known as
Radar velocity.
 NOTE: Doppler frequency shift is widely used in
Radar as the basic for separating desired moving
target from fixed (Unwanted) clutter echoes reflected
from natural environments such as see, lake Etc.
 The range of the target is determined by the time TR;
 It is the time taken by the pulse to travels to the target and returns back to the transmitter (TR).
 The EM Wave in the free space travel is the speed of light i.e. 3×108 m/s. Thus the time taken for the
signal to travel to the target located at a Range „R‟ and returned back to the Radar can found as: -
V = S/T  T = S/V [V ≡ Velocity ≡ C; S ≡ Distance ≡ R; T ≡ Time ≡ TR]

TR= 2R/C R = CTR/2

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 3]
 NOTE:-
RKM = 0.15 TR (µs) RMtr = 150 TR (µs) RYard = 164 TR (µs) RFeet = 492 TR (µs)
Rnmi =0.081 TR (µs) [nmi= Nautical Miles] Rsmi =0.081 TR (µs) [smi= Statute Miles]
 Un-Ambiguous Range:-
 Once the signal is radiated into space by Radar, Sufficient
time must elapse to allow all echo signals to return to the
Radar before the next pulse is transmitted.
 The rate at which the next pulse transmitted is determined
by the longest range at which targets are accepted.
 *If the time between pulses TP is too short an echo signal
from long range target might arrive after the transmission
of next pulse and we mistakenly associated with that
pulse rather than the actual pulse transmitted earlier.
 This can result an incorrect or ambiguous measurement of Range.
 Echo that arrives after the transmission of next pulse are called second-time around echo.
 Such an echo would appear to be at a closer range than the actual and its range measurement is called
misleading, if it were not known to be Second-time around echo.
 Hence the range beyond which the target appears as second-time around echo is called Maximum
Unambiguous Range.
RUnamb = CTP/2 = C/2FP
Where, Tp = Pulse Repetition Period & FP = Pulse Repetition Frequency.
 Certain Terms Associated with RADAR System: -
 Maximum Range  Pulse Repetiotion Frequency (PRF)
 Transmitted Power  Duty Cycle
 Operating Frequency  Average Power
 Pulse Width or Duration
 MAXIMUM RANGE
 Maximum distance around the antenna over which target can be detected is called maximum range.
 It depends on power of transmitter, location, directivity of antenna, frequency & sensitivity of receiver.
 TRANSMITTED POWER
 The radiated power when the pulse is active is called the peak power of the Radar Transmitter.
 A typical radar cover a range of about 200km then the peak power of transmitter in the order of 1mw.
 OPERATING FREQUENCY
 Radar uses Line of Sight (LOS) communication using frequency in range of 1,000MHz to 70,000MHz.
 The advantages of high frequency are: - it require small antenna, greater resolution, it can distinguish
two nearby objects etc. where as its disadvantage: - It reduces transmitted power, increases noise figure.
 PULSE WIDTH OR PULSE DURATION
 The time interval for which a pulse is active is called pulse width.
 Width of the pulse is used for modulation in a radar transmitter. The range of pulse width used in radar
system ranges from 0.2μsec to 30μsec. For better resolution pulse width should be small.
 PULSE REPETIOTION FREQUENCY (PRF)
 It is the frequency of pulse applied for modulation. PRF used in radar ranges from 350 to 10.000 PPS.
 Short range radar uses High PRF and Long range radar uses Low PRF.
 DUTY CYCLE
 The duty cycle is the total time in sec for which the transmitter is active in sending pulse.
 Duty cycle = PRF x PW, Duty Cycle = Pavg / Ppeak,
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 4]
 TYPES Of RADAR:-
 There are basic two types of Radar Detecter
 Pulse Radar System
 Contineous Wave (CW) Radar System
 CW Radar System again classified into two categories such as: -
 CW Doppler Radar
 Frequency Modulated CW Radar (FM-CW Radar).
 Based on structure basically Radar system are of two types: -
o Monostatic
o Bistatic
 In bistatic Radar system the transmitter and receiver antennas are
at different location as viewed from the target.
 In monostatic radar system the transmitter & receiver uses same antennas are as viewed from the target.
MONOSTATIC RADAR SYSTEM BISTATIC RADAR SYSTEM
 It uses a Single Antenna  It uses a Two Antenna
 It needs duplexer  It doesn‟t require duplexer
 Less space  More space
 Complex system  Simple system
 Costly  Low cost
 APPLICATIONS Of RADAR:-
 Radar used in Different Fields like: -
 Highway Safety  Military
 Remote Sensing  Ship Safety
 Air Traffic Control  Space Vehicles Control etc.
 Aircraft Safety and Navigation  Law Enforcement
 RADAR RANGE EQUATIONS: -
 Radar Equation relates the Range of Radar to the characteristic of Transmitter, Receiver, Antenna,
Target, and Environment etc.
 It is used not just as a man for determining the maximum distance from Radar to a Target.
 But it can serve both as a tool for understanding Radar Operation and a Basic form of Radar Design.
 In this section the simple form of Radar Equation is derived.
 For an Isotropic antenna; If the Power of Radar Transmitter is denoted by Pt then the Power Density
(watts per unit area) at a distance „R‟ is equal to the Transmitted Power Divided by the Surface Area
(4πR2) of an Imaginary Sphere with Radius „R‟. Where Pi = Power Density from Isotropic Antenna.
Pt
Pi = ………………….……………. (1)
4πR 2
 Generally Radar uses Directive antennas to channels. In this case the radiated power Pt is in some
particular direction. If the gain (G) of an antenna is a measure of increased power radiated in the
direction of target as compared with power that would have been radiated. And is defined as,
Maximum Power Density Radiated by Directive Antenna
G=
Power radiated by a loss less Isotropic Antenna with same Power Input

 So, The Power Density at the target from an Directive Antenna with a transmitting gain „G‟ is
Pt G
PD= ……………………..…………. (2)
4πR 2
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [Page - 5]
[ETT 601]
 The target intercepts a portion of radiated power and re-radiated it in the various directions.
 The measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by the target and re-radiated back in the Radar
Cross Section (σ) and is defined by the relation.
Pt G σ Pt G σ ….…………. (3)
Power Density of the echo signal at Radar =
4πR 2 × 4πR 2
=
(4πR 2 )2
 The Radar cross section (σ) as unit of area, it is the characteristic of a particular target and a measure of
its size as seen by the Radar.
 Like target the Receiving Antenna intercepts a portion of the re-radiated power which is proportional to
the Cross Sectional Area of the Receiving Antenna (Ae).
 The radar antenna captures a portion of the echo power. If the effective area of the cross sectional area of
receiving antenna is denoted as Ae. The power receiving by the Radar is

Pt G σ Pt Gσ Ae
Pr= × × Ae  Pr = .….………….…. (4)
4πR 2 4πR 2 (4π)2 R 4
 The Maximum Radar Range i.e. Rmax is the distance beyond which the target cannot be detected.
 It occurs when the received echo signal power Pr just equal to the Minimum Detectable Signal (Smin),

Pt G σ Ae Pt G σ Ae 𝟏
Smin= (Rmax)4 = 𝐏𝐭 𝐆 𝛔 𝐀𝐞 𝟒
(4π)2 Rmax 4  (4π)2 Smin Rmax = (𝟒𝛑)𝟐 𝐒𝐦𝐢𝐧
….(5)

 That is the Fundamental of the Radar Equation.

 NOTE: - Important antenna parameters are Transmitting Gain (G) & Receiving Effective Area (Ae)
 Antenna theory give the relation between Transmitting gain & receiving affective area of antenna i.e.,

4π Ae G λ2
G= & Ae= …………………. (6)
λ2 4π

 Since the Radar generally use the same antenna both for Transmission and Reception, So we use these
values in fundamental equation of Radar.
1 4
P t 𝟒𝛑 𝐀𝐞 Ae σ 1 4 P t Ae 2 σ
Rmax=
𝛌𝟐
×
(4π)2 Smin
 Rmax=
4π λ 2 Smin …….. (7)

𝟐 𝟏 𝟒
𝐆𝛌𝟐 𝟏
𝐏𝐭 𝟒𝛑 𝛔 & 𝐏𝐭 𝐆𝟐 𝛌𝟐 𝛔 𝟒 …….………. (8)
Rmax= Rmax= ]
𝟒𝛑𝛌𝟐 𝐒 𝐦𝐢𝐧 (𝟒𝛑)𝟑 𝐒𝐦𝐢𝐧

 These simplified versions of Radar equation don‟t adequately describe the performance of actual Radars,
as many important factors are not included. Also Idealized conditions have been employed i.e. neither
the Effect of Ground nor Absorption and Interference is taken into account.
 Hence, the maximum range in practice is often less than that of indicated by the Radar Range Equation.
 Important Problems: -
 What is the duty cycle of Radar with a pulse width of 3µsec and a PRT of 6ms?
PW Pulse Width (PW ) PW 3×10 −6
As Duty Cycle= PRT = Pulse  Duty cycle = = = 0.5×10-3 = 0.0005
Repetation Time (PRT ) PRT 6×10 −3
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 6]
 Duty cycle also is expressed as ratio of average power to that of peak power.

Average power = Peak Power × Duty Cycle

 Calculate the average power when peak power is 100kw with PW of 3µs and PRT of 6ms?
PW 3×10 −6
Duty cycle = = = 0.5×10-3 = 0.0005  Peak Power = 100kw = 100×103 Watt
PRT 6×10 −3
 Average Power = Peak Power × Duty Cycle =100×103×0.5×10-3 = 50 watt
 Calculate the maximum range of a Radar system which operates at 3cm wave length with a peak
pulse power of 500kw and its minimum detectable signal Smin is 10-13watt, the aperture area of its
antenna is 5m2 and the Radar cross sectional area of the target is 20m2.
Given: Wave length, 𝜆 = 3cm = 0.03m 1
Peak Power, Pt= 500kw =500×103watt Pt Ae 2 σ 4
Rmax=
Smin=10-13W, Aperture Area (Ae) =5m2 & σ = 20m2 4π λ 2 𝐒𝐦𝐢𝐧
500×10 3 ×25×20 1/4
 Rmax =
4π×(0.03)2 ×10 −13
 Rmax =686km =370nmi

 A Radar operating at 10GHz with the peak power of 500kW, the power gain of antenna is 5000 and
the minimum power at the receiver is 10-14W. Calculate the maximum range of Radar if the affective
area of antenna is 10m2 and RADAR cross sectional area is 4m2?
Given: f = 10Ghz = 10 ×109 Hz, Pt = 500kw = 500x103 watt , 1
Pt G σ Ae 4
G = 5000, Smin=10-14W, Aperture Area (Ae) =10m2 & σ = 4m2 max (R )=
(4π)2 S min
500×10 3 ×5000 ×10x4 1/4
 Rmax = (4π)2 ×10 −14
= 501643.359m = 501.643km
 PERFORMANCE FACTORS OF RADAR : -
 TRANSMITING POWER[𝐏𝐭 ]
 From the radar range equation it is clear that Rmax α 𝐏𝐭 𝟏 𝟒 for all other parameters to be constant.
 It means that if P2 = 16 P1 then R2 = 2 R1 i.e. for twice range, transmitted power should be 16 times more
 TRANSMITING FREQUENCY [f]
1 4 1 2
 From the radar range equation, we get Rmax α 1 = 1λ 1 f
λ2 = λ = c  Rmax α 𝐟
for all other parameters to be constant. (where λ = c/f )
 It means that if f2 = 4 f1 then R2 = 2 R1 i.e. for twice range, transmitted frequency should be 4 times more
 TARGET AREA[𝛔]
 From the radar range equation it is clear that Rmax α 𝛔 𝟏 𝟒 for all other parameters to be constant.
 It means that if σ2 = 16 σ1 then R2 = 2 R1 i.e. for twice range, transmitted power should be 16 times more
 If the target size is smaller, then the range of radar decreases and vice versa.
 EFFECTIVE AREA OF ANTENNA [Ae]
1 4
 From the radar range equation, we get Rmax α Ae 2  Rmax α Ae 1 2  Rma α 𝐀 𝐞 .
 It means that if Ae 2 = 4Ae 1 R2 = 2R1 i.e. for twice range, transmitted frequency should be 4 times more
 MINIMUM POWER OF THE SIGNAL (Minimum Detectable Signal) [Smin]
1 4
 From the radar range equation, we get Rmax α 1 S for all other parameters to be constant.
min
 It means that if we decrease the minimum detectable signal power then Rmax increases and vice versa.
 If the circuit is higher sensitive in receiver part have higher the range of radar system.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 7]
 PULSE RADAR SYSTEM:-

 The operation of a typical Pulse Radar System is described by the help of block diagram.
 Generally it consists of Antenna, Transmitter and Receiver which are explained below.
1. ANTENNA: -
 The function of antenna during transmission is to concentrate the radiated energy into a shaped beam
which points in the desired direction in the space.
 On reception the antenna collects energy contained in the echo signal and deliveries it to the receiver.
 The two important input parameters of Antenna i.e. Transmitting Gain (G) and Effective Receiving
Area (Ae) are proportional to each other.
 An antenna with large effective receiving aperture implies a large transmitting gain.
 Different type of antenna can be used in Radar such as mechanically steered parabolic reflector,
electrically steered planned array antenna or electrically steered phase array antenna etc.
2. TRANSMITTER: -
 The Transmitter may be an oscillator such as a Magnetron i.e. pulsed [turned ON and OFF] by the
modulator to generate a repetitive train of pulse.
 The Magnetron most widely used for a various microwave generator for Radar.
 A Typical Radar for the detection of aircraft has the following points: -
 Ranges nearly equal to 100 to 200nmi.
 Transmitting power in the order of mega watt &
Average power in order of several kilowatt;
 Pulse Width in the order of micro second.
 Pulse repetition frequency in the order of several
100 pulses per sec.
 Transmitting section consists of Waveform Generator,
Pulse Modulator, Power Amplifier & Duplexer.
 The waveform generator generates repetitive train of
pulse & is fed to pulse modulator for modulation.
 The pulse modulator modulates the train of pulses and
gives the pulse modulated signal to the power amplifier
for amplification. The power amplifier amplifies the
pulse modulated signal and fed to the duplexer. Generally
radio frequency amplifier is used for this purpose.
 The duplexer allows a single antenna to be used on a time sharing basis for transmitting and receiving.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 8]
 The duplexer is generally a gaseous device that produces a short circuited at input to the antenna During
Transmission. So that the high power is flows to the antenna not to the receiver.
 The duplexer protects from damages caused by the high power of the transmitter.
 It also serves to channel that the returned echo signal to the receiver and not to the transmitter.
 The duplexer might consist of two gassed discharged devices one known as TR (Transmit Receiver) and
ATR (Anti-Transmit Receiver).
 The TR protects the receiver during transmitting and the ATR directs the echo signal to the receiver
during reception.
3. RECEIVER SECTION: -
 The receiver is usually super heterodyne type. It consists of different part as explained bellow: -
 The 1st stage of the receiver is low noise R.F. transistor amplifier which reduces the noise level.
 The mixer and local oscillator converts the R.F. signal to (I.F.) intermediate frequency where it is
amplified by the IF amplifier.
 The signal Bandwidth of a super heterodyne receiver is determined by the bandwidth of the IF stage.
 The IF amplifier is designed as a Matched Filter that is one
which maximizes output peak signal-to-mean-noise ratio (SNR).
 Thus the basic function of matched filter is to maximize the
detect ability of weak echo signal & attenuates unwanted signal.
 The IF amplifier is followed by a critical diode which is called
the second detector or demodulator.
 Its purpose is to assist extracting the modulating signal from the modulated signal.
 The combination of IF amplifier, 2nd detector and video amplifier act as an envelope detector to pass
pulse modulation (envelop) and reject the carrier frequency.
 To detect the Doppler shift of the echo
signal the enveloped detector replaced by
phase detector which is different from the
envelope detector.
 The combination of the IF amplifier and
video amplifier is designed to provide
sufficient amplification or gain to raise the level of the input signal to a magnitude where it can be seen
in a display. At the end of the receiver a decision is made whether a target is present or not.
 The decision is based on the magnitude of the receiver output.
 If the output is large enough to exceed a pre-determined threshold, the decision is that target is present.
 If it does not cross the threshold only noise is assumed to present.
 The display unit is usually a Cathode Ray Tube; the most common form of the CRT is Plane Position
Indicator (PPI) which maps location of the target is in Azimuth Angle & Range in polar co-ordinates.
 B-scope display is similar to the PPI except that it utilizes the rectangular co-ordinate rather than the
polar co-ordinates to display Range Vs Angle.
 Another for display is A-scope which plots target Amplitude Vs Range for some fixed direction.
 CONTINUOUS WAVE RADAR (CW RADAR) :-
 Pulse Radar is used for detection of Stationary Objects; whereas Continuous Wave type of Radar is
used to detect a Moving Target. CW Radar is of Two type: -
(1) CW Doppler Radar
(2) FM CW Radar
 CW Doppler Radar uses the Doppler Effect for the Target Speed Measurement.
 FM CW Radar is used to measure Range as well as Velocity of the Target.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 9]
 DOPPLER EFFECT:-
 The apparent frequency of electromagnetic
or sound waves depends on the relative
radial motion of the source or observer.
 If the source and observer one moving away
from each other then the apparent frequency will decrease and when they moving towards each other
then the apparent frequency will increase. It was postulated by C. Doppler. So known as Doppler Effect.
 If „R‟ is the distance from the Radar to target then the total number of wavelength (λ) contained in the
two way path between the Radar and target is 2R/λ.
 Each wavelength corresponds to a phase change of 2π radian then the total phase change in the two way
propagation path is equal to (2Π x 2R/λ) i.e. Φ = 4ΠR/λ.
 If the target is in motion w.r.t. the Radar then R and Φ are continuously changes.
 A change in Ф w.r.t. time is equal to frequency and this is known as Doppler Angular Frequency (Wd).
𝐝ф 𝐝 𝟒𝛑𝐑 𝟒𝛑 𝐝𝐑 𝟒𝛑 𝟐𝐕𝐫
Wd = 2πfd = = = 𝐱  2πfd = 𝐱 Vr  fd =
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭 𝛌 𝛌 𝐝𝐭 𝛌 𝛌

Where fd = Doppler Frequency Shift & Vr = Radial Velocity of the Target w.r.t. Radar
 From the above expression, fd = 2Vr/λ. Put λ = C/ft, We get fd = 2Vrft/C.
Where ft=Radar frequency or Transmitted frequency. If fd in Hz, Vr in nmi & λ in meter  fd =1.03Vr/λ.
 With a CW Transmit frequency of 5GHz, Calculate the Doppler frequency seen by the Stationary Radar
when the Target radial velocity is 100km/hr.
Given that ft = 5 GHz = 5x109 Hz ; Vr =100Km/hr = 100x1000/3600 = 27.8m/s ; c = 3x108 m/s.
As λ= c/f = (3x108) / (5x109) = 0.06m  fd = 2Vr / λ = (2x 27.8) / 0.06 = 926 Hz.
 1. CW Doppler RADAR:-

 The CW Transmitter generates a continuous sine wave rather than pulse (Un modulated) of frequency ft
which is radiated by the antenna.
 Since, here the transmission is continuous the Circulator is used to provide isolation between transmitter
and receiver. For continuous wave the use of duplexer is pointless.
 A Portion of radiated energy is intercepted by the target and scattered.
 Some of it in the direction of Radar where it is collected by receiving antenna.
 If the target is in motion with a velocity of VR relative to the Radar, the received signal will be shifted in
frequency from the transmitted frequency ft by an amount of ±fd.

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 10]
 The plus (+) sign associated with the Doppler frequency applied, if the distance between the target and
the Radar is decreasing (when they moving towards each other) i.e. when the received signal frequency
is greater than the transmitted signal frequency.
 The minus (-) sine applied if the distance is increasing i.e. target is away going from the Radar.
 Hence the received echo signal at the frequency ft ± fd enters to the Radar via antenna.
 This signal is heterodyne in the detector (mixer) with a portion of transmitted signal ft to produce a
Doppler bit of frequency fd. The sign of the fd is losses in this process.
 So we cannot predict whether the target is going away from the Radar or coming towards the Radar.
 The purpose of the Doppler amplifier is to eliminate echoes from stationary target and to amplify the
Doppler echo signal to a level where it can operate an indicating device like frequency counter.
 The counter is a normal one except that the output is shown as km or miles/hour rather than the actual
frequency in Hz. The main disadvantage of simple CW system is its lake of sensitivity.
 The type of diode detector that is used to accommodate the high incoming frequency and is not a good
device for the audio output frequency. Thus an increment is in the following ways.
 CW Doppler RADAR With IF Amplifier:-
 A small portion of a transmitter output is mixed with
output of local oscillator and the sum is fed to the
receiver mixer by the help of sideband filter.
 The receiver mixer also receives the Doppler shifted
signal from receiving antenna and produces an output
difference frequency i.e. typically 30MHz (Generated by
the IF oscillator) ± fd.
 The output of this mixer is amplified by the amplifier and
demodulates again by the detector.
 The signal from the 2nd detector is just the Doppler
frequency (fd). This signal is again amplified by the
Doppler amplifier so as to raise the signal level such as to meet the frequency counter or indicator.
 Its sine is lost so that it not possible to tell whether the target is approaching or receiving.
 Separate receiving and transmitting antenna have been used.
 A Circulator could be used as shown in simple CW Radar system.
 Separate antenna is used to increase the isolation between transmitter and receiver section of the Radar.
 ADVANTAGES: -
 CW Radar is capable of giving accurate measurement of relative velocity using low transmitting power,
simple circuitry low power consumption and equipment whose size is much smaller than that of pulsed
Radar equipment. It is unaffected by the presence of stationary target.
 With some additional circuitry CW Radar can measure the direction of the target along with its speed.
 LIMITATIONS: -
 It is limited to the maximum power it transmits and this naturally places a limit on its maximum range.
 It is easily confused by the presence of a large number of targets (Although it is capable of delaying with
more than one target if special filters are included)  It is incapable of indicating the range of the target.
 It can only show its velocity because the transmitted signal is Un modulated.
 The receiver cannot sense which particular cycle of oscillation being received at that moment; therefore
cannot tell how long ago this particular cycle was transmitted, so that the range cannot be measured.
 APPLICATIONS:-
 It is used in aircraft navigation for speed measurement.
 Another application is in a rate of climb meter for vertical take of planes such as Harrier.
 It is most commonly used in Radar speed meter used by police.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 11]
 2. FM CW RADAR:-
 The greatest limitation of Doppler radar i.e. it is
unable to measure the range is over come if the
transmitted carrier is frequency modulate.
 If this is done it would be possible to eliminate
difficulty with CW Radar i.e. its inability to
distinguish one cycle from other.
 The popular method in CW Radar is to linearly frequency modulated the waveform.
 The modulation is triangular which gives up eventually and comes down.
 The transmitted signal is shown by the solid triangular waveform and the receiver signal is shown by
dashed line. Delay time, T=2R/C, Δf = Frequency deviation, Fm = Modulation frequency.
 The target is stationary w.r.t. the plane.
 A frequency difference proportional to height of the plane will exist between the receiver and transmitter
signal is now being received was sent at a time when the instantaneous frequency was different.
 The rate of change of frequency with time due to the FM process is known the time difference between
the sent and received signal may be calculated.
 The above fig is the block diagram of a common
application of FM CW Radar system.
 It is also known as air borne altimeter as it is
employed for measurement of altitude in aircraft.
 Here we use saw tooth generator to employing
saw tooth frequency modulation for simplicity.
 A FM transmitter is used in which frequency
modulation of the signal can be done and its
output is given to the mixer.
 The output of the mixer which produces the frequency difference (beat frequency) as amplified by
amplifier and limited to remove any amplitude fluctuation by limiter.
 This signal is fed to a frequency counter and to an indicator whose output is calibrated in meter or feet.
 APPLICATION:-
 FM CW Radar is mostly used in altimeter in aircraft due to shorter range & lower power requirement as
compared to pulse Radar. Smaller size for air craft installation & smaller transmitter power.
 Comparison between Pulse Radar System and CW Radar System:-
PULSE RADAR SYSTEM CW RADAR SYSTEM
 It detects target maximum range, size.  It typically determines target velocity
 It generally requires high power  It can be achieved without the high peak power
 Pulse modulated signal is used for transmission  Modulated or un-modulated continuous signal is
used for transmission.
 Duplexer is used to use common antenna for  Separate antennas are used for transmission and
both transmission and reception reception.
 The performance sometimes affected by the  The performance is not affected by the stationary
stationary targets. targets.
 The performance is not affected by the presence  The system gets confused by the presence of
of large number of targets. large number of targets.
 Quite simplex circuit  Simple circuit
 Expensive  Less cost
 Practically it is mostly used  It is used in some applications.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 12]
 Moving Target Indicator Radar (MTI):-
 This Radar uses Doppler Effect for its operation many times
it is not possible to distinguish a moving target in the
presence of static or permanent echoes of comparable
appearance on the Radar screen.
 We have seen that in a PPI display, there is a lot of clutter due
to this stationary target echoes.
 When it is desired to remove the clutter due to the stationary
target an MTI Radar is employed.
 The basic principle of MTI Radar is to compare a set of
received echo with those received during the previous. Sweep
and Cancelling out those whose phase has remain unchanged.
 Moving target will give change of phase and are not
cancelled thus clutter due to the stationary target are remove
from display & this allows easier detection of moving target.
 The side diagram is the simple block diagram of MTI Radar.
 The Transmitter frequency in MTI Radar is the sum of the output of two oscillators produced in mixer 2.
 The First oscillator is the Stalo (Stable Oscillator) and the Second one is Coho (Coherent Oscillator)
which operating same frequency as the intermediate frequency & providing coherent signal.
 The Coho is used for generating the R.F. signal as well as reference
signal for the phase detector. The output of the duplexer is the
combination of transmitted frequency and Doppler shift frequency.
 At the mixer-1 the Stalo frequency (fL) cancels out and feeds a
signal of frequency fc ± fd to I.F amplifier for amplification.
 The reference signal from the Coho and the I.F echo signal are both
feed into the mixer called phase detector.
 The phase detector differs from the normal amplitude detector, since its output is proportional to the
phase difference between the two input signals.
 Since the output of this detector is phase sensitive and output will obtain for all fixed or moving target.
 The phase difference between transmitter & receiver signal will be constant for a fixed target where as it
will vary for a moving target. This variation of moving target is due to the Doppler frequency shift.
 The delay line canceller not only eliminate the DC component caused
by clutter but also it unfortunately rejects the any moving target
whose Doppler frequency happens to be same as the PRF (Pulse
Repetition Frequency) or multiple of PRF. (fd = nfp)
 Those related target velocities which result is zero MTI response are
called Blind Speed and is given by

Vn = nλ/2T = nλfp/2
Where n=1, 2, 3…...
 An MTI RADAR operates at frequency 5GHz with a PRF of 800pps.
Calculate the lowest three blind speeds of this RADAR.
 Given that : f =5GHz = 5×109Hz , PRF =800pps
 As λ= c/f = (3×108) / (5×109) = 3/50 = 0.06m
 Vn1 = nλfp/2 = (1x0.06x800)/2=24m/s, Vn2 = (2x0.06x800)/2
= 48m/s & Vn3 = (3x0.06x800)/2 = 72m/s

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 13]
 Radar Aids to Navigation:-
 The position of air craft or a ship can be found by use of radio navigation aids.
 This is achieved by installation of radio transmitter & receiver at known location on the earth surface as
well as at air craft or ship which works in conjunction with those on earth.
 The rectilinear propagation and constant velocity of electromagnetic waves
held this system to provide navigation parameter like distance, direction,
etc. by direct and indirect measurement of delay occurring between
transmission and reception of these waves.
 The measurement of direction, distance and the difference between two
transmitters give an indication of the position of an air craft or ship leading
to correct navigation.
 Direction finding through radio is one of the very earliest methods of
electronic navigational aids widely used in ship & air craft even today.
 Marine & aviation radar systems can provide very useful navigation information in various situations.
 When a vessel is within radar range of land or special radar aids to navigation, the navigator can take
distances and angular bearings to charted objects and use these to establish arcs of position and lines of
position on a chart. Parallel indexing is a technique involves creating a line on the screen that is parallel
to the ship's course, but offset to the left or right by some distance.
 This parallel line allows the navigator to maintain a given distance away from hazards.
 Some techniques have been developed for special situations.
 Another method is "Contour Method," involves marking a transparent plastic template on the radar
screen and moving it to the chart to fix a position.
 Another special technique, known as the Franklin
Continuous Radar Plot Technique, involves drawing
the path a radar object should follow on the radar
display if the ship stays on its planned course.
 During the transit, the navigator can check that the ship
is on track by checking that the pip lies on the drawn
line. The Yeoman Plotter uses both radar, GPS and
traditional charts to plot courses and is one of the most
used plotters today.
 After completing the plotting radar technique, image
from the radar can either be displayed, captured or recorded to a computer monitor using frame grabber.
 Aircraft Landing System:-
 Generally two types of landing system are used.
1. I.L.S. (Instrumental Landing System)
2. M.L.S. (Microwave Landing System)
 Instrument Landing System is used for runway
navigation in IFR condition in which by using
some specified component landing can be made.
 If this type of system there are two category.
 In first category it guided on aircraft up to 200ft.
 In second category it guided an aircraft up to a
level of 100ft below which it cannot guided.
 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM contains following Components: -
1) Localizer: - In front the pilot with aero plane horizontal position w.r.t. runway centre line.
2) Glide Slope: - In front the pilot aero plane vertical position w.r.t. ground.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 14]
3) Outer Marker: - It stands in the same line with localizer and the runway center line four to seven miles
before the runway. When the aero plane approaches the runway from the right direction it gives a signal
by blinking the outer marker line.
4) Middle Marker: - It is positioned 0.8 miles before the runway when the aero plane is above the middle
marker the receiver blinks giving a chance to the pilot weather land or not.
5) Inner Marker: - It is present in the runway when the aero plane touches the runway and stands over it.
The receiver blinks the light of inner marker.
6) Approach Light: - It includes medium or high intensity system for both inside & outside the aero plane.
 NAVSAT: - It stands for Navy-Navigation Satellite System. It is developed by USA in 1967 to
monitor the military activities and guiding of aero plane & warship. Satellite system means finding out
the position of an object from different angles through satellite placed artificially.
 Concept & Feature
 NASAT uses the Doppler shift of radio signal transform satellite to measure the relative velocity
between the satellite and navigator by knowing the satellite orbit position the navigator position can be
determined from the time rate of change of rate to the satellite.
 NAVSAT consists ten orbit satellite and three orbiting space.
 A network of working station continuously monitors the satellite information.
 Each satellite is a circular polar orbit at an altitude of 6a.
 Usually five satellites are operating in the system.
 Generally four satellite can make the constellation and
another one is used as a spare to find out the position of a
navigator at least information for four satellite taken.
 Each satellite contain receiver to receive the compound from
the ground well equipped decoder and memory, control
circuit encoder to transmit digital data to phase modulation,
ultra stable 5Hz oscillator and a 1.5W transmitter to broadcast
the carrier frequency of 150MHz to 400MHz.
 GPS (Global Positioning System ) :-
 Long before Global Positioning System (GPS) arrived, researchers worked
hard to arrive at a feasible solution to aid travelers from getting lost.
 Earlier, travelers used to rely on elaborate maps to track and monitor the
route to their destination. But today, GPS technology has ensured irritate–
free trips & increased safety for vehicle owners. Fig shows GPS satellite.
 Structure of GPS
 The GPS system comprises of Three parts: - Space segment, User segment
and Control segment. The fig of the structure is shown below.
 Space Segment – The satellites are the heart of the Global positioning system
which helps to locate the position by broadcasting the signal used by the receiver.
 The signals are blocked when they travel through buildings, mountains, and people.
 To calculate position, the signals of four satellites should be locked.
 You need to keep moving around to get clear reception.
 In space segment system it contains 24 operational satellite which are revolving
around the earth in 6th different orbit there are used an spare and there are arranged
in such a manner at least four satellite are in view to an user at any time on a
worldwide base. Out of four satellites 03 are for Dimension 01 for Time.

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 15]
 Control Segment – This helps the entire system to work efficiently.
 It is essential that the transmission signals have to be updated and
the satellites should be kept in their appropriate orbits.
 It includes a master control station & number of monitory & general
antenna allocated throughout world.
 They are all interlinked & all information received is processed by
master control system.
 After calculation of accuracy master control system it is transmitted
to the antenna by which a position can identify through satellite
 User Segment – This segment includes military & civilian users.
 It comprises of a sensitive receiver which can detect signals and a
computer to convert the data into useful information.
 GPS receiver helps to locate your own position but disallows you being tracked by someone else.
 User segment contain high, medium and low receiver the user
equipment is so designed so that it receives the signal and process
all at a time or sequentially then the processer converted signal
into three dimensional navigational information.
 Working:
 The GPS satellites rotate twice a day around the earth in a specific
orbit. These satellites transmit signal information to earth.
 This signal information is received by the GPS receiver in order
to measure the user‟s correct position.
 The GPS receiver compares the time a satellite transmits the
signal with the time the signal is received.
 The time difference calculated enables us to know the distance of
the satellite. By measuring the distance of few more satellites, the
user‟s position can be verified and displayed on the unit‟s electronic map.
 To measure 2D position and track movement, the GPS receiver must lock the signal of three satellites.
 The receiver can measure 3D position (latitude, longitude and altitude) if the GPS receiver locks the
signal of four or more satellites. On determining the position of the user, the unit of GPS can measure
speed, trip distance, bearing, distance to destination, tack, time of sunrise and sunset, etc.
 Types of GPS Receivers
 The three types of GPS receivers that offer different level of accuracy, and have different necessity to
obtain the accuracies are:
 Coarse Acquisition (C/A) code receivers – These receivers offer 1-5 meter GPS position accuracy with
differential correction. With an occupation time of 1 second, these receivers offer 1-5 meter GPS
position accuracy. The GPS position accuracies can be within 1-3 meters consistently if the occupation
time is long.
 Carrier Phase receivers – These receivers offer 10-30 meter GPS position accuracy with differential
correction. The waves that carry C/A signal are counted to calculate the distance between the satellite
and the receiver. High occupation time is required to obtain position accuracy.
 Dual Frequency receivers – These receivers offer sub-centimeter GPS position accuracy with
differential correction. These receivers accept signals from the satellites on two different frequencies to
find out accurate position.
NOTE: Differential correction is a method to compare GPS data collected in the field to the GPS data
collected at a known point. GPS is also known as the NAVSTAR (Navigation System for Timing and Ranging).
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 16]
 FOUR STEPS FIND THE POSITION:
 Measuring travel time of satellite signal.
 Measurement of distance from satellite.
 Measurement of position of satellite.
 Trilateration.
 APPLICATIONS
 GPS works all across the world and in all weather conditions, thus helping users track locations, objects,
and even individuals. GPS technology can be used by any person if they have a GPS receiver.
 Civilian Applications
 Navigation – Used by navigators for orientation and precise velocity measurements.
 Surveying – Surveyors create maps and verify the boundaries of the property.
 Map-making – Used by civilians and military cartographers.
 Tectonics – Detect the direct false motion measurement in earthquakes.
 Geofencing – Vehicle, person or pet can be detected by using GPS vehicle tracking system, person
tracking systems, and pet tracking systems.
 Military Applications
 Navigation – Soldiers can find objectives in the dark and unknown regions with the help of GPS.
 Search and Rescue – Knowing the position of a downed pilot, its location can be traced out easily.
 Reconnaissance – Patrol movement can be handled.
 Target tracking – Military weapon systems use GPS to track air targets and potential ground before
they are flagged as hostile.
 GPS carry a set of nuclear detonation detectors (such as optical sensor, dosimeter, electromagnetic
pulse sensor, X-ray sensor) which is a part of United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System.
 Missile and projectile guidance – Targets military weapons such as cruise missiles, precision
guided munitions.
 LIMITATION OF GPS
 Line-Of-Sight Essential - Signal cannot pass through building, it happens in urban area like Sydney city
areas. Long position time - Around 15 minutes, depends on how accuracy.
 Battery - Run out of the battery in GPS receiver, since long calculation time, 4Ah batteries can last for 4
hours only. Need improvement? Cellular Network.
-------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 17]
[CHAPTER-2]
----------------------------------- SATELLITE COMMUNICATION ----------------------------------
 INTRODUCTION: -
 The basic elements of satellite
communication systems are : -
 Earth Stations
 Terrestrial Systems
 Users
 The basic Structure of a Satellite
Comm Systems is shown in Fig.
 It consists of many earth stations
on the ground and these are linked with a satellite in space.
 The user is connected to the earth station through a terrestrial
network and this network may be a telephone switch or dedicated
link to earth station.
 The user generates a baseband signal that is preceded through a
terrestrial network & transmitted to a satellite at the earth station.
 The satellite consists of a large number of repeaters in space, that
receives the modulated RF carrier in its uplink frequency spectrum
from all the earth stations in the network, amplifies these carriers
and retransmits them back to the earth stations in the down link
frequency spectrum.
 To avoid interference download frequency spectrum should be
different from uplink frequency spectrum
 The signal at the receiving earth station in processed to get back
the base band signal, it is sent to user through a terrestrial network.
 Commercial communication satellites use a frequency band of 500 MHz, bandwidth near 6 GHz for
uplink transmission and another 500 MHz bandwidth near 4GHz for downlink transmission.
 The 500MHz allocation of frequency is usually divided into 12 channels of approximately 40 MHz each.
 Modern communication satellite also employ frequency reuse concept to increase the number of
transponders in the allotted bandwidth. The baseband signal from the terrestrial network is processed
through the encoder and modulator, then it is converted to uplink frequency.
 Finally it is amplified by high power amplifier and directed towards the appropriate part of antenna.
 The signal received from satellite is processed through Low Noise Amplifier & then is down converted,
demodulated by demodulator and decoded by decoder, thus the original baseband signal is obtained.
 Advantages of 6/4 GHz Band
 No absorption by the rain  Less propagation problems  Broad beam width
 Attenuation is low  Sky noise is low  Null Polarization effect
 Disadvantages of 6/4 GHz Band
 Bandwidth is limited to 500Mhz only  Interference from other user is more
 Direct reception in home TV is not easily possible we need big sized parabolic dish antenna.
 The basic block diagram of an earth station transmitter is shown in figure below.

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg

School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 18]

 Earth station consists of Three subsystems

o Transmitter Subsystem
o Receiver Subsystem
o Antenna Subsystem
 The baseband signal from the terrestrial network
enters to the earth station at the Transmitter & the
signal to be transmitted is converted to uplink
frequency with proper encoding and modulation.
 It consists of Encoder, Modulator, Up-converter,
High power amplifier etc as shown in above fig.
 Firstly the input baseband signal fed to the encoder
at which the weak baseband signal is encoding to appropriate range and fed to the modulator.
 The modulator modulates the signal with proper change of amplitude, phase, frequency of the signal
with low noise & destruction and fed to the up converter. Up converter converts the normal frequency
to a suitable uplink frequency and provides better gain and bandwidth.
 The earth station requires transmission of microwave power so the use high power amplifiers such as
travelling wave tube, klystrone amplifier etc.
 Then the HPAs output may be combined through band pass filter and fed to the transmitting antenna.
 Receiver of an earth station employ mainly low noise amplifier (LNA), down converter, demodulator,
decoder and baseband signal processing unit.
 The signal received from the satellite is amplified in a LNA and then down converted to the downlink
frequency. It is then demodulated and decoded and the original base band signal is obtained.
 It is very essential that the receiver should have 1st stage with very low noise and sufficient high gain.
 NOTE: -The Downlink frequency to be Lower than the Uplink Frequency, Why???
a) Output power amplifier in transponder. c) Path loss.
b) Effective area of the receiving antenna. d) Beam width.
 ADVANTAGES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION: -
 Point to multipoint communication is possible whereas terrestrial relay are point to point.
 This is why satellite relays are wide area broadcast.
 Circuits for the satellite can be installed rapidly. Once the satellite is in position, earth stations can be
installed and communication may be established within some days or even hours.
 During critical conditions earth stations may be removed relatively quickly from a location and
reinstalled somewhere else. The sending and receiving information is independent of distance.
 Mobile communications can be easily achieved by the satellite communication because of its flexibility
in interconnecting mobile vehicles.
 Satellite communication has economical advantage i.e. the satellite cost is independent of the distance.
 As compared to fiber optic cable, the satellite communication has the advantage of the quality of
transmitted signals and the location of earth stations.
 DISADVANTAGES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION: -

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg

School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 19]
 With the satellite in position the communication path between the terrestrial transmitter and the receiver
is approximately 75000 km long. There is a delay of ¼ sec between the transmission and reception of
a signal because the velocity of electromagnetic wave is 3 x 108 m/sec.
 This delay produces Echo which is actually caused by an imperfect impedance matching.
 The time delay reduces the efficiency of satellite in data transmission and long file transfer, which
carried out over the satellites.  Over-crowding of available bandwidths due to low antenna gains.
 High atmospheric losses above 30 GHz limit the carrier frequencies.
 APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION: -
 The number of operational and planned satellite communications system in growing very rapidly. Some
of the satellite applications are:
(A) Communication Satellite (B) Remote sensing Satellite (C) Military Satellite
(D) Weather Satellite (E) Positioning Satellite
 SATELLITE FREQUENCY ALLOCATION AND BAND SPECTRUM:-
 Allocating frequencies to satellite services is a complicated process which requires international
coordination and planning.
 It is carried out under the guidance of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
 To facilitate frequency planning, the world is divided into three regions: -
Region 1: Europe, Africa, what was formerly the Soviet Union and Mongolia.
Region 2: North and South America and Greenland.
Region 3: ASIA, Australia and the South West pacific.
 Within these regions frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services, although a given service
may be allocated different frequency band in different regions.
 Some of the Services provided by Satellites.
(A) Fixed Satellite Services (FSS) (D) Navigation Satellite Service (NSS)
(B) Broadcasting Satellite Service (BSS) (E) Metrological Satellite Service (MLSS)
(C) Mobile Satellite Service (MSS)
 The six frequency bands that have been allocated for the use with satellite communication are given as,
FREQUENCY BAND FOR SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
SN BAND DOWNLINK BAND (MHZ) UPLINK BAND (MHZ)
1 UHF - Military 250 - 270 (Appx.) 292 - 312 (Appx.)
2 C Band - Commercial 3700 – 4200 (4 GHz) 5925 – 6425 (6 GHz)
3 X Band - Military 7250 - 7750 7900 - 8400
4 Ku Band - Commercial 11700 - 12200 14000 - 14500
5 Ka Band - Commercial 17700 - 21200 27500 - 30000
6 Ka Band - Military 20200 - 21200 43500 - 45500
 SATELLITE ORBITAL PATTERNS
 Initially, Newton‟s laws of motion can be summarized into four equations : -
 S = ut + ½ at2  V2 = u2 + 2at  V = u + at  F=ma
Where, m  Mass of the Object S  The Distance Travelled from time t =0
a  Acceleration of the Object u  Initial Velocity of the object at time t = 0
F  Force acting on the Object V  Final Velocity of the Object at time t = 0
 In a stable orbit there are Two Main forces acting on a satellite
 A Centrifugal Force due to the kinetic energy of the satellite which attempts to fly the satellite
into a higher orbit.
 A Centripetal Force due to gravitational attraction of the planet about which the satellite is
orbiting, which attempts to pull the satellite down towards the planet.
 In order to remain the satellite in stable orbit these two Forces must be equal to each other. (F = m x a)
 The acceleration due to gravity at a distance r from the centre of earth is a = μ /r2 km/s2
 Where μProduct of Universal Gravitational Constant (G) & mass of the Earth (ME). Thus μ = G x ME

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg

School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 20]
 It is called Kepler Constant and has the value 3.986004418 x 10 km /s . [G = 6.672 x 10-11 Nm2 / Kg2]
5 3 2

 The Centripetal Force acting on the Satellite FIN = m x (μ/r2)  FIN = m x (GME/r2)
 The centrifugal acceleration is given by, a = V2 /r. Thus the Force acting on Satellite FOUT = m x V2 /r
 If the forces on the satellite are balanced FIN = FOUT  m x (μ/r2) = m x V2 /r  V = (μ/r)1/2
 If the orbit is circular the distance travelled by a satellite in one orbit around a planet is 2πr, where r is
the radius of the orbit from the satellite to the centre of the planet.
 Since distance divided by velocity equal time to travel that distance, the period of the satellite‟s orbit T is
T = 2πr / V = 2πr / (μ/r)1/2  T = (2πr3/2)/(μ)1/2
 The use of satellites as platforms for remote sounding is based on some very fundamental physics.
 Newton's Laws of Motion and Gravitation.
 LAWS OF MOTION: -
1) Everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled
to change that state by a force impressed upon it.
2) The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the
impressed force and is in the same direction as that
force. Momentum = Mass × Velocity, so Law (2)
𝐝(𝐦𝐯) 𝐝(𝐯)
becomes F = 𝐝𝐭 = 𝐦 𝐝𝐭 = m a
3) For every action, there is an equal & opposite reaction.
 LAW OF GRAVITATION: -
1) The force of attraction between any two particles is
a) Proportional to their masses
b) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance
𝐆𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐
between them , 𝐅 =
𝐫𝟐
 KEPLER'S LAWS FOR ORBITS
 So far, we have assumed that satellites travel in circular
orbits, but this is not necessarily true in practice.
 Newton‟s Laws can be used to derive the exact form of a satellite‟s orbit.
 However, a simpler approach is to look at Kepler‟s Laws, which summarize the results of the full
derivation. Kepler‟s Laws were based on observations of the motions of planets.
 All planets travel in Elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus. (→ Defines the shape of orbits)
 The radius from the Sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
→ Determines how orbital position varies in time
 The square of the period of a planet‟s revolution is proportional to the cube of its semi-major axis.
→ Suggests that there is some systematic factor at work
 For Satellites Communication, substitute “Satellite” for Planet and “Earth” for Sun.
 KEPLER‟S THREE LAW OF PLANETARY MOTION:-
(A) The orbit of any smaller body about a larger body is always an ellipse, with centre of mass of larger
body as one of two foci. (B) The orbit of smaller body sweeps equal areas in equal interval of time.
(C) The square of the period of revolution of the smaller body about the larger body equals a constant
multiplied by the third power of the semi major axis of the orbital ellipse. T2 = 4π2a3/μ
(A) Kepler‟s First Law: -
 It states that, “The path followed by a satellite around the primary will
be an ellipse.” An ellipse has two focal points F1 & F2 in figure.
 The centre of the mass of the two body system, termed the body centre,
is always centered on one of the foci.
 The semi major axis is denoted by „a‟ and semi minor axis is by „b‟.
𝐚𝟐 − 𝐛𝟐
 The eccentricity „e‟ is given by, e = 𝐚

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 The eccentricity and semi major axis are two of the orbital parameters specified for satellite (spacecraft)
orbiting the earth. For 0 < e < 1  Elliptical Orbit and If e = 0  Circular orbit.
(B) Kepler‟s Second Law: -
 It states that, “For equal time intervals, a satellite will sweep
out equal areas in its orbital plane, focused at body centre”.
 Assuming that the satellite travels distances S1 & S2 meters in
1 sec, then areas A1 = A2
 The average velocity in each case is S1 and S2 meters per sec
and because of the equal area law, it follows that the velocity
at S2 is less than at S1.
(C) Kepler‟s Third Law: -
 It states that, “The Square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance
𝛍
between the two bodies.” The mean distance is equal to semi-major axis (a), So, a3 = 𝟐
𝐧
Where, n = Mean motion of the satellite in radians/sec.
μ = Earth‟s geocentric gravitational constant = 3.98 x 1014 m3/sec2 with n in radians per second.
𝟐𝛑 𝐚𝟑
 The orbital period in sec is given by T= So, T = 2π
𝐧 𝛍
 ORBITAL ELEVATION (LEO, MEO & GEO) CATEGORIES
 LEO Basics (Lower Earth Orbit)
 With LEO extending from 200 km to 1200 km it means that it is
relatively low in altitude, although well above anything that a
conventional aircraft can reach.
 However LEO is still very close to Earth, especially when compared
to other forms of satellite orbit including geostationary orbit.
 The low orbit altitude of leads to a number of characteristics:
 Orbit times are much less than many other forms of orbit.
 The lower altitude means higher velocities are required to
balance the earth's gravitational field.
 Typical velocities are very approximately around 8 km/s, with
orbit times sometimes of the order of 90 minutes, although these
figures vary considerably with the exact details of the orbit.
 The lower orbit means the satellite and user are closer together and therefore path losses a less than
for other orbits such as GEO. The round trip time, RTT for the radio signals is considerably less than
that experienced by geostationary orbit satellites.
 The actual time will depend upon factors such as the orbit altitude and the position of the user
relative to the satellite. Radiation levels are lower than experienced at higher altitudes.
 Less energy is expended placing the satellites in LEO than higher orbits.
 Some speed reduction may be experienced as a result of friction from the low, but measurable levels
of gasses, especially at lower altitudes.
 An altitude of 300 km is normally accepted as the
minimum for an orbit as a result of the increasing
drag from the presence of gasses at low altitudes.
 Applications for LEO Satellites
 A variety of different types of satellite use the LEO
orbit levels. These include different types and
applications including:
 Communications satellites - Some communications
satellites including the Iridium phone system use
LEO. Earth monitoring satellites use LEO as they
are able to see the surface of the Earth more clearly as they are not so far away.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg
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 They are also able to traverse the surface of the Earth.
 The International Space Station is in an LEO that varies
between 320 km (199 miles) & 400 km (249 miles) above
the Earth's surface. It can often be seen from the Earth's
surface with the naked eye.
 MEO Basics (Middle Earth Orbit)
 A Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellite is one with an orbit
within the range from a few hundred miles to a few thousand
miles above the earth's surface.
 Satellites of this type orbit higher than Low Earth orbit
Satellites, but lower than Geostationary satellites.
 Orbital periods of MEO satellites range from about 2-12 hours.
 Some MEO satellites orbit in near perfect circles, thus have constant altitude & travel at a constant speed
 Other MEO satellites revolve in elongated orbits.
 The perigee of an elliptical-orbit satellite is much less than its apogee.
 The orbital speed is much greater near perigee than near apogee.
 Perigee The point in the Orbit where the Satellite is Closest to the earth, ApogeeFarthest from Earth
 As seen from a point on the surface, a satellite in an elongated orbit crosses the sky in just a few minutes
when it is near perigee, as compared to several hours when it is near apogee.
 Elliptical-orbit satellites are easiest to access near apogee, because the earth-based antenna orientation
does not have to be changed often, & satellite is above horizon for a fairly long time
 A fleet of several MEO satellites with orbits properly co-ordinated can provide global wireless
communication coverage. As MEO satellites are closer to the earth than geostationary satellites, earth
based transmitters with relatively low power & medium sized antenna can access system.
 Because MEO satellites orbit at higher altitudes than LEO satellites, the useful footprint (coverage area
on the earth's surface) is greater for each satellite.
 Thus a global-coverage fleet of MEO satellites can have fewer members than a global-coverage fleet of
LEO satellites. One very popular orbit format is the geostationary satellite orbit.
 The geostationary orbit is used by many applications including direct broadcast as well as
communications or relay systems.
 The Geostationary Orbit has the advantage that the satellite remains in the same position throughout the
day and antennas can be directed towards the satellite and remains on track.
 This factor is of particular importance for applications such as direct broadcast TV where changing
directions for the antenna would not be practicable.
 It is necessary to take care over the use of the abbreviations
for geostationary orbit. Both GEO and GSO are seen, and
both also used for geosynchronous orbit.
 GEO (Geo Stationary Earth Orbit)
 The idea of a this orbit has been postulated for many years.
 One of the possible originators of the basic idea was a Russian
theorist and science fiction writer, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky.
 However it was Herman Oberth and Herman Potocnik who
wrote about orbiting stations at an altitude of 35 900 km
above the Earth that had a rotational period of 24 hours
making it appear to hover over a fixed point on equator.
 The next major step forwards occurred when Arthur C Clarke,
the science novel writer, published a serious article in
Wireless World, a major UK electronics and radio publication, in October 1945.
 The article was entitled "Extra-Terrestrial Relays: Can Rocket Stations Give World Coverage?" Clarke
extrapolated what could be done with the German rocket technology of the day and looked at what might
be possible in the future. He postulated that it would be possible to provide complete global coverage
with just three geostationary satellites.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg
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 GEOSTATIONARY AND GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITE: -
 To be perfectly a Geostationary the orbit of a Satellite need to have three features: -
It Must be Exactly Circular
It must be at the Correct Altitude
It must be at the Plane of the Equator
 Geosynchronous Satellite
If the inclination and eccentricity is not zero (not
circular) but the orbital period or altitude is correct
than the satellite is Geo Synchronous Orbit.
The position of a Geosynchronous Satellite will appear
to oscillate about a mean look angle in the sky with
respect to a stationary observer on the earth surface.
 SIDEREAL DAY
 The orbital period of a Geo satellite 23 h 56 min 4.1 Sec is one Sidereal day.
 It is the time between consecutive crossings of particular longitude on earth by any star other than Sun.
 Solar day is 24 h is the time between any consecutive crossings of any particular longitude by the Sun.
 Because of earth moves round the sun once per 365 ¼ days, the solar day is 1440/365.25 = 3.94 min
Longer than that of a Sidereal day.
 GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT BASICS
 As the height of a satellite increases, so the time for the satellite to orbit increases.
 At a height of 35790 km, it takes 24 hours for the satellite to orbit.
 This type of orbit is known as a Geosynchronous Orbit, i.e. it is synchronized with the Earth.
 One particular form of geosynchronous orbit is known as a geostationary orbit. In this type of orbit the
satellite rotates in the same direction as the rotation of the Earth & has an approximate 24 hour period.
 This means that it revolves at the same angular velocity as
the Earth and in the same direction and therefore remains in
the same position relative to the Earth.
 In order to ensure that the satellite rotates at exactly the same
speed as the Earth, it is necessary to clarify exactly what the
time is for the rotation of the Earth.
 For most timekeeping applications, the Earth's rotation is
measured relative to the Sun's mean position, and rotations of
the earth combined with the rotation around the Sun provide
the length of time for a day.
 However this is not the exact rotation that we are interested
in to give a geostationary orbit - the time required is just that
for one rotation.
 This time period is known as a sidereal day and it is 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds long.
 Geometry dictates that the only way in which an orbit that rotates once per day can remain over exactly
the same spot on the Earth's surface is that it moves in the same direction as the earth's rotation.
 Also it must not move north or south for any of its orbit. It can only occur if it remains over the equator.
 Different orbits can be seen from the diagram. As all orbital planes need to pass through the geo-centre
of the Earth, the two options available are shown.
 Even if both orbits rotate at the same speed as the Earth, the one labelled geosynchronous will move
north of the equator for part of the day, and below for the other half - it will not be stationary.
 For a satellite to be stationary, it must be above the Equator.
 GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE DRIFT
 Even when satellites are placed into a geostationary orbit, there are several forces that can act on it to
change its position slowly over time. Factors including the earth's elliptical shape, the pull of the Sun and
Moon and others act to increase the satellite orbital inclination.

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 In particular the non-circular shape of the Earth around the Equator tends to draw the satellites towards
two stable equilibrium points, one above the Indian Ocean and the other very roughly around the other
side of the World. This results in what is termed as an east-west libration or movement back and forth.
 To overcome these movements, fuel is carried by the satellites to enable them to carry out "station-
keeping" where the satellite is returned to its desired position.
 The period between station-keeping man oeuvres is determined by the allowable tolerance on the
satellite which is mainly determined by the ground antenna beam width.
 This will mean that no re-adjustment of the antennas is required.
 Often the useful life of a satellite is determined by the time for which fuel will allow the station-keeping
to be undertaken. Often this will be several years. After this the satellite can drift towards one of the two
equilibrium points, and possibly re-enter the Earth's atmosphere.
 The preferred option is for the satellites to utilize some last fuel to lift them into a higher and increasing
orbit to prevent them from interfering with other satellites.
 Geostationary Orbit Coverage
 A single geostationary satellite obviously cannot provide complete global coverage.
 However, a single geostationary satellite can see approximately 42% of the Earth's surface with coverage
falling off towards the satellite is not able to "see" the surface.
 This occurs around the equator and also towards the polar regions.
 For a constellation of three satellites equally spaced around the globe, it is possible to provide complete
coverage around the equator and up to latitudes of 81° both north and south.
 The lack of polar coverage is not a problem for most users, although where polar coverage is needed,
satellites using other forms of orbit are needed.

 HEIGHT, VELOCITY & ROUND TRIP TIME DELAY: -

 Height of GEO satellite can be given as r (orbit radius) = re (Radius of the Earth) + h (Height)
 Round trip time delay is given as T = (2πr3/2)/(μ)1/2 & Velocity can be calculated as: - V = (μ/r)1/2
1.EXAMPLE: - A Satellite is at an altitude of 250km above the earth surface. The mean earth‟s radius is
approximately 6378.14km. Find the period of the satellite also fine the linear velocity for a circular path.
 SOLUTION: - The radius of the satellite is r = re + h = 6378.14 + 250.00 = 6628.14 km
The period of the orbit is T = (2πr3/2)/(μ)1/2 = 5370.30 s = 89 min 30.3 sec
The velocity, v = 2πa/T = 41,645.83/5370.13 = 7.755 km/s [Where, 2πa = Circumference]
Alternatively, V = (μ/r)1/2 = 7.755km/s [Where μ = 3.986004418 x 105 km3/s2 ]
2. EXAMPLE: - Determine the orbital velocity of a satellite moving in a circular orbit at a height of
150km above the surface of earth given that gravitation constant, G = 6.67 x 10-11 N-m2/kg2, mass of
earth , M = 5.98 x 1024 kg, radius of earth Re = 6370 km.
 SOLUTION: - The orbital velocity (V) is given by, V = μ/(R + H)
Where μ = GM = 6.67 x 10-11 x5.98 x 1024 = 39.8 x 1013 ; R = 6370 km = Re ; H = 150km
V = 39.8 x 1013 /(6370 + 150)x 1013 = 7.813 Km/S

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[ETT 601]
3. EXAMPLE: - A satellite in an elliptical orbit has an apogee of 30,000 km and a perigee of 1000km.
determine the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit.
Apogee + Perigee 30000 + 1000
 SOLUTION: - Semi-major axis = = = 15500Km
2 2
4. EXAMPLE: - A satellite moving in an elliptical eccentric orbit has the semi major axis of the orbit
equal to 16000 km. if the difference between apogee & the perigee is 30,000 km, Find orbit eccentricity.
 SOLUTION: - Apogee = a(1+e) ; Perigee = a (1-e)
Where a = semi-major axis of the ellipse; e = orbit eccentricity
Apogee − Perigee
Apogee – Perigee = a(1+e) - a(1-e) = 2ae  Or Eccentricity, e = 2a
Here it is given that difference between apogee and the perigee = 30,000 km.
30000 30000
Semi major axis of the orbit = 16000 km.  e = 2x16000 = 32000 = 0.93
5. EXAMPLE: - The farthest and the closest points in a satellite‟s elliptical eccentric orbit from earth‟s
surface are 30,000 km and 200 km respectively. Determine the apogee and the perigee and the orbit
eccentricity. Assume radius of earth to be 6370 km.
 SOLUTION: - Apogee = 30000 + 6370 = 36370 km (farthest point + Re)
Apogee − Perigee
Perigee = 200 + 6370 m (closest points + Re) ; Eccentricity, e = 2a
Apogee + Perigee
Also a = or 2a = Apogee + Perigee; Where a = semi-major axis of the ellipse
2
Apogee − Perigee 36370 − 6570 29800
Therefore, orbit eccentricity = Apogee = 36370 + 6570 = 42940 = 0.693
+ Perigee
6. EXAMPLE: - Refer to figure showing a satellite moving in an elliptical, eccentric orbit. Determine the
apogee and the perigee distances if the orbit eccentricity is 0.5. <From Fig ae =1400 >
 SOLUTION: - The distance from centre of ellipse (0) to the centre of earth (c) is given by (a x e). where
14000
(a) is the semi-major axis and (e) is the eccentricity. Therefore, a x e = 14000; a = 0.5 = 28000 km ;
Now Apogee = a(1+e) = 28000 (1 + 0.5) = 42000 km. Perigee = a(1-e) = 28000 (1 - 0.5) = 14000 km
7. EXAMPLE: - Satellite-1 in an elliptical orbit has the orbit semi-major axis equal to 18000 km and
satellite-2 in an elliptical orbit has the semi-major axis equal to 24000 km. Determine the relationship
between their orbital periods.
 SOLUTION: - The orbital time period (T) is given by, T = 2π a3 /μ
Where μ = GM ; G = Earth‟s gravitational constant; M = mass of earth; a = semi-major axis of ellipse
If (a1) and (a2) are the values of the semi-major axis of the ellipse orbits of the satellites 1 and 2, (T1) &
(T2) are the corresponding orbital periods, then T1 = 2π a1 3 /μ and T2 = 2π a2 3 /μ
24000 3/2
T2/ T1 = (a1/ a2)3/2 = 18000 = (4/3)3/2 = 1.54; so T2 = 1.54 T1
Thus orbital period of satellite – 2 is 1.54 times the orbital period of satellite- 1.
8. EXAMPLE: - The sum of apogee and perigee distances of a certain elliptical satellite orbit is 50000 km
and the difference of apogee and perigee distances is 30000 km. determine the target eccentricity (e).
ra − rp 30000
 SOLUTION: - If (ra) & (rp) are apogee and perigee distances respectively, then e = r + r = 50000 = 0.6.
a p

 SATELLITE FREQUENCY ALLOCATION AND FREQUENCY BANDS.

 WHAT IS FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT
 Combination of administrative, scientific and technical procedures to ensure efficient operation of the
various radio-communication services without causing harmful interference.
 It has national and international aspects.
 Allocation (of a frequency band):- Entry in the Table of Frequency Allocations of a given frequency
band for the purpose of its use by one or more terrestrial or space radio-communication services or the
radio astronomy service under specified conditions.
 This term shall also be applied to the frequency band concerned.
Frequency Allocations For Satellite Services or Fixed
Satellite Service (FSS) (Frequency Bands)
 5925-6425 MHz for UP-LINK (C-BAND)
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg
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 RADIO FREQUENCY SPECTRUM  3700-4200 MHz for DOWNLINK (C BAND)
 Radio Frequency Spectrum (RFS) and  6725-7075 MHz for UPLINK (Upper EXT C)
associated satellite orbits, including  4500-4800 MHz for DOWNLINK (Upper EXT C)
Geostationary-Satellite Orbit (GSO) are  6425-6725 MHz for UPLINK (Lower EXT-C)
 3400-3700 MHz for DOWNLINK (Lower EXT-C)
limited natural resources.  10.95 - 11.2 GHz (Down-links)
 Radio waves are defined as electromagnetic  11.45 - 11.7 GHz (Down-links)
waves of frequencies arbitrarily from 3 kHz  11.7 - 12.2 GHz (Down-links) (Region 2 only)
to 3000 GHz, propagated in space without  12.5 - 12.75 GHz (Down-links) (Region 1 only)
artificial guide. Radio frequency waves do  14.0 - 14.5 GHz (Up-links)
not respect geographical boundary, and these  17.7 - 21.2 GHz (Down-links)
cannot be confined to national boundaries.  27.5 - 31.0 GHz (Up-links)
 Radio waves are susceptible to harmful interference and require application of complex engineering
tools to ensure interference-free operation of various wireless networks.
 The Utilization of radio frequency spectrum is governed by
international treaties, namely, the Constitution, the Convention and the
Radio
 Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as
well as by the bilateral agreements between two countries.
 All frequency bands are available for use in all countries, including
India, in accordance with international table of Frequency allocations
and associated radio regulatory provisions.
 National Frequency Allocation Plan forms basis for development,
manufacturing and spectrum utilization activities in the country.
 General Structure Of Satellite Link System
 A satellite system consists of an uplink, a satellite transponder, and a
downlink.
 DIGITAL SATELLITE UPLINK CHAIN
 The earth station transmitter is one of the primary
components of the uplink station.
 Fig shows a typical satellite uplink model. It consists of
an IF modulator, an upconverter used to convert IF to RF,
a high-power amplifier HPA & BPF to band limit output.
 The IF modulator is used to convert the input base band
signal to an FM, a QAM, or PSK modulated IF.
 Up converter is used to convert the modulated IF to a
suitable RF with the help of a mixer.
 Band-pass filter is used to band limit the RF output and
the required output power is provided to the transmitting
antenna by the HPA (which is normally a klystron or a
travelling wave tube).
 SATELLITE TRANSPONDER:
 Fig shows the block diagram of a satellite transponder.
 It consists of a BPF followed by a low-noise amplifier.
 The output of the LNA is given to a frequency translator
consisting of a mixer & a local oscillator as shown in fig.
 The incoming uplink transmitted RF frequency is
translated to a different RF frequency and is passed
through a BPF to band limit the mixer output.
 A low-power amplifier, usually a TWT, amplifies the RF signal to be transmitted back to earth station by
the transponder transmitting antenna. Different transponders are required for each RF satellite channel.

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 DOWNLINK MODEL:
 Figure shows a satellite downlink model. It receives
signal from the satellite transponder. The front end
consists of a band-pass filter followed by a LNA.
 The received RF frequency is down converted to IF by
down converter consisting of a mixer & local oscillator.
 The output of the mixer is band limited by a BPF and
passed on to a demodulator.
 This type of demodulator depends on the modulation scheme used.
 The base band signal will be available at the output of the modulator.
 CROSSLINK:
 Sometimes, communication between satellites is required. Satellite
cross-links or inters satellite links (ISLs) are used for this purpose.
 The only disadvantages of ISLs are that, the transmitter output power
and the receiver‟s sensitivity is limited, since they are in the space.
Figure shows a typical cross-link.
 The Operation Of Direct Broadcast System (DBS)
 Systems for transmitting television & other program
material via satellite directly to individual homes.
 Direct broadcasting satellite (DBS) systems operate at
microwave frequencies, in a portion of the Ku band; in
North & South America these systems operate in the
frequency 12.2–12.7 GHz.
 DBS systems use a satellite in geostationary orbit to
receive television signals sent up from the Earth's surface,
amplify them, and transmit them back down to
the surface.
 The satellite also shifts the signal frequency, so
that a signal sent up to the satellite in the 17.3–
17.8-GHz uplink band is transmitted back down
in the 12.2–12.7-GHz downlink band.
 The downlink signal is picked up by a receive
antenna located atop an individual home or
office; these antennas are usually in the form of
a parabolic dish, but flat square phased-array
antennas are sometimes used, and may
eventually become commonplace.
 The receive antenna may be permanently
pointed at the satellite, which is at a fixed point
in the sky, in a geostationary orbit.
 It is difficult to build receivers to operate at the microwave downlink frequencies, so the signal from the
dish antenna is first passed to a down-converter, usually mounted outdoors on the antenna that shifts it to
(typically) the 0.95–1.45-GHz band.
 This signal is then conducted by cable to the receiver atop the television set.
 The receiver contains the channel selector, as well as a
decoder to permit the user to view authorized channels.
 The receiver is connected by an additional cable to the
television set.
 A typical direct broadcasting satellite contains 16
transponders, or amplifiers, the maximum permitted

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under present regulations, each with a radio-frequency power output in the range 120–240 W.
 Two or more direct broadcasting satellites may be located at any of the orbital locations assigned to the
United States, for a maximum of 32 transponders.
 DBS satellites in the United States typically use digital signals; a single 24-MHz satellite transponder
can carry an error-corrected digital signal of 30 megabits per second or greater.
 A wide variety of communications services can be converted to digital form and carried as part of this
digital signal, including television, high-definition television (HDTV), stereo audio, one-way
videoconference, information services (such as news retrieval services), and digital data.
 Modern digital signal compression technology greatly increases the capacity of a satellite transponder.
 It is possible to compress up to perhaps 10 television signals into the bandwidth of a DBS transponder,
depending on the amount of motion in the picture and the amount of screen resolution required.
 Since some common programming (for example, sports) contains a good deal of motion, the average
compression factor for a DBS system will typically be lower than 10. See Data compression
 DBS systems, like all satellite systems operating in the Ku band, are subject to attenuation of their
signals by rain. The combination of satellite power and receive-dish antenna size is chosen to enable
reception for all but the heaviest rainfall periods of the year, corresponding to an outage period of
perhaps 7 h per year at any particular location. The DBS customer can further reduce this expected
outage period by purchasing a slightly larger dish antenna.
 THE OPERATION OF VSAT SYSTEM.
 A Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) is a small
telecommunication earth station that receives and transmits real-
time data via satellite.
 A VSAT transmits narrow and broadband signals to orbital
satellites. The data from the satellites is then transmitted to
different hubs in other locations around the globe T.
 VSAT end users have a box that acts as an interface between the
computer and the external antenna or satellite dish transceiver.
 The satellite transceiver sends data to and receives data from the geostationary satellite in orbit.
 The satellite sends and receives signals from an earth station, which acts as the hub for the system.
 Each end user is connected to this hub station through the satellite in a star topology.
 For one VSAT user to communicate with another, the data has to be sent to the satellite.
 Then the satellite sends the data to the hub station for further processing. The data is then retransmitted
to the other user via a satellite. The majority of VSAT antennas range from 30 inches to 48 inches.

 Data rates typically range from 56 Kbps up to 4 Mbps. VSATs are most commonly used to transmit:
 Narrowband data. This includes point of sale transactions such as credit card, polling or radio-
frequency identification (RFID) data, or supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) data
 Broadband data, for the provision of satellite Internet access to remote locations, Voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP) or video. VSATs are also used for transportable, on-the-move
communications (using phased array antennas) and mobile maritime communications.
 What Is a Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT)?

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 A very small aperture terminal (VSAT) is a two-way ground station that transmits and receives data
from satellites. A VSAT is less than three meters tall and is capable of both narrow and broadband data
to satellites in orbit in real-time.
 The data can then redirected to other remote terminals or hubs around the planet.
 KEY TAKEAWAYS
 Very small aperture terminal (VSAT) is a data transmission technology used for many types of data
management and in high-frequency trading.
 VSAT can be used in place of a large physical network as it bounces the signal from satellites instead
of being transported through physical means like an ethernet connection.
 Because the signal needs to bounce, there can be a latency issue that wouldn't exist with a physical
network. However, most users feel this is the price you pay for remote access and less infrastructure,
and consider it a fair trade. * Weather can adversely impact the efficacy of a VSAT network.
 How a Very Small Aperture Terminal Works
 VSAT networks have a number of commercial applications, including perhaps most notably, enterprise
resource management. The use of VSAT to track inventory was one of the many innovations Walmart
pioneered in retail to effectively manage its vast inventory in real-time and reduce delivery costs
between the warehouse and stores.
 Combined with the hub system of inventory storage, VSAT allowed Walmart to stock its stores more
precisely and reduce how many times a product had to move between locations before being sold.
 Other manufacturers use VSAT to relay orders, check production figures real-time as well as other
functions that are otherwise handled over a wired network.
 In fact, the National Stock Exchange (NSE) of India has one of the largest VSAT networks in the world
and offers it as one of its connectivity options.
 VSAT offered the NSE a way to offer access in areas where wired options are limited.
 With the exception of the occasional sun outage due to solar radiation distorting signals from the
satellite, the VSAT network has held up.
 ADVANTAGES
 VSAT networks have a big advantage when it comes to deployment. Because the ground station is
communicating with satellites, there is less infrastructure required to service remote locations.
 This was one of the reasons Walmart chose VSAT as it started out heavily leveraged to rural America
where telecommunications infrastructure was less dense than in the cities.
 This has made VSAT networks an ideal choice for providing connectivity to remote work sites like
exploratory drilling sites that need to relay daily drill logs back to headquarters.
 VSAT is also independent of local telecommunications networks, making it an ideal system to back up
wired systems and reduce business recovery risk.
 If the wired network goes down, a business can still go on using the VSAT network.
 DISADVANTAGES
 VSAT does have limitations. The most obvious is latency, as it takes time for information to reach the
dish and the station due to one part of the system being way up in geosynchronous orbit above the earth.
 So protocols that require a lot of back & forth communication rather than 1-way data transfer experience
lag. The signal quality can also be affected by the weather and other buildings getting in the way.
 MULTIPLE ACCESSING & NAME VARIOUS TYPES.
 Sometimes a satellite‟s service is present at a particular location on the earth station and sometimes it is
not present. That means, a satellite may have different service stations of its own located at different
places on the earth. They send carrier signal for the satellite.
 In this situation, we do multiple access to enable satellite to take or give signals from different stations at
time without any interference between them.
 Following are the three types of multiple access techniques: -
 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

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 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
 Now, let us discuss each technique one by one.
 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
 In this type of multiple access, we
assign each signal a different type of
frequency band (range).
 So, any two signals should not have
same type of frequency range.
 Hence, there won‟t be any interference
between them, even if we send those
signals in one channel.
 One perfect example of this type of
access is our radio channels.
 We can see that each station has been
given a different frequency band in order to operate.
 Let‟s take three stations A, B and C. We want to access them through FDMA technique.
 So we assigned them different frequency bands.
 As shown in the figure, satellite station A has been kept under the frequency range of 0 to 20 HZ.
 Similarly, stations B and C have been assigned the frequency range of 30-60 Hz and 70-90 Hz
respectively. There is no interference between them.
 The main disadvantage of this type of system is that it is very burst.
 This type of multiple access is not recommended for the channels, which are of dynamic and uneven.
 Because, it will make their data as inflexible and inefficient.
 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
 As the name suggests, TDMA is a time
based access. Here, we give certain time
frame to each channel.
 Within that time frame, the channel can
access the entire spectrum bandwidth
 Each station got a fixed length or slot.
 The slots, which are unused will remain in
idle stage.
 Suppose, we want to send five packets of
data to a particular channel in TDMA technique.
 So, we should assign them certain time slots or time frame within which it can access the entire
bandwidth. In above figure, packets 1, 3 and 4 are active, which transmits data.
 Whereas, packets 2 and 5 are idle because of their non-participation.
 This format gets repeated every time we assign bandwidth to that particular channel.
 Although, we have assigned certain time slots to a particular channel but it can also be changed
depending upon the load bearing capacity.
 That means, if a channel is transmitting heavier loads, then it can be assigned a bigger time slot than the
channel which is transmitting lighter loads. This is the biggest advantage of TDMA over FDMA.
 Another advantage of TDMA is that the power consumption will be very low.
 Note − In some applications, we use the combination of both TDMA and FDMA techniques.
 In this case, each channel will be operated in a particular frequency band for a particular time frame.
 In this case, the frequency selection is more robust and it has greater capacity over time compression.
 The best part of this technique is that each station can use the entire spectrum at all time.
Advantages of TDMA:
 TDMA can easily adapt to transmission of data as well as voice communication.
 TDMA has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates.

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 TDMA allows the operator to do services like fax, voice band data, and SMS as well as bandwidth-
intensive application such as multimedia and videoconferencing.
 Since TDMA technology separates users according to time, it ensures that there will be no
interference from simultaneous transmissions.
 TDMA provides users with an extended battery life, since it transmits only portion of the time during
conversations. TDMA is the most cost effective technology to convert an analog system to digital.
Disadvantages of TDMA:
 Disadvantage using TDMA technology is that the users has a predefined time slot. When moving
from one cell site to other, if all the time slots in this cell are full the user might be disconnected.
Another problem in TDMA is that it is subjected to multipath distortion. To overcome this distortion, a
time limit can be used on the system. Once the time limit is expired the signal is ignored
 CDMA (CODE Division Multiple Access)
 In CDMA technique, a unique code has been assigned to each channel to distinguish from each other.
 A perfect example of this type of multiple access is our cellular system.
 We can see that no two persons‟ mobile number match with each other although they are same X or Y
mobile service providing company‟s customers using the same bandwidth.
 In CDMA process, we do the decoding of inner product of the encoded signal and chipping sequence.
Therefore, mathematically it can be written as Encoded signal = Orginal data × chipping sequence
 The basic advantage of this type of multiple access is that it allows all users to coexist and use the entire
bandwidth at the same time. Since each user has different code, there won‟t be any interference.
 In this technique, a number of stations can have number of channels unlike FDMA and TDMA.
 (CDMA) & ITS ADVANTAGES & DIS-ADVANTAGES.
 Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a
digital cellular network standard that utilizes
spread-spectrum technology.
 This technology does not constrict
bandwidth‟s digital signals or frequencies but
spreads it over a fully-available spectrum or
across multiple channels via division.
 Thus, there is improved voice and data
communication capability & a more secure
and private line.
 The CDMA digital standard is a leading communications network standard in North America and parts
of Asia. Qualcomm, a US-based wireless communications company, patented CDMA and
commercialized this technology.
 CDMA technology was initially used in World War II military operations to thwart enemy attempts to
access radio communication signals. In the early 1990s, Qualcomm introduced the possibility of using
the same concept with publicly-available cellular network technology.
 During this time, an alternative mobile networking arena digital standard gained traction, proving to be a
challenge to CDMA proponents. Despite adamant negativity and discouragement from prominent
industry figures, CDMA‟s supports successfully convinced these leaders to consider, use and eventually
accept the newly introduced CDMA standard.
 Essentially, CDMA offers more airspace capacity than the time division multiple access (TDMA) based
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) standard. Furthermore, CDMA also uses less power.
 Another advantage boasted by CDMA technology is its ability for soft handoffs between base stations,
i.e., less likelihood of cut-off calls.
 The usual analogy given in comparing CDMA with other channel access methods like FDMA or TDMA
is that of people each carrying out a conversation with a friend in a crowded room.
 TDMA is likened to the method by which communication is carried out by speaking one at a time (hence
the name „Time Division‟). FDMA, on the other hand, is likened to the method wherein communication
is made by speaking at different pitches (hence, Frequency Division).
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 Finally, CDMA is likened to people speaking simultaneously but in different languages.
 Because only those who speak the same language can understand each other, it is possible for multiple
conversations to take place in the room at the same time.
 The basic concept in CDMA is that users who wish to communicate through it are given a shared code.
 While multiple codes may occupy the same channel, only those users having the same code can
communicate with each other. Because CDMA and GSM standards each have unique pros and cons, the
preferred technology standard choice is now in the hands of potential subscribers.
Advantages of CDMA:
 One of the main advantages of CDMA is that dropouts occur only when the phone is at least twice as
far from the base station. Thus, it is used in the rural areas where GSM cannot cover.
 Another advantage is its capacity; it has a very high spectral capacity that it can accommodate more
users per MHz of bandwidth.
Disadvantages of CDMA:
 Channel pollution, where signals from too many cell sites are present in the subscriber‟s phone but
none of them is dominant. When this situation arises, the quality of the audio degrades.
 When compared to GSM is the lack of international roaming capabilities.
 The ability to upgrade or change to another handset is not easy with this technology as the network
service information for the phone is put in actual phone unlike GSM which uses SIM card for this.
 Limited variety of the handset, because at present the major mobile companies use GSM technology.
 Satellite Application- Communication Satellite, Digital Satellite Radio
 COMMUNICATION SATELLITE
 It is difficult to go through a day without using a
communications satellite at least once.
 Do you know when you used a communications
satellite today? Did you watch T.V.? Did you make a
long distance phone call, use a cellular phone, a fax
machine, a pager, or even listen to the radio? Well, if
you did, you probably used a communications
satellite, either directly or indirectly.
 Communications satellites allow radio, television,
and telephone transmissions to be sent live anywhere
in the world. Before satellites, transmissions were
difficult or impossible at long distances.
 The signals, which travel in straight lines, could not bend around the round Earth to reach a destination
far away. Because satellites are in orbit, the signals can be sent instantaneously into space and then
redirected to another satellite or directly to their destination.
 The satellite can have a passive role in communications like bouncing signals from the Earth back to
another location on the Earth; on the other hand, some satellites carry electronic devices called
Transponders for receiving, amplifying, and re-broadcasting signals to the Earth.
 Communications satellites are often in geostationary orbit.
 At the high orbital altitude of 35,800 kilometers, a geostationary satellite orbits the Earth in the same
amount of time it takes the Earth to revolve once.
 From Earth, therefore, the satellite appears to be stationary, always above the same area of the Earth.
 The area to which it can transmit is called a satellite's footprint.
 For example, many Canadian communications satellites have a footprint which covers most of Canada.
 Communications satellites can also be in highly elliptical orbits.
 This type of orbit is roughly egg-shaped, with the Earth near the top of the egg.
 In a highly elliptical orbit, the satellite's velocity changes depending on where it is in its orbital path.

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 When the satellite is in the part of its orbit that's close to the Earth, it moves faster because the Earth's
gravitational pull is stronger. This means that a communications satellite can be over the region of the
Earth that it is communicating with for the long part of its orbit.
 It will only be out of contact with that region when it quickly zips close by the Earth.
 DIGITAL SATELLITE RADIO.
 Satellite radio, more formally known as Satellite
Digital Audio Radio Service (SDARS), is a
broadcasting network in which digital high-fidelity
(hi-fi) audio entertainment is transmitted from
orbiting satellite s to receivers on the surface.
 Signals can be received either directly from a
satellite or indirectly by means of earth-
based repeater s. Programming can also be
received through Internet connections.
 These satellites transmit radio frequency (RF)
signals at approximately 2.3 gigahertz (GHz).
 Satellite radio provides programming on a
subscription basis. Users pay a nominal monthly
fee for the service and in turn receive
programming that contains almost no advertising.
 The programming consists mainly of music also includes news, weather, sports and traffic information.
 The services are used primarily by motorists although receivers can be installed in residences and
businesses. Portable receivers also exist. Satellite radio is just what its name suggests: a radio service
that uses satellites circling Earth to broadcast its programming.
 In 1992, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allocated a satellite spectrum ("S" band, 2.3
GHz) for the broadcasting of satellite-based digital audio radio service (DARS).
 It eventually granted two licenses, one to Sirius Satellite Radio (formerly CD Radio) and one to XM
Satellite Radio (formerly American Mobile Radio Corporation).
 As the satellites orbit the earth, programs are beamed to them from broadcast stations.
 The satellites then transmit the signal to special antennas on homes, cars and portable radios.
 Terrestrial repeaters throughout the country also receive the signal and help ensure that it's transmitted to
receivers, especially in areas with tall buildings that might block the signal
 There are two big pluses for satellite radio listeners.
 First, every channel, whether it's on XM or Sirius, is largely commercial-free, which should appeal to
radio listeners tired of having advertisements screamed into their ears while they sit in traffic.
 Most music channels have no advertising at all. Second, no matter where you are in the continental
United States, you get the same reception as long as the skies are relatively clear.
 Unlike traditional radio, which loses reception once you're too far away from a certain station, satellites
ensure you receive a signal no matter where you are in America.
 A driver could trek all the way from New York City to Los Angeles & never have to change the channel.
 But there are some notable differences between the two services, too.
 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
 Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system based on satellite.
 It has created the revolution in navigation and position location.
 It is mainly used in positioning, navigation, monitoring and surveying applications.
 The major advantages of satellite navigation are real time positioning and timing synchronization.
 That‟s why satellite navigation systems have become an integral part in most of the applications, where
mobility is the key parameter.
 A complete operational GPS space segment contains twenty-four satellites in MEO.
 These satellites are made into six groups so that each group contains four satellites.
 The group of four satellites is called as one constellation.
 Any two adjacent constellations are separated by 60 degrees in longitude.
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 The orbital period of each satellite is approximately equal to twelve hours.
 Hence, all satellites revolve around the earth two times on every day.
 At any time, the GPS receivers will get the signals from at least four satellites.
 GPS Codes and Services
 Each GPS satellite transmits two signals; L1 and L2 are of different frequencies.
 Trilateration is a simple method for finding the position (Latitude, Longitude, Elevation) of GPS
receiver. By this method, the position of an unknown point can be measured from three known points
 GPS CODES: -Following are the two types of GPS codes.
 Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code * Precise code or P code
 The signal, L1 is modulated with 1.023 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence.
 This code is called as Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code and it is used by the public.
 The signal, L2 is modulated with 10.23 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence.
 This code is called as Precise code or P code and it is used in military positioning systems.
 Generally, this P code is transmitted in an encrypted format and it is called as Y code
 The P code gives better measurement accuracy when compared to C/A code, since the bit rate of P code
is greater than the bit rate of C/A code.
 GPS Services: - Following are the two types of services provided by GPS.
 Precise Positioning Service (PPS) * Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
 PPS receivers keep tracking of both C/A code and P code on two signals, L1 and L2.
 The Y code is decrypted at the receiver in order to obtain P code.
 SPS receivers keep tracking of only C/A code on signal, L1.
 GPS RECEIVER
 There exists only one-way transmission from satellite to users in GPS system.
 Hence, the individual user does not need the transmitter, but only a GPS receiver.
 It is mainly used to find the accurate location of an object.
 It performs this task by using the signals received from satellites.
 The block diagram of GPS receiver is shown in below figure

 The function of each block present in GPS receiver is mentioned below: -

 Receiving Antenna receives the satellite signals. It is mainly, a circularly polarized antenna.
 Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies the weak received signal
 Down converter converts the frequency of received signal to an Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.
 IF Amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.
 ADC performs the conversion of analog signal, which is obtained from IF amplifier to digital.
Assume, the sampling & quantization blocks are also present in ADC (Analog 2 Digital Converter).
 DSP (Digital Signal Processor) generates the C/A code.
 Microprocessor performs the calculation of position and provides the timing signals in order to
control the operation of other digital blocks. It sends the useful information to Display unit in order
to display it on the screen.
 TYPES OF SATELLITE ORIBITS
 There are 4 types of orbits, they are: -
1. GEO (Geo-stationary earth orbit)
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2. MEO (medium earth orbit)
3. LEO (Low earth orbit) and
4. HEO (Highly elliptical orbit)
 Geo-Stationary Earth Orbit
 These satellites have almost a distance of 36,000 km to the earth.
 E.g. All radio and TV, whether satellite etc, are launched in this orbit.
 Advantages of Geo-Stationary Orbit
1. It is possible to cover almost all parts of the earth with just 3 geo satellites.
2. Antennas need not be adjusted every now and then but can be fixed permanently.
3. The life-time of a GEO satellite is quite high usually around 15 years.
 Disadvantages of Geo-Stationary Earth Orbit
1. Larger antennas are required for northern/southern regions of the earth.
2. High buildings in a city limit the transmission quality.
3. High transmission power is required.
4. These satellites cannot be used for small mobile phones.
5. Fixing a satellite at Geo stationary orbit is very expensive.
 Medium Earth Orbit
 Satellite at different orbits operates at different heights.
 The MEO satellite operates at about 5000 to 12000 km away from the earth's surface.
 These orbits have moderate number of satellites.
 Advantages of Medium Earth Orbit
1. Compared to LEO system, MEO requires only a dozen satellites.
2. Simple in design. 3. Requires very few handovers.
 Disadvantages of Medium Earth Orbit
1. Satellites require higher transmission power. 2. Special antennas are required.
 Low Earth Orbit
 LEO satellites operate at a distance of about 500-1500 km.
 Advantages of Low Earth Orbit
1. The antennas can have low transmission power of about 1 watt.
2. The delay of packets is relatively low. 3. Useful for smaller foot prints.
 Disadvantages of Low Earth Orbit
1. If global coverage is required, it requires at least 50-200 satellites in this orbit.
2. Special handover mechanisms are required.
3. These satellites involve complex design.
4. Very short life: Time of 5-8 years. Assuming 48 satellites with a life-time of 8 years each, a new
satellite is needed every 2 months. 5. Data packets should be routed from satellite to satellite.
 Highly Elliptical Orbit
 This orbit is made for satellites that do not revolve in circular orbits, only a very few satellite are
operating in this orbit.

-------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------

[CHAPTER-3]
------------------------------ fiber optics communication system -----------------------------

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 INTRODUCTION: -
 Fiber optics is a branch of science which deals with
the study of propagation of light through
transparent dielectric medium such as optical fibers.
 Fiber optics is a relative new technology that used
to transmit television, voice and digital data signal
by light waves over flexible hair like threads of
glass and plastic.
 Optical fiber is the medium in which the
communication signals are transmitted from one location to another in the form of guided light.
 This signal can be voice information, data information, video information and any other information.
 The process of communicating using fiber optics involves the following basic steps.
1. Creating the optical signal along the fiber.
2. Relaying the signal along the fiber.
3. Ensuring that the signal does not become to distort or weak.
4. Receiving the optical signal.
5. Converting it in to electrical signal.
 ADVANTAGE
 Attenuation in a fiber is lower than that of coaxial cable or twisted pair and is constant over a very wide
range. So transmission within wide range distance is possible without use of repeaters.
 Smaller size and lighter weight. So that it occupy much less space.
 Due to Electromagnetic Isolation the system is not risk to interference, impulse noise or cross-talk.
 Fiber optical cable has much greater band width than copper wire.
 Fiber optic cable is less susceptible to signal degradation that copper wire.
 Data can be transmitted digitally and Data rate is much higher. As for example the data rate is 2 Gbps
over some kilometers in case of fiber optics where as for coaxial cable it is about 1 Mbps over one Km.
 Lower power transmitter can be used instead of high voltage electrical transmitter used in copper wire.
 Because of no electricity is passed through optical fiber it is nonflammable and immune to light.
 No cross-talk in optical fibers hence transmission is more secure & private as it difficult to tap into fiber.
 DISADVANTAGE
 Fiber optics is the cables which are expensive to installation.
 The termination of fiber cable is complex and requires special tools.
 They are more fragile (easily broken) than co-axial cable.
 APPLICATIONS
 Used in Voice Communications. (Inter-Office, Intercity, Intercontinental links etc)
 Video Communications. ( TV Broadcast, Cable Television, Remote Monitoring, Wired City)
 Data Transfer (Inter Office Data Link, Local Area Network, Satellite Ground Stations, Computers etc)
 Internet (Email, Access to remote information, Video Conferencing etc)
 Sensor System ( Point Sensor, Distributed Sensor, Smart Structure, Robotics etc)
 Also it used in other indirect fields like Entertainment (HDTV), Power System, Transportations, Health
Care (Endoscope), Military Defense (Guided Missile), Business Developments (CAD/CAM),
Educations (CCTV) etc.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
 In fiber optic communication, visible light (optical) waves represent the signal to be transmitted.
 These visible light waves are transmitted through glass fiber.
 Thus the fiber optic cable transmits light signals from one place to another just like metallic wire carries
an electric current. A generalized fiber optic communications system is shown in Fig. below
 The block diagram of FOCS contains following components. Light Signal, Transmitter, Optical Fiber,
Photo Detecting Receiver, Cable Splices, Connector, Regenerators, Beam Splitters & Optical Amplifier.

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 MESSAGE ORIGIN
 Generally message origin is from a transducer that converts a non-electrical message into an electrical
signal. Ex- Microphones for converting sound waves into currents & video (TV) cameras for converting
images into current. For data transfer between computers, the message is already in electrical form.
 TRANSMITTER SECTION
MODULATOR
 The modulator has two main functions.
1) It converts the electrical message into the proper format.
2) It impresses this signal onto the wave generated by the carrier source.
 Two distinct categories of modulation are used i.e. analog and digital.
CARRIER SOURCE
 Carrier source generates the wave on which the information is transmitted. This wave is called the
carrier. For fiber optic system, a Laser Diode (LD) or a Light Emitting Diode (LED) is used.
 They can be called as optic oscillators; they provide stable, single frequency waves with sufficient power
for long distance propagation.
 TRANSMITTING CHANNEL SECTION
INFORMATION CHANNEL
 The information channel is the path between the transmitter and receiver. In fiber optic communications,
a glass or plastic fiber is the channel.
 Optical fiber cables are the medium for the transmission of signal. It carries data, audio or video
information in the form of optical signal.
 Desirable characteristics of the channel include low attenuation and large light acceptance cone angle.
 Optical amplifiers boost the power levels of weak signals. Amplifiers are needed in very long links to
provide sufficient power to the receiver.
 Repeaters can be used only for digital systems. They convert weak and distorted optical signals to
electrical ones and then regenerate the original digital pulse trains for further transmission.
 Another important property of the channel is the propagation time of the waves traveling along it.
 A signal propagating along a fiber normally contains a range of optic frequencies and divides its power
along several ray paths. This results in a distortion of the propagating signal.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg
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 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 38]
 In a digital system, this distortion appears as a spreading and deforming of the pulses.
 Cable Splices are used to joint between the two fiber optical cables.
 Connectors are connected just the end of the transmitter and receiver to connect with fiber optics cable.
Its construction is more complex than that of splices.
 Beam Splitter or Optical Couplers are used to split the optical signal into different parts for different
communication system.
 Different type of Optical Amplifier is there to amplify the optical signal.
 Regenerators are used for restoring the signal shape characteristic. In a long distance transmission the
degradation of optical signal takes place so to restore the signal shape characteristic over a long distance
regenerators are used. This is mainly used under sea where the longest cables are employed.
 RECEIVER SECTION
DETECTOR
 The information being transmitted is detected by detector. An optical receiver is used to recover the
signal as an electrical signal. Here the optic wave is converted into electric current by a photo detector.
 The current developed by the detector is proportional to the power in the incident optic wave.
 In the receiver section a photo diode is there which treated the weakened optical signal and convert it to
electrical current referred to as photo current.
 This photo current in the form of electrical signal is amplified by the amplifier.
 This detector output is then filtered to remove the constant bias and then amplified.
 The signal restored will produce the required form of the signal at the output.
 The important properties of photo detectors are small size, economy, long life, low power consumption,
high sensitivity to optic signals and fast response to quick variations in the optic power.
SIGNAL PROCESSING
 Signal processing includes filtering, amplification. Proper
filtering maximizes the ratio of signal to unwanted power.
 For a digital system decision circuit is an additional block. The
bit error rate should be very small for quality communications.
MESSAGE OUTPUT
 The electrical form of the message emerging from the signal
processor is transformed into a sound wave or visual image.
 Sometimes these signals are directly usable when computers or
other machines are connected through a fiber system.
 OPTICAL FIBER CABLE CONSTRUCTION: -
 Optical fiber may be produced with good stable transmission
characteristic in long lengths at a minimum cost and with
maximum reproducibility.
 The range of optical fiber type with regards to size, refractive
indices, operating wave length, material etc is available in order
to fulfill many different system applications.
 The fiber may be converted into practical cable which can be
handled in a similar manner to a electrical transmission cable
without any problem.
 For transmission point of view it is clear that a variation of
refractive index inside the optical fiber (Core & Cladding) is the
fundamental necessity in fabrication of fiber for transmission.
 Hence at least two difference materials which are transparent to
light over the current operating wave length range are required.
 In practice these material must exhibit relatively low practical
attenuation and they must therefore have low intrinsic absorption and scattering losses.
 A number of organic and inorganic insulating substances are used to meet these conditions.
 We chose suitable material for the fabrication of optical fibers to either glasses or glass like material &
mono crystalline structure.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg
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 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 39]
 It is used full in the case of graded index fiber that the refractive index of the material may be varied by
suitable doping with another compactable material.
 This is only achieved in glasses or glass like material & therefore mono crystalline material are not
suitable for the fabrication of graded index fiber but may be used for step index fiber.
 Glasses exhibit the best overall low loss optical fiber.
 Therefore it is used almost exclusively in the preparation of fibers for telecommunication application.
 STRUCTURE OF OPTICAL FIBER: -
 The working of optical fiber is based on the principal of total internal reflection of light.
 The possible of light being guided through narrow jet of a
communication system based on the propagation of light with
in a cylindrical wave guided called optical fiber.
 The light entering at one end of the fiber has to travels through
the entire length and energy at the other end without much loss.
 Optical fiber consists of three section such as
(A) CORE (B) CLADDING (C) JACKET
 The Core is a hair thin cylindrical fiber of glass any
transparent dielectric material like plastic.
 The Core is coated with a layer of material with lower refractive index this layer is called Cladding.
 The Core and cladding together guide optical energy along the axis of fiber.
 The core diameter generally 5-100 micron while the cladding diameter is around 125 micron.
 For greater strength and protection of fiber a soft plastic coating or outer cover which is primary which
diameter is around 250 micron is used called Jacket or Primary Jacket.
 This is often followed by another layer of hard protective material which is known as Secondary Jacket.
 The entire unit is remaining flexible for use.
 TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBER: -
 In most applications, optical fiber must be protected
from the environment using a variety of different
cabling types based on the type of environment in
which the fiber will be used.
 Cabling provides the fiber with protection from the
elements, added tensile strength for pulling, rigidity
for bending, and durability.
 In general, fiber optic cable can be separated into
two types: - INDOOR & OUTDOOR.
INDOOR CABLES: -
 Simplex Cable: - Contains a single fiber for one-
way communication.
 Duplex Cable: - Contains two fibers for two-way
communication.
 Multi-Fiber Cable - Contains more than two fibers.
Fibers are usually in pairs for duplex operation. A
ten-fiber cable permits five duplex circuits.
 Breakout Cable - Typically has several individual simplex cables inside an outer jacket. The outer
jacket includes a zip cord to allow easy access.
 Heavy-Duty Cables have thicker jackets than light-duty cable, for rougher handling.
 Plenum Cables are jacketed with low-smoke and fire-
retardant materials.
 Riser Cables run vertically between floors and must be
engineered to prevent fires from spreading between floors.
OUTDOOR CABLES: -

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg

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 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 40]
 Outdoor cables must withstand harsher environmental conditions than indoor cables.
 Outdoor Cables are used in applications such as: -
• Overhead - Cables strung from telephone lines
• Direct Burial - Cables placed directly in trenches
• Indirect Burial - Cables placed in conduits
• Submarine - Underwater cables, including transoceanic applications
 Sketches of Indoor and Outdoor cables are shown in Figure above.
 FIBER OPTIC CONNECTOR: -
 A wide variety of optical fiber connectors has evolved for numerous different applications.
 Some of the principal requirements of a good connector design are as follows: -
 Low Coupling Losses  Low Environmental sensitivity
 Interchangeability  Low-cost and reliable construction
 Ease of assembly  Ease of connection
 A number of Fiber optical connectors have been developed. These are grouped in three categories.
 That are : - (1) Butt-Jointed Connectors (2) Expanded Beam Connectors (3) Multi fiber Connectors
 FIBER OPTIC SPLICES: -
 A fiber splices is a permanent joint formed between two optical cables. It is required when length of the
system span is more than manufactured cable length or when the cable is broken & needs to be repaired.
 The primary objective of splicing is to establish transmission continuity in the fiber-optic link.
 This can be done in two ways, namely, through
 Fusion splices
 Mechanical Splices
 Multiple Splices.
 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN OPTICAL FIBER:-
 In free space the light wave travels at speed C=3x108N/s upon entering to a dielectric and non
conducting medium the wave now travels at a speed „V‟ and is less than that of „C‟.
 The ratio of speed o light in vacuum to that of in a metal is known as Refractive Index of the material
and is given by
𝐧 = 𝐂/𝐕
 Typical values of Refractive Index (n) are given by: - Air
 1; Water  1.33; Glass  1.50; Diamond  2.42;
SiO2 1.46 ; Al2O3  1.8 ; GaAs  3.35; InGaAsP 
3.51 ; Si  3.48 and Ge  4.0 etc.
 When a light ray encounters a boundary separating two
different media, part of the ray has reflected back in to the
1st medium. Then the remainder is bending or refracted as
it enters to the second material.
 The bending or refraction of light ray at the interface as a
result of difference in the speed of light in two materials that have different refractive indices.
 The relationship at the interface is known as Snell‟s Law and is States that the ratio of the sines of the
angles of incidence and refraction is equivalent to the ratio of phase velocities in the two media, or
equivalent to the reciprocal of the ratio of the indices of refraction:
n1 Sin Φ1 = n2 Sin Φ2 n1 Sin (90-θ1) = n2 Sin (90-θ2) n1 Cos θ1 = n2 Cos θ2
 Where each Φ as the angle measured from the normal of the
boundary, v as the velocity of light in the respective medium (SI units
are meters per second, or m/s), λ as the wavelength of light in the
respective medium and n as the refractive index (which is unit less) of
the respective medium.
 The angle ф1 between the incident ray and the normal to the surface is
known as Angle of Incident.

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg

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 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 41]
 According to the Laws of Reflection the incident angle “Φ” at which the incident ray strikes to the
interface is exactly equal to the angle that the reflected ray makes with the same interface.
 In addition the incident rays, the normal to the interface and the reflected ray all lies on the same plane.
 As n1 is greater than n2 the angle of refraction is always greater than that of angle of incident.
 If the angle of incident ф is increased a point will eventually reached where the light ray in air is parallel
to the glass surface. This point is known as Critical Angle (фc) of the incident.
 The value of Critical Angle is given by
 When θc = 90o then Sin 900 = n2/n1 = 1 n2 = n1. Sin θc = n2 / n1  θc = Sin-1 (n2 / n1)
 So we must choose the angle of incidence less than 90˚. When the angle of incidence is greater than that
of the critical angle, light is reflected back into the medium and is known as Total Internal Reflection.
 ACCEPTANCE ANGLE:-
 Any ray which are incidence into the fiber core at an angle greater than θa will be transmitted to the core
cladding interface at an angle less than „фc‟ will not be total internal reflection.

 From the above figure the incident ray „B‟ at an angle greater than θa is refracted into the cladding and is
eventually loosed by the radiation.
 Thus for rays to be transmitted by total internal reflection within the fiber core, they must be incident on
the fiber core with in an acceptance angle and is also defined by Conical Half Angle (θa).
 Hence θa is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter to the fiber in order to propagate
fully and is refer as acceptance angle for the fiber.
 θ is some time refer as maximum or total acceptance angle .
 It may be noted that the output angle to the axis will be equal to the input angle for the ray assuming the
ray emerges in to a medium o the same refractive index from which it was input.

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg

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 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 42]

 NUMERICAL APERTURE:-
 It is possible to continue the ray theory analysis to obtain a relation between the acceptance angle and the
refractive indices of the three medium involve such as core, cladding and air.
 This leads to the definition of a more generally used term that the Numerical Aperture of the fiber.
 The figure of the next page shows a light ray
incident on the fiber core at an angle θ1 to the
fiber axis which is less than the acceptance angle
for the fiber θa.
 The ray enters to the fiber from a medium (Air)
that the refractive index „n0‟ and the fiber core
refractive index „n1‟ which is slightly greater than
the cladding refractive index „n2‟.
 Now applying Snell‟s law at the interface, i.e.
n0 Sinθ1= n1 Sinθ2
 Sin θ2 = Sin (π/2 – ф) = Cos ф (As θ2= π/2 – ф)  So, n0 Sinθ1= n1 Cos ф ------- (1)
 n0 Sinθ1 = n1 (1- Sin2 ф)1/2 ------- (2)
 When limiting case for the total internal reflection is consider ф becomes to the critical angle for the core
cladding interface (фc) also in this limiting θ1 becomes the acceptance angle (θa) for the fiber.
 Combining these limiting case, the above equation becomes, (i.e. By putting ф  фc & θ1  θa )
n0 Sin θa = n1 (1- Sin2 фc)1/2  n0 Sin θa = n1[1- (n2/n1)2]1/2 { As Sin фc= n2/n1 }
n0 Sin θa = (n12- n22)1/2
 This equation relates the acceptance angle to the refractive indices serves for the basic definition of
optical fiber parameter i.e. Numerical Aperture.
NA = (n12- n22)1/2
 Hence the expression of Numerical Aperture is given by 
 Since n0 is often used for air whose value is unity. So the Numerical Aperture is simply equals to Sin θa.
 Numerical Aperture may also be given in terms of Relative refractive index difference (Δ) between the
core and cladding which is denoted as Δ = (n12- n22)/2n12  2n12 Δ = (n12- n22)  n1 2Δ = (n12- n22)1/2
 Thus, NA = n1 2Δ. This relationship is very use full measure of light collective ability of the fiber.
 MODES OF PROPAGATION:-
 Propagation of light along an optical fiber can be described in terms of a set of guided electromagnetic
waves called the Modes. Each guided mode corresponds to a pattern of electric and magnetic field
distribution that is repeated along the fiber at regular intervals.
 Only a certain discrete number of modes or patterns are capable of propagating along the fiber.

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg

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 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 43]
 For monochromic light the amplitude of a mode traveling along the fiber axis (say the +ve z-direction) is
represented as Ψ (z, t) = Ae j(wt-βz)
Where w=2πv and β is the z-component of propagation vector, k=2π/λ in z-direction.
 For guided modes, β can have only certain discrete values that satisfy the Maxwell‟s equation and the
boundary conditions.
 These modes are identified by solving Maxwell‟s EM wave equation under the boundary condition of
the wave guide surface. The modes can also be visualized by ray tracing method.
 A guided mode travelling along the fiber can be regarded to be assembly of a group of plane waves
along the axis with a common wave front.
 Since with any plane wave can associate a light ray that is normal to the wave front of the wave, group
of waves corresponding to a particular mode from a set of ray called a Ray Congruence.
 Each ray of this particular group is incident at the core cladding interface at the same angle.
 Note as any ray that satisfies the condition (θ ≥ θc) can be transmitted in the fiber yet the constant phase
condition is satisfied only in limited cases. i.e. there will be limited number of ray congruence or modes.
 The order of the mode m, is linked to the angle that the ray congruence makes with the fiber axis at the
point of incidence. In order that the mode rays satisfy the condition, θ > θ c and also converge is in the
same phase, the path difference ΔP = mλ. Where m is an integer called the Mode Number.
 Note that the phase change on reflection should be included in compating ΔP.
 Through the path difference between meridional ray and skew rays is large yet the phase should be the
same for transmission to be possible.
 The angle ф which a mode ray makes with the wall of the fiber is given by
𝒎
Sin ф = ( 𝟐 𝝀/𝒅) < 1, where (θ+ ф) = 900 , λ = Wavelength of light used & d = Fiber Diameter.
 Through a distinct mode is available with any integer value of m, number of modes are limited as Sin θ
cannot exceed unity for low value of m, value of ф is low.
 On the other hand the value of ф is more for higher order modes are due to steeper incident ray.
 What happens for ф = 90˚ the wave front bounles back and forth from both the walls without advancing
along the axis.

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg

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 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 44]

 When the fiber is very thin, the ray with a single low value of ф i.e. grazing incidence can enter into the
fiber the steeper ray with high value of ф will not enter into the fiber.
 This is a mono mode transmission if the core diameter is large, angle of incidence can change over a
range and as such multimode transmission is possible as shown in figure above.
 MERIDIONAL RAYS AND SKEW RAYS:-
 The rays propagating through an optical fiber can be divided into two groups. They are
 Meridinal Rays
 Skew Rays
 MERIDINOL RAYS: -
 The rays said to be Meridinal if all of them comprising a mode pass through the longitudinal of z-axis o
the fiber core, they are confined to a single plane which contain the axis of symmetry in below figure
and therefore it is easy to trace its path in the fiber.
 SKEW RAYS: -
 The skew rays can propagate without passing through the axis of the fiber they are not contained to a
single plane but fallow a spiral or helical path due to reflection in different segment down to the fiber
core in figure below. It is
difficult to track the path of
skew rays in the fiber.
 The point of emergency of
the skew rays from the fiber
in air depends on the number
of reflection they undergo
rather than the input
condition of the optical fiber.
 Some mode of propagation involving skew rays produces loss due to leakage and radiation. But it has
certain advantage too.
 Even when the light input to the fiber is not uniform the output will be quite uniform because the skew
rays will have a smoothing effect on the distribution of transmitted light.
 Another advantage feature of the transmission of the skew ray in that the
effect numerical aperture will be greater than that for Meridinal rays.
 CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBER : -
 There are two methods of classification
1. According to Mode Capacity
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg
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 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 45]
2. According to Core Refractive Index
 CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF MODE : -
 MONO MODE FIBER: - The Mono mode fiber allows only one mode to propagate and hence this
name fiber of this type have very small core diameter ~ 2 to 10 micron.
 MULTI MODE FIBER: - The core diameter is more than 50micron. Because of large diameter, it
allows many modes to transmit through the fiber.
 CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF CORE REFRACTIVE INDEX:-
 STEP INDEX FIBER: -
 In step index fiber the core has uniform refractive index n1, through its
core section and the cladding also has slightly less but uniform refractive
index n2 through its cross section.
 The refractive index profile, the figure shows a step like structure.
 GRADED INDEX FIBER: -
 Refractive index of the core is non-uniform being maximum along the
axial and gradually decreases towards the core-cladding interface.
 The cladding refractive index n2, however is uniform the variation of
refractive index of the core n with distance „x‟ measure from the axis.
 ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF OPTICAL FIBER:-
 Communication through plastic fiber or glass fiber has several Advantages over metallic conductor.
 ADVANTAGES: -
It has wider band width (10000 – 40000 GHz). Optical fiber cables are safer & easier to install.
It has higher information capacity. It is easy to storage due to flexibility in nature.
It can transmit several G byte/sec. It is lower transmission loss.
It eliminates cross falk. It is more secure then metallic cable.
It eliminates static interference. It has higher durability.
It eliminates environmental resistance and it is These are economic in nature.
not effect of weather changes. It is easy to transport.
It can be operated at thin temperature. These are compact in size.
 DISADVANTAGES: -
Optical fiber cable requires specialize tool and test equipment.
The repairing cost of optical fiber is higher than metallic cable.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FREQUENCY AND SPECTRUM:-
 The electromagnetic frequency spectrum contains subsonic frequency to cosmic ray frequency (1022).
 The light frequency spectrum is divided into three bands: -
1) Intra Red: - These are the light which to have length in between Optical fiber system generally operated
in the entire range or band.
2) Visible Light: - The wave length between 390x10- 9 m to 770x109 m is known as visible light which is
visible to human being.
3) Ultra Violet: - Wave length 10nmi to 390nmi which are not visible human being. When detailing with
𝐜
high frequency the calculation are mode by the equation  λ = .
𝐟
 SIGNAL DEGRADATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS: -
 Signal attenuation (fiber loss or Signal loss) is one of the most important properties of an optical fiber.
 As it largely determines the maximum unamplified or repeater less between a transmitter and a receiver.
 Since amplifiers and repeaters are expensive to fabricate, install and maintain, the degree of attenuation
in a fiber has a large influences on system cost.
 If these pulses travel sufficiently far, they will eventually overlap with neighboring pulses, thereby
creating errors in the receiver output.
 The basic attenuation mechanisms in a fiber are Absorption, Scattering & Radiation of optical energy.
 Signal attenuation is defined as the ratio of the optical output power Pout from a fiber length L to the
optical input Power Pin.

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg

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 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 46]
 The symbol α is commonly used to express attenuation in Decibels per kilometer and is expressed as : -
 ABSORPTION LOSS: - 𝟏𝟎 𝐏
 Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms: - α = 𝐋 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐏𝐎𝐮𝐭
𝐈𝐧
 Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition.
 Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material.
 Extrinsic absorption by the impurities atoms in the glass material.
 Atomic defects are imperfections of the atomic structure of the fiber materials such as missing
molecules, high density clusters of atom groups or oxygen defects in the glass structure.
 Usually absorption losses arising from these defects are negligible as compared to intrinsic and impurity
absorption effects. However, they can be significant if the fiber is exposed to intense nuclear radiation
levels as might occurs in a nuclear reactor during a nuclear explosion or in the earth‟s Van Allen belts.
 SCATTERING LOSS: -
 Scattering losses in glass arises from microscopic variations in the material density from compositional
fluctuations and from structural in homogeneities or defects occurring during fiber manufactures.
 As glass is composed of a randomly connected network of molecules. Such a structure naturally contains
regions in which the molecular density is either higher or lower than the average density in the glass.
 In addition this, since glass is made glass is made up of several oxides, such as SiO2, GeO2 and P2O5,
compositional fluctuations can occurs. These two effects give rise to refractive index variations which
occur within the glass over distance that are small compared to the wavelength.
 Theses index variation causes a Rayleigh type scattering of light. Rayleigh scattering in glass is the same
phenomenon that scatters light from the Sun in the atmosphere, thereby giving rise to a blue sky.
 The expression for scattering-induced attenuation is fairly complex due to the random molecular nature
and the various oxide constituents of glass.
 For single component glass the scattering loss at a wavelength λ
resulting from density fluctuations can be approximated by 
 BENDING LOSS: -
 Radiation losses occur whenever an optical fiber undergoes a bend of finite radius of curvature.
 Fiber can be subjected to two types of bends: -
 Macroscopic bends having radii that re large compared to the fiber diameter and
 Random microscopic bends of the fiber axis that arises when the fibers are incorporated into cables.
 Let us first examine large curvature radiation losses, which are known as Macro bending Losses or
simply Bending Losses.
 For slight bends the excess loss is extremely small & is essentially unobservable
 As radius of curvature decreases, the loss increases exponentially until at a certain critical radius the
curvature loss becomes observable.
 If the bend radius is made a bit smaller once this threshold point has been reached, the losses suddenly
becomes extremely large.

(Microscopic Bend)

(Macroscopic Bend) (Compressible Jacket over the fiber)

 Another form of radiation loss is optical waveguides caused by random micro bends of the optical fiber.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 47]
 Micro bends are repetitive small-scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the fiber axis.
 An increase in attenuation results from micro bending because of the fiber curvature.
 One method of minimizing, micro bending losses is by covering a compressible jacket over the fiber.
 When external forces are applied to this configuration, the jacket will be deformed but the fiber will tend
to stay relatively straight as show in figure above.
 CORE AND CLADDING LOSS
 Upon measuring the propagation losses in an actual fiber, all the dissipative and scattering losses will be
manifested simultaneously.
 Since the core and cladding have different indices of refraction and therefore differ in composition, the
core and cladding generally have different attenuation coefficients denoted α1 and α1, respectively.
 If the influence of modal coupling is ignored, the loss for mode of order (v, m) for a step-index
𝑷 𝑷 𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒅 𝑷
waveguide is αvm = α1 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 + α2 𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒅 . But PCore + PClad = 1  αvm = α1 + (α2 - α1)
𝑷 𝑷 𝑷
 The total loss of the wave guide is sum of overall model weighted by the fractional power in that mode.
 SIGNAL DISTORTION IN OPTICAL WAVEGUIDES
 An optical signal becomes increasingly distorted as it travels along a fiber.
 This distortion is a consequence of intramodal dispersion and intermodal delay effect.
 These distortion effects can be explained by examining the behavior of group velocities of guided modes
 Where the group velocity is the speed at which energy in a particular mode travels along the fiber.
 Intramodal dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode.
 It is a result of the group velocity being a function of the wavelength λ.
 Since intramodal dispersion on the wavelength, its effect on signal distortion increase with the spectral
width of the optical source.
 This spectral width is the band of wavelengths over which the source emits light.
 It is normally characterized by the root-mean-square (rms) spectral width σλ.
 For light-emitting diodes (LEDs) the rms spectral width would be 40nm; that is, the source emits most of
its optical power in the 830- to 870-nm wavelength band.
 Laser diode optical sources have much narrow spectral widths, typical values being 1 to 2 nm.
 The two main causes of intramodal dispersion are:
1) Material Dispersion: - It arises from the variation of the refractive index of the core material as a
function of wavelength. This causes a wavelength dependence of the group velocity of any given
mode; that is, pulse spreading occurs even when different wavelength follow the same path. It is also
referred as Chromatic Dispersion as this is the same effect by which a prism spreads out a spectrum
2) Waveguide Dispersion: - It occurs because a single-mode fiber only confines about 80 percent of
the optical power to the core. Dispersion thus arises,
 Since the 20 percent of the light propagating in the cladding travels faster than light confined to the core.
 The amount of waveguide dispersion depends on the fiber design, since the modal propagation constant
β is a function of a/λ (the optical fiber dimension relative to the wavelength λ; here a is the core radius).
 The other factor giving rise to pulse spreading is intermodal delay, which is a result of each having a
different value of the group velocity at a single frequency.
 The Losses due to Material Dispersion and Waveguide Dispersion is given below: -
𝑳 𝒅𝒏 𝑳 𝒅𝜷 𝑳 𝒅(𝒌𝒃)
τmat = 𝒏− 𝝀 τwg = = 𝒏𝟐 + 𝒏 𝟐 𝜟
𝒄 𝒅𝝀 𝒄 𝒅𝒌 𝒄 𝒅𝒌

 OPTICAL SOURCES
 In fiber optic system, electrical signals (Current or Voltage) at the transmitter end have to be converted
into optical signals as efficiently as possible. This function is performed by an Optoelectronics Sources.
 There are two types of sources which to a large extents, fulfill these requirements, these are
 Incoherent Optoelectronics Sources (Ex - LED)
 Coherent Optoelectronics Sources (Ex - LASER)
 LED <Light Emitting Diode (LED>

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 48]
 LEDs are the most widely used semiconductor diodes among all the different types of semiconductor
diodes available today.
 LEDs emit either visible light or invisible infrared light when forward biased. The LEDs which emit
invisible infrared light are used for remote controls.
 A LED is an optical semiconductor device that emits light when voltage is applied.
 In other words, LED is an optical semiconductor device that converts electrical energy into light energy.
 When LED is forward biased, free electrons in the conduction band recombines with the holes in the
valence band and releases energy in the form of light. The process of emitting light in response to the
strong electric field or flow of electric current is called electroluminescence.
 A normal p-n junction diode allows electric current only in one direction.
 It allows electric current when forward biased and does not allow electric current when reverse biased.
 Thus, normal p-n junction diode operates only in forward bias condition.
 Like the normal p-n junction diodes, LEDs also operates only in forward bias condition.
 To create an LED, the n-type material should be connected to the negative terminal of the battery and p-
type material should be connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
 The construction of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction diode except that gallium, phosphorus
and arsenic materials are used for construction instead of silicon or germanium materials.
 In normal p-n junction diodes, silicon is most widely used as it is less sensitive to the temperature. Also,
it allows electric current efficiently without any damage. In some cases, germanium is also used.
 However, silicon or germanium diodes do not emit energy in the form of light. Instead, they emit energy
in the form of heat. Thus, silicon or germanium is not used for constructing LEDs.
 Layers of LED
 A LED consists of three layers: p-type semiconductor, n-type semiconductor and depletion layer.
 P-type semiconductor & N-type semiconductor are separated by a depletion region or depletion layer.
 P-type semiconductor: - When trivalent impurities are added to the intrinsic or pure semiconductor, a
p-type semiconductor is formed. In p-type semiconductor, holes are majority charge carriers & electrons
are minority charge carriers. Thus, holes carry most of electric current in p-type semiconductor.
 N-type semiconductor: -When pentavalent impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, an n-
type semiconductor is formed. In n-type semiconductor, free electrons are the majority & holes are
minority charge carriers. Thus, free electrons carry most of electric current in n-type semiconductor.
 Depletion layer or region: - Depletion region is present between p-type & n-type semiconductor where
no mobile charge carriers are present. This region acts as barrier to electric current. It opposes flow of
electrons from n-type semiconductor & flow of holes from p-type semiconductor. To overcome barrier
of depletion layer, we need to apply voltage which is greater than barrier potential of depletion layer. If
applied voltage is greater than barrier potential of the depletion layer, the electric current starts flowing.
 How Light Emitting Diode (LED) works?
 LED works only in forward bias condition. When LED is forward biased, free electrons from n-side &
holes from p-side are pushed towards junction.
 When free electrons reach the junction or depletion region, some of the free electrons recombine with
the holes in the positive ions. We know that positive ions have less number of electrons than protons.
 Therefore, they are ready to accept electrons.
 Thus, free electrons recombine with holes in depletion region.
 In the similar way, holes from p-side recombine with electrons
in the depletion region.
 Because of the recombination of free electrons and holes in
the depletion region, the width of depletion region decreases.
As a result, more charge carriers will cross the p-n junction.
 Some of the charge carriers from p-side and n-side will cross
the p-n junction before they recombine in the depletion region.
For example, some free electrons from n-type semiconductor
cross the p-n junction and recombines with holes in p-type semiconductor.
 In the similar way, holes from p-type semiconductor cross the p-n junction and recombines with free
electrons in the n-type semiconductor.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 49]
 Thus, recombination takes place in depletion region as well as in p-type and n-type semiconductor.
 The free electrons in the conduction band releases energy in the form of light before they recombine
with holes in the valence band.
 In silicon and germanium diodes, most of the energy is released in the
form of heat and emitted light is too small.
 However, in materials like gallium arsenide & gallium phosphide
emitted photons have sufficient energy to produce intense visible light.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED) symbol
 The symbol of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction diode except
that it contains arrows pointing away from the diode indicating that light is being emitted by the diode.
 LEDs are available in different colors. Most common colors of LEDs are Orange, Yellow, Green & Red.
 The schematic symbol of LED does not represent the color of light. The schematic symbol is same for
all colors of LEDs. Hence, it is not possible to identify the color of LED by seeing its symbol.
 LED Construction
 One of the methods used to construct LED is to deposit three
semiconductor layers on the substrate.
 The three semiconductor layers deposited on substrate are n-type
semiconductor, p-type semiconductor and active region.
 Active region is present in between the n-type & p-type layers.
 When LED is forward biased, free electrons from n-type and holes
from p-type semiconductor are pushed towards the active region.
 When free electrons from n-side and holes from p-side recombine with
the opposite charge carriers in active region, an invisible or visible light is emitted.
 In LED, most of the charge carriers recombine at active region.
 Thus, most of the light is emitted by active region. The active region is also
called as depletion region.
 Biasing of LED
 The safe forward voltage ratings of most LEDs are 1V to 3 V and current
ratings is 200 mA to 100 mA.
 If the voltage applied to LED is in between 1V to 3V, LED works perfectly,
if the applied voltage greater than 3 volts, depletion region in the LED breaks
down and the electric current suddenly rises.
 This sudden rise in current may destroy the device.
 To avoid this we need to place a resistor (Rs) in series with the LED.
 Resistor (Rs ) must be placed in between voltage source (Vs) & LED.
 The resistor placed between LED and voltage source is called current limiting
resistor. This resistor restricts extra current which may destroy the LED.
 Current limiting resistor protects LED from damage.
 Output characteristics of LED
 The amount of output light emitted by the LED is directly proportional to the amount of forward current
flowing through the LED.
 More the forward current, the greater is the emitted output light.
 The graph of forward current vs output light is shown in the figure.
 Visible LEDs and invisible LEDs
 LEDs are mainly classified into two types: Visible & Invisible
LEDs.
 Visible LED is a type of LED that emits visible light. These LEDs
are mainly used for display or illumination where LEDs are used
individually without photosensors.
 Invisible LED is a type of LED that emits invisible light (infrared
light).
 These LEDs are mainly used with photosensors such as photodiodes.

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 50]
 What determines the color of an LED?
 The material used for constructing LED determines its color.
 In other words, the wavelength or color of the emitted light depends on the forbidden gap or energy gap
of the material.
 Different materials emit different colors of light.
 Gallium Arsenide LEDs emit Red and Infrared light.
 Gallium Nitride LEDs emit Bright Blue light.
 Yttrium Aluminium Garnet LEDs emit White light.
 Gallium Phosphide LEDs emit Red, Yellow and Green light.
 Aluminium Gallium Nitride LEDs emit Ultraviolet light.
 Aluminum Gallium Phosphide LEDs emit Green light.
 Advantages of LED
1. The brightness of light emitted by LED is depends on the current flowing through the LED. Hence, the
brightness of LED can be easily controlled by varying the current.
2. Light emitting diodes consume low energy. 5. Smaller size.
3. LEDs are very cheap and readily available. 6. LEDs have longer lifetime.
4. LEDs are light in weight. 7. LEDs can emit different colors of light.
8. LEDs operate very fast. They can be turned on and off in very less time.
9. LEDs do not contain toxic material like mercury which is used in fluorescent lamps.
 Disadvantages of LED
1. LEDs need more power to operate than normal p-n junction diodes.
2. Luminous efficiency of LEDs is low.
 Applications of LED: - The various applications of LEDs are as follows
1. Burglar alarms systems 5. Digital computers 9. Automotive heat lamps
2. Calculators 6. Multimeters 10. Camera flashes
3. Picture phones 7. Microprocessors 11. Aviation lighting
4. Traffic signals 8. Digital watches
 LASER:-
 Laser is the abbreviation of Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
 It is a device that creates a narrow and low-divergent beam of coherent light, while most other light
sources emit incoherent light, which has a phase that varies randomly with time and position.
 Most lasers emit nearly "monochromatic" light with a narrow wavelength spectrum.
 Principle of Lasers
 The principle of a laser is based on three separate features: (a) Stimulated Emission within an amplifying
medium, b) Population Inversion and c) an Optical Resonator.
 Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated Emission
 According to the quantum mechanics, an electron within an atom
or lattice can have only certain values of energy, or energy levels.
 There are many energy levels that an electron can occupy, but
here we will only consider two. Spontaneous Emission 
 If an electron is in the excited state with the energy E2 it may
spontaneously decay to the ground state, with energy E1, releasing the difference in energy between the
two states as a photon.
 This process is called spontaneous emission, producing fluorescent light.
 The phase & direction of photon in spontaneous emission are completely random due to Uncertainty
Principle. The electron remains in this excited state for a period of time typically less than 10 -6 second.
 Then it returns to the lower state spontaneously by a photon
or a phonon. [Fig. Stimulated Emission]
 These common processes of absorption & spontaneous
emission can‟t give rise to amplification of light.
 The best that can be achieved is that for every photon
absorbed, another is emitted. Alternatively, if the excited-
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 51]
state atom is perturbed by the electric field of a photon with frequency ω, it may release a second photon
of the same frequency, in phase with the first photon.
 The atom will again decay into the ground state. This process is known as stimulated emission.
 The emitted photon is identical to the stimulating photon with same frequency, polarization, & direction
of propagation. And there is a fixed phase relationship between light radiated from different atoms.
 The photons, as a result, are totally coherent. This is critical property that allows optical amplification to
take place. All the three processes occur simultaneously within a medium. However, in thermal
equilibrium, stimulated emission does not account to a significant extent.
 The reason is there are far more electrons in the ground state than in the excited states.
 And the rates of absorption and emission is proportional the number of electrons in ground state and
excited states, respectively. So absorption process dominates.
 Population Inversion of the Gain Medium
 If the higher energy state has a greater population than the lower energy state, then the light in the
system undergoes a net increase in intensity. And this is called population inversion.
 But this process cannot be achieved by only two states, because the electrons will eventually reach
equilibrium with the de-exciting processes of spontaneous and stimulated emission.
 Instead, an indirect way is adopted, with three energy levels (E1<E2<E3) and energy population N1,
N2 and N3 respectively. Initially, the system is at thermal equilibrium, and the majority of electrons stay
in the ground state. Then external energy is provided to excite them to level 3, referred as pumping.
 The source of pumping energy varies with different laser medium, such as electrical discharge and
chemical reaction, etc.
 In a medium suitable for laser operation, we require these
excited atoms to quickly decay to level 2, transferring the
energy to the phonons of the lattice of the host material.
 This wouldn‟t generate a photon, and labeled as R, meaning
radiation less.
 Then electrons on level 2 will decay by spontaneous
emission to level 1, labeled as L, meaning laser.
 If the life time of L is much longer than that of R, the
population of the E3 will be essentially zero and a
population of excited state atoms will accumulate in level 2.
 When level 2 hosts over half of the total electrons, a population inversion be achieved.
 Because half of the electrons must be excited, the pump system needs to be very strong.
 This makes three-level lasers rather inefficient.
 Most of the present lasers are 4-level lasers, see
 The population of level 2 and 4 are 0 and electrons just accumulate in
level 3. Laser transition takes place between level 3 and 2, so the
population is easily inverted.
 In semiconductor lasers, where there are no discrete energy
levels, a pump beam with energy slightly above the band gap
energy can excite electrons into a higher state in the
conduction band, from where they quickly decay to states near
the bottom of the conduction band.
 At the same time, the holes generated in the valence band
move to the top of the valence band.
 Electrons in conduction band can then recombine with these
holes, emitting photons with an energy near band gap energy.
 Summary of Principles and Modes of Operation
 As a summary, refer diagram of the working process of lasers.
 The output of a laser may be a continuous constant-amplitude
output (CW or continuous wave); or pulsed, by using the
techniques of Q-switching, model-locking, or gain-switching.

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [Page - 52]
[ETT 601]
 In many fields of pulsed lasers, one aims to deposit as much energy as possible at a given place in as
short time as possible.
 Some dye lasers and vibronic solid-state lasers can produce light over a broad range of wavelengths; this
property makes them suitable for generating extremely short pulses of light, on the order of a few
femtoseconds (10-15 s).
 The peak power of pulsed laser can achieve 1012 Watts.
 TYPES OF LASERS AND APPLICATIONS
 According to the gain material, lasers can be divided into the following types.
 Several common used lasers are listed in each type.
 GAS LASERS:
Laser Medium Wavelength(s) Pump Source Applications and Notes
Helium-neon Interferometry, holography, spectroscopy, barcode
632.8nm Electrical discharge
laser scanning, alignment, optical demonstrations
Retinal phototherapy (for diabetes), lithography,
454.6 nm, 488.0 nm,
Argon laser Electrical discharge confocal microscopy, spectroscopy pumping
514.5 nm
other lasers
Carbon dioxide Material processing (cutting, welding, etc.),
10.6 μm, (9.4 μm) Electrical discharge
laser surgery
193 nm (ArF), 248 nm Excimer
Ultraviolet lithography for semiconductor
Excimer laser (KrF), 308 nm (XeCl), recombination via
manufacturing, laser surgery
353 nm (XeF) electrical discharge
 SOLID STATE LASERS:
Laser Medium Wavelength(s) Pump Source Applications and Notes
Holography, tattoo removal. The first type of
Ruby laser 694.3nm Flash Lamp
visible light laser invented; May 1960.
Material processing, laser target designation,
1.064 μm, Flash Lamp,
Nd:YAG laser surgery, research, pumping other lasers. One of
(1.32 μm) Laser Diode
the most common high power lasers.
Erbium doped um doped fibers are commonly used as optical
1.53-1.56 μm Laser diode
glass lasers amplifiers for telecommunications.
Mid infrared to Electrical
F-center laser Research
far infrared current
 METAL-VAPOR LASERS:
Laser Medium Wavelength(s) Pump Source Applications and Notes
Helium-cadmium Electrical discharge in Printing and typesetting applications,
441.563 nm, 325
(HeCd) metal-vapor metal vapor mixed with fluorescence excitation examination
nm
laser helium buffer gas. (ie. in U.S. paper currency printing)
510.6 nm, 578.2 Dermatological uses, high speed
Copper vapor laser Electrical discharge
nm photography, pump for dye lasers
 OTHER TYPES OF LASERS:
Laser Medium Wavelength(s) Pump Source Applications and Notes
Depending on materials, Research, spectroscopy,
Dye lasers Other laser, flashlamp
usually a broad spectrum birthmark removal, isotope

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 53]
separation.
A broad wavelength range Relativistic electron Atmospheric research, material
Free electron laser
(about 100 nm - several mm) beam science, medical applications
 PIN DIODE
 PIN photodiode is a kind of photo detector, it can
convert optical signals into electrical signals.
 This technology was invented in the latest of
1950‟s. There are three regions in this type of diode.
 Those are p-region, intrinsic region and n-region.
 The p-region and n-region are comparatively
heavily doped than the p-region and n-region of usual p-n diodes.
 The width of the intrinsic region should be larger than the space charge width of a normal p-n junction.
 The PIN photo diode operates with an applied reverse
bias voltage and when the reverse bias is applied, space
charge region must cover intrinsic region completely.
 Electron hole pairs are generated in the space charge
region by photon absorption.
 The switching speed of frequency response of photo
diode is inversely proportional to life time.
 The switching speed can be enhanced by a small minority carrier lifetime.
 For photo detector applications where speed of response is important, the depletion region width should
be made as large as possible for small minority carrier lifetime as a result switch speed also increases.
 This can be achieved PIN photo diode as the insertion of intrinsic region the space charge width larger.
 The PIN diode, p-i-n diode is essentially a refinement of the ordinary PN junction diode.
 Its development arose from the original PN diode development activities and applications for the new
diode were soon found. The PIN diode differs from the basic PN junction diode in that the PIN diode
includes a layer of intrinsic material between the P and N layers.
 As a result of the intrinsic layer, PIN diodes have a high breakdown
voltage and they also exhibit a low level of junction capacitance.
 In addition to this the larger deletion region of the PIN diode is
ideal for applications as a photodiode.
 PIN DIODE STRUCTURE
 The PIN diode consists of a semiconductor diode with three layers. The usual P and N regions are
present, but between them is a layer of intrinsic material a very low level of doping.
 This may be either N-type or P-type, but with a concentration of the order of 13^13 cm^-3 which gives it
a resistivity of the order of one k-ohm cm. The thickness of the intrinsic layer is normally very narrow,
typically ranging from 10 to 200 microns. The outer P and N-type regions are then heavily doped.
 There are two ways in which the PIN diode can be realised.
 One is to fabricate the p-i-n diode in a planar structure, and the other is to use a mesa structure.
 When the planar structure is fabricated an epitaxial film is grown onto substrate material and P+ region
is introduced either by diffusion or ion implantation.
 The mesa structure has layers grown onto the substrate. These layers have the dopants incorporated.
 In this way it is possible to control the thickness of the layers and the level of dopants more accurately
and a very thin intrinsic layer can be fabricated if required. This is ideal for high frequency operation.
 A further advantage of the mesa structure is that it provides a reduced level of fringing capacitance and
inductance as well as an improved level of surface breakdown.
 PIN diodes are widely made of silicon, and this was the semiconductor material that was used
exclusively until the 1980s when gallium arsenide was introduced.
 PIN DIODE BASICS AND OPERATION

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 54]
 The PIN diode can be shown diagrammatically as being a PN junction, but with an intrinsic layer
between the PN and layers.
 The intrinsic layer of the PIN diode is a layer without doping, and as a result this increases the size of the
depletion region - the region between the P and N layers where there are no majority carriers.
 This change in the structure gives the PIN diode its unique properties.
 The PIN diode operates in exactly the same way as a normal diode.
 The only real difference is that the depletion region that normally exists between the P and N regions in
an unbiased or reverse biased diode is larger.
 In any PN junction, the P region contains holes as it has been doped to ensure that it has a predominance
of holes. Similarly the N region has been doped to contain excess electrons.
 The region between the P and N regions contains no charge carriers as any holes or electrons combine
As the depletion region has no charge carriers it acts as an insulator.
 Within a PIN diode the depletion region exists, but if the diode is forward biased, the carriers enter the
depletion region (including the intrinsic region) and as the two carrier types meet, current starts to flow.
 When the diode is forward biased, the carrier concentration, i.e. holes and electrons is very much higher
than the intrinsic level carrier concentration.
 Due to this high level injection level, electric field extends deeply (almost entire length) into the region.
 This electric field helps in speeding up of the transport of charge carriers from p to n region, which
results in faster operation of the diode, making it a suitable device for high frequency operations.
 PIN DIODE USES AND ADVANTAGES
 The PIN diode is used in a number of areas as a result of its structure proving some properties which are
of particular use.
 HIGH VOLTAGE RECTIFIER: The PIN diode can be used as a high voltage rectifier. The
intrinsic region provides a greater separation between the PN and N regions, allowing higher reverse
voltages to be tolerated.
 RF SWITCH: The PIN diode makes an ideal RF switch. The intrinsic layer between the P and N
regions increases the distance between them. This also decreases the capacitance between them,
thereby increasing the level of isolation when the diode is reverse biased.
 PHOTODETECTOR: As the conversion of light into current takes place within the depletion
region of a photodiode, increasing the depletion region by adding the intrinsic layer improves the
performance by increasing he volume in which light conversion occurs.
 These are three main applications for PIN diodes, although they can also be used in some other area also.
 The PIN diode is an ideal component to provide electronics switching in many areas of electronics.
 It is particularly useful for RF design applications and for providing the switching, or attenuating
element in RF switches and RF attenuators.
 The PIN diode is able to provide much higher levels of reliability than RF relays.
 The PIN diode is widely used in a number of areas where the properties and characteristics it has as a
result of its intrinsic region make it uniquely applicable for a number of applications.
 While the PIN diode characteristics mean that it is not suitable for many standard rectifier applications,
they provide some properties that can be used in a number of specific areas.
 Key PIN Diode Characteristics
 There are a number of PIN diode characteristics that set this diode apart from other forms of diode.
 These key PIN diode characteristics include the following:
 High breakdown voltage: The wide depletion layer provided by the intrinsic layer ensures that
PIN diodes have a high reverse breakdown characteristic.
 Low capacitance: Again the intrinsic layer increases the depletion region width. As the capacitance
of a capacitor reduces with increasing separation, this means that a PIN diode will have a lower
capacitance as the depletion region will be wider than a conventional diode. This PIN diode
characteristic can have significant advantages in a number of RF applications - for example when a
PIN diode is used as an RF switch.
 Carrier storage: Carrier storage gives a most useful PIN diode characteristic. For small signals at
high frequencies the stored carriers within the intrinsic layer are not completely swept by the RF
signal or recombination. At these frequencies there is no rectification or distortion and the PIN diode
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 55]
characteristic is that of a linear resistor which introduces no distortion or rectification. The PIN diode
resistance is governed by the DC bias applied. In this way it is possible to use the device as an
effective RF switch or variable resistor for an attenuator producing far less distortion than ordinary
PN junction diodes.
 Sensitive photo detection: The sensitive area of a photodiode is the depletion region. Light striking
the crystal lattice can release holes and electrons which are drawn away out of the depletion region
by the reverse bias on the diode. By having a larger depletion region - as in the case of a PIN diode -
the volume for light reception is increased. This makes PIN diodes ideal for use as photo detectors.
 AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE BASICS
 The avalanche photodiode possesses a similar structure to that of the PIN or PN photodiode.
 A structure similar to that of a Schottky photodiode can also be used but this is less common.
 However the structure is optimised for avalanche operation.
 The main difference of the avalanche photodiode operates under a slightly different scenario to that of
the more standard photodiodes.
 It operates under a high reverse bias condition to enable avalanche multiplication of the holes and
electrons created by the initial hole electron pairs created by the photon / light impact.
 The avalanche action enables the gain of the diode to be increased many times, providing a much greater
level of sensitivity.
 AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
 The avalanche photodiode has a number of different characteristics to the normal p-n or p-i-n
photodiodes, making them more suitable for use in some applications.
 In view of this it is worth summarizing their advantages and disadvantages.
 The main advantages of the avalanche photodiode include:
 Greater level of sensitivity
 The disadvantages of the avalanche photodiode include:
 Much higher operating voltage may be required.
 Avalanche photodiode produces a much higher level of
noise than a p-n photodiode
 Avalanche process means that the output is not linear
 Wave Length Division Multiplexing (WLDM):-
 In FOCS, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a
technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by using
different wavelength (i.e. colors) of laser light.
 This technique enables bidirectional communications over one strand of fiber, as well as multiplication
of capacity. A WDM system uses a multiplexer at the transmitter to join the signals together and a
demultiplexer at the receiver to split them apart.
 With the right type of fiber it is possible to have a device that does both simultaneously, and can function
as an optical add-drop multiplexer.
 This is often done by use of optical-to-electrical-to-optical (O/E/O) translation at the very edge of the
transport network, thus permitting interoperation with existing equipment with optical interfaces.
 The basic block diagram of WDM system is given below.

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 56]
 WDM systems are divided into different wavelength patterns, conventional/coarse (CWDM)
and dense (DWDM). WDM, DWDM and CWDM are based on the same concept of using multiple
wavelengths of light on a single fiber, but differ in the spacing of the wavelengths, number of channels,
and the ability to amplify the multiplexed signals in the optical space.
 Conventional WDM systems provide up to 8 channels in the 3rd transmission window (C-band) of silica
fibers around 1550 nm. Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) uses the same transmission
window but with denser channel spacing.
 Channel plans vary, but a typical system would use 40 channels at 100 GHz spacing or 80 channels with
50 GHz spacing. Some technologies are capable of 12.5 GHz spacing (sometimes called ultra dense
WDM). Such spacings are today only achieved by free space optics technology.
 Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM) in contrast to conventional WDM and DWDM uses
increased channel spacing to allow less sophisticated and thus cheaper transceiver designs.
 To provide 8 channels on a single fiber CWDM uses the entire frequency band between second and third
transmission window (1310/1550 nm respectively) including both windows (minimum dispersion
window and minimum attenuation window) but also the critical area where OH scattering may occur,
recommending the use of OH-free silica fibers in case the wavelengths between second and third
transmission window should also be used
 In this type of technology transmission of multiple digital signals can be made in difference wave length
without any interference. Using W.D.M a number of optical signals can be transmitted at a time by a
signal fiber cable at the same time with different wave length or frequencies.
 *Transmitted in the same medium in different paths only and at the receiving section.
 They are reached at different time interval.
 The wave lengths are created depending upon the color and combination of these can be transmitted by
multimode step index profile creating paths for individual colour.
 In wavelength-division multiplexing, each data channel is transmitted using a slightly different
wavelength (different color). With use of a different wavelength for each channel, many channels can be
transmitted through the same fiber without interference.
 This method is used to increase the capacity of existing fiber optic systems many times.
 Each WDM data channel may consist of a single data source or may be a combination of a single data
source and a TDM (time-division multiplexing) and/or FDM (frequency-division multiplexing) signal.
 Dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) refers to the transmission of multiple closely spaced
wavelengths through the same fiber.
 For any given wavelength λ and corresponding
frequency f, the International Telecommunications
Union (ITU) defines standard frequency spacing ∆f as
100 GHz, which translates into a ∆λ of 0.8-nm
wavelength spacing.
 This follows from the relationship ∆λ = λ ∆f
 DWDM systems operate in the 1550-nm window
because of the low attenuation characteristics of glass
at 1550 nm & the fact that Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFA) operate in 1530nm -1570nm range.
 Commercially available systems today can multiplex up to 128 individual wavelengths at 2.5 Gb/s or 32
individual wavelengths at 10 Gb/s. Although the ITU grid specifies that each transmitted wavelength in a
DWDM system is separated by 100 GHz, systems currently under development have been demonstrated
that reduce the channel spacing to 50 GHz and below (< 0.4 nm).
 As the channel spacing decreases, the number of channels that can be transmitted increases, thus further
increasing the transmission capacity of the system.
 CONNECTORS & SPLICES
 Electronic devices are often interconnected, either to form a larger system or to exchange information or
data. An example of this is the local telephone system, which has electronic devices (such as a
telephone) connected with copper wires to large switching networks.
 The wire carries power and signals from the phone to the switching office, and electrical connectors are
used to link the wire to various devices in the system.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 57]
 In the previous module, we mentioned optical fiber, networks, transmitters and receivers, but we have
not described in detail how these elements are connected to each other.
 Fiber optic cable performs a function similar to that of copper wire, and connectors are similarly used to
attach fiber to the many devices in a fiber optic system.
 Fiber optic cables need to be connected and disconnected just like their copper counterparts.
 In this section we will discuss several connection methods and tools used with optical fiber components.
 Linking Optical Fibers and Devices In electronic systems, electrical current or energy is used either to
transfer power or carry information among components and subsystems.
 Fiber optic systems use optical energy primarily to carry information or data. Regardless of the data
format or transmission rate within a fiber optic system, three fundamental actions are performed among
the various components and subsystems.
 A component is either emitting optical energy (LEDs and LASERS), transferring optical energy (Fiber
optic Cables and Couplers), or receiving optical energy (Phototransistors and Photodiodes).
 To link these fiber optic components so optical energy can be transferred within the system, two primary
methods are used:- (1) CONNECTORS (2) SPLICES
 Connectors most often are used to link fiber optic cable to photo detectors or LEDs.
 The devices are packaged in a housing which accepts a connectorized fiber optic cable, permitting
efficient transfer of optical energy between the cable and optoelectronic component.
 Splices most often are used to permanently connect two fiber optic cables. While connectors can also be
used to attach two fibers, splices generally offer less light loss and are more permanent.
 Connectors are removable and therefore more flexible when interchanging components within a system.
 Table shows a comparison between connectors and splices.

--------------- ALL THE BEST --------------------- ALL THE BEST -------------

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 58]

---------------- TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM --------------------------------

 The Operation of Electronic Telephone System. (Basic Telephone Set)
 To provide a signal to the
telephone company that a call is to
be made or a call is complete.
 To provide the telephone
company with the number the
caller wishes to call.
 To provide a way for the
telephone company to indicate that a call is coming in or ringing.
 To convert voice frequencies to electrical signals that can be transmitted at the transmitter and convert
those electrical signals back to voice frequencies at the receiver.
 The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has set standards for the above features and all
manufacturers selling telephones in this country must
match these standards or the phone will not work properly.
 In addition many modern telephones also come with
features like speed dial, redial, memory, caller ID, voice
mail, etc. These are all additional features that are not
necessary to make or receive calls.
 Let's look at Telephone Set Function 1: To provide a signal
to the telephone company that a call is to be made (off-hook) or a call is complete (on-hook).
 The switch hook gets its name from the old telephones that had a hook on the side. On modern phones
the switch hook is a button that is depressed when the handset is put on the cradle of the telephone.
 According to Telephone Company specifications individual telephone set DC resistance should be 200 Ω
but in reality most telephones range between 150 and 1000 Ω of DC resistance.
 When a user picks up a connected telephone handset to make a call the switch hooks in the figure above
(S1 and S2) close (off-hook condition) and the local loop circuit is complete.
 When a handset is picked up, a DC current ranging between 20 and 120 mA flows on the pair of wires
connecting the telephone to CO. This current flow causes a relay coil to magnetize & it's contacts close.
 In the CO current flows through a relay coil attached to the local loop wire pair.
 The coil energizes, its contacts close and the CO switch knows a phone is off hook somewhere.
 A line feeder in the CO switch looks for the off-hook signal, finds it and sets up a connection. In the CO
switch a dial-tone generator is connected to the line so the caller knows they can dial a number.
 The Function of Switching System & Call Procedures: -
SWITCHING SYSTEM
 When there are many devices, it is necessary to develop suitable
mechanism for communication between any two devices.
 One alternative is to establish point-to-point communication between
each pair of devices using Mesh Topology.
 However, mesh topology is impractical for large number of devices,
because the number of links increases exponentially [n(n-1)/2], where n is
the number of devices) with the number of devices. A better alternative is
to use switching techniques leading to switched communication network.
 In the switched network methodology, the network consists of a set of interconnected nodes, among
which information is transmitted from source to destination via different routes, which is controlled by
the switching mechanism. A basic model of a switched communication is shown in Fig.
 The end devices that wish to communicate with each other are called stations. The switching devices are
called nodes. Some nodes connect to other nodes and some are connected to some stations.
 Key features of a switched communication network are given below:
 Network Topology is not regular.

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 59]
 Uses FDM or TDM for node-to-node communication.
 There exist multiple paths between a source-destination pair for
better network reliability.
 The switching nodes are not concerned with the contents of data.
 Their purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move data
from node to node until they reach the destination.
 The switching performed by different nodes can be categorized into
the following three types: -
 Circuit Switching
 Packet Switching
 Message Switching
 BASIC CALL PROCEDURE: -
 Fig. Shows a simplification diagram illustrating how two telephone
sets (subscribers) are interconnected through central office dial switch.
 Each subscriber is connected to the switch through a local loop.
 The switch is most likely some sort of an electronic switching system.
 The local loop are terminated at the calling and called station s in
telephone sets and at the central office ends to switching machines.
 When the calling party‟s telephone set goes off hook (i.e., lifting the
handset off the cradle), the switch hook in the telephone set is
released, completing a dc path between the tip & the ring of the
loop trough the microphone .
 The ESS machine senses a dc current in the loop & recognizes
this as an off-hook condition.
 Completing a local telephone call between two subscribers
connected to the same telephone switch is accomplished through
a standard set of procedure that includes the 10 steps listed next.
Step-1 Calling station goes off hook.
Step-2 After detecting a dc current flow on the loop, the switching
machine returns an audible dial tone to the calling station,
acknowledging that the caller has access to the switching
machine.
Step-3 The caller dials the destination telephone number using one
of the two methods: Mechanical dial pulsing or, more likely,
electronic dual-tone multi frequency (Touch-Tone) signals.
Step-4 When the switching machine detects the first dialled number, it removes the dial tone from the loop.
Step-5 The switch interprets the telephone number & then locates the loop for destination telephone no.
Step-6 Before ringing the destination telephone , the switching machine tests the destination loop for dc
current to see if tt is idle (on hook) or in use (off hook). At the same time, the switching machine locates
a signal path through the switch between the two local loops.
Step-7 (A) If the destination telephone is off hook, the switching machine sends a station busy signal back
to the calling station. (B) If the destination telephone is on hook, the switching machine sends a ringing
signal to the destination telephone on the local loop and the same time sends a ring back signal to the
calling station to give the caller some assurance that something is happening.
Step-8 When the destination answers the telephone, it completes the loop, causing dc current to flow.
Step-9 The switch recognizes the dc current as the station answering the telephone. At this time, the switch
removes the ringing and ring-back signals and completes the path through the switch, allowing the
calling and called parties to begin conversation.
Step-10 When either end goes on hook, the switching machine detects an open circuit on that loop and then
drops the connections through the switch
 THE PRINCIPLE OF SPACE AND TIME SWITCHING: -
 SPACE SWITCHING
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 60]
 Circuit switching uses any of the three
technologies: Space-division switches, Time-
division switches or a combination of both.
 In Space-division switching, the paths in the
circuit are separated with each other spatially, i.e.
different ongoing connections, at a same instant of
time, uses different switching paths, which are
separated spatially.
 This was originally developed for the analog
environment, and has been carried over to the
digital domain.
 Some of the space switches are crossbar switches;
Multi-stage switches (e.g. Omega Switches).
 A Crossbar switch is shown in Fig. Basic building block of the switch is a metallic cross-point or
semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled by a control unit.
 Limitations of crossbar switches are as follows:
 The number of cross points grows with the square of the
number of attached stations.
 Costly for a large switch.
 The failure of a cross point prevents connection between
the two devices whose lines intersect at that cross point.
 The cross points are inefficiently utilized.
 Only small fractions of cross points are engaged even if
all of the attached devices are active.
 Some of the above problems can be overcome with
the help of multistage space division switches.
 By splitting the crossbar switch into smaller units and
interconnecting them, it is possible to build multistage
switches with fewer cross points.
 Figure in next page shows a three-stage space
division switch. In this case the number of cross
points needed goes down from 64 to 40.
 There is more than one path through the network to
connect two endpoints, thereby increasing reliability. [Fig- A Three-Stage Space Division Switch]
 Multistage switches may lead to blocking. The problem may be tackled by increasing the number or
size of the intermediate switches, which also increases the cost.
 As shown in Fig. after setting up connections for
1-to-3 and 2-to-4, the switch cannot establish
connections for 3-to-6 and 4-to-5.
 TIME DIVISION SWITCHING
 Both voice and data can be transmitted using
digital signals through the same switches.
 All modern circuit switches use digital time-
division multiplexing (TDM) technique for
establishing and maintaining circuits.
 Synchronous TDM allows multiple low-speed bit
streams to share a high-speed line.
 A set of inputs is sampled in a round robin manner.
 The samples are organized serially into slots
(channels) to form a recurring frame of slots.
 During successive time slots, different I/O pairings
are enabled, allowing a number of connections to be carried over the shared bus.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 61]
 To keep up with the input lines, the data rate on the bus must
be high enough so that the slots recur sufficiently frequently.
 For 100 full-duplex lines at 19.200 Kbps, the data rate on the
bus must be greater than 1.92 Mbps.
 The source-destination pairs corresponding to all active
connections are stored in the control memory.
 Thus slots need not specify the source & destination addresses.
 Schematic diagram of time division switching shown in fig.
 Time-division switching uses time-division multiplexing to achieve switching, i.e. different ongoing
connections can use same switching path but at different interleaved time intervals.
 There are two popular methods of time-division switching
namely, Time-Slot Interchange (TSI) and the TDM bus.
 TSI changes the ordering of the slots based on desired
connection and it has a random-access memory to store
data and flip the time slots as shown in Fig.
 The operation of a TSI is depicted in Fig.1 As shown in
the fig., writing can be performed in the memory
sequentially, but data is read selectively.
 In TDM bus there are several input and outputs connected to a high-speed bus.
 During a time slot only one particular output switch is closed, so only one connection at a particular
instant of time as shown in Fig.2
 The Numbering Plan Of Telephone Networks
 The National Numbering Plan was last reviewed during 1993. The plan covered basic as well as other
services like cellular mobile, paging etc. Though the 1993 Numbering Plan could cater to the needs of
existing and new services for another few years, yet it was felt to rationalize and review the existing
National Numbering Plan because of introduction of a large number of new telecom services and
opening up of the entire telecom sector for private participation.
 The existing Numbering Plan was formulated at a time when there was no competition in the basic
telecom services and the competition in cellular mobile services had just started, paging services were
in a stage of infancy and Internet services were not available in the country.
 THE MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THE PLAN ARE: –
 To plan in conformity with relevant and applicable ITU standards to the extent possible.
 To meet the challenges of the changing telecom environment.
 To reserve numbering capacity to meet the undefined future needs.
 To support effective competition by fair access to numbering resources.
 To meet subscriber needs for a meaningful and user-friendly scheme.
 Only the decimal character set 0-9 has been used for all number allocations.
 Letters and other non-decimal characters shall not form part of the National Number.
 Dialing procedure as per ITU Recommendation E.164 has been followed.
 The Short Distance Charging Area (SDCA) based linked numbering scheme with 10-digit N(S)N has
been followed. This would expand the existing numbering capacity to ten times.
 NATIONAL NUMBERING SCHEME
 Level „0‟: Sub level „000‟:
 The prefix „000‟ shall be used for home country direct service (Bilateral) and international toll free
service (Bilateral). The format used is: „000 + Country Code + Operator Code‟ except „000800‟ which
is used for bilateral international toll free service.
 Sub level „0010‟ - International Carrier Access (Prefix) Code: The prefix „0010‟ shall be used for
selection of international carrier. It will be followed by International Carrier Identification Code (ICIC),
Country Code (CC) and N(S)N. The format shall be as under: -

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 62]
 Initially ICIC shall be a two-digit code. This will be sufficient for allotment to 50 international long
distance service providers considering that maximum of two codes may be allotted to each service
provider depending upon toll quality and non-toll quality network.
 However, to take care of all possible future requirements, length of ICIC may be reviewed and changed
to 3- digit code as and when required.
 The allotment of ICIC may start from „10‟ and codes „00‟ to „09‟ may be kept reserved.
 Sub level „00‟ - International Prefix:
 The prefix „00‟ shall be used for International dialing. It will be followed by country code and the N(S)
N of the country to which that call is attempted. The format is as per ITU Recommendation E.164:

 Sub level „010‟ - National Carrier Access (Prefix) Code:

 The prefix „010‟ shall be used for selection of national long distance carrier. It will be followed by
(National) Carrier Identification Code (CIC) and N(S) N. The format shall be as under:

 Initially CIC shall be a two-digit code.

 This will be sufficient for allotment to 40 NLDOs (including NLDOs licensed for basic services) and 10
BSOs licensed only for basic services, considering that maximum of two codes may be allotted to each
service provider depending upon toll quality and non-toll quality network.
 However to take care of all possible future requirements, length of CIC may be reviewed and changed
to 3-digit code in future.
 The allotment of CIC may start from „10‟ and codes „00‟ to „09‟ may be kept reserved. For intra circle
long distance service, the carrier access code shall be the same as applicable for NLD service.
 The CIC from „10‟ to „79‟ shall be allotted to NLD service providers. For the NLD service providers,
who are also Basic Service Operators (BSOs), same CIC
shall be applicable for intra circle (service area) calls. CIC
from „80‟ to „99‟ shall be allocated to the BSOs who are not
licensed to provide NLD service
 OPERATION PBX & DIGITAL EPABX.
 PBX stands for Private Branch Exchange, which is a private
telephone network used within a company or organization.
 The users of the PBX phone system can communicate within
their organization & the outside world, using different
communication channels like Voice over IP, ISDN or analog.
 A PBX also allows you to have more phones than physical
phone lines (PTSN) and allows free calls between users.
 It also provides features like transfers, voicemail, call
recording, interactive voice menus (IVRs) and ACD call
queues. PBX phone systems are available as Hosted or Virtual solutions (sometimes also called Centrix),
and as in-house solutions to be used on your own hardware.
 PBX phone systems are usually much more flexible than proprietary systems, as they are using open
standards and interfaces. Modern PBX phone systems are based on standard hardware, which is cheaper
and can easier be replaced than a closed systems.
 Switching to an IP PBX offers many benefits
 With an IP phone system all your internal telephony is routed through the existing LAN (local computer
network). This way a separate network for telephony is not required.
 Even though the internal telephony is routed through the LAN, it is also possible to connect your IP-
PBX via gateways to the PSTN. Of course, VoIP, telephony via the internet is also possible.
 Since IP telephony is mostly using the open SIP standard, an IP phone system gives you a lot more
freedom in your choice of phones.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 63]
 Basically any SIP compatible phone (VoIP phone) will work with an IP PBX. Furthermore an IP PBX
doesn‟t limit the growth of a company.
 Since VoIP phones don‟t have to be connected physically to the phone system, it doesn‟t require a free
port in the phone system like it used to be with traditional phone systems.
 IP phones can not only be connected via the LAN but also via the internet, using for example a VPN
connection. Because of this, multiple locations and offices can easily be connected.
 There is a huge variety of VoIP providers on the internet which provide SIP trunking (telephony
services) for cheaper call rates than traditional telephony providers. Internal calls via an IP phone system
are free general.
 Practical advantages of IP telephony
 Interconnecting teams and mobile working is one of the huge advantages of IP phone systems. No matter
if team members are on the road, are located in a different country or work from home, they can connect
via IP desk phone, smart phone or laptop to the PBX in the office.
 This way all calls within the company are free and clients will not realize if an employee is in the office
or somewhere else around the world. The same also applies for conferences, these can be hosted directly
on the own IP PBX with as many participants as required. These safes traveling time and money.
 DIGITAL EPABX
 As shown in the figure EPABX/PBX facilitates use of
one external telephone line by many internal users in
the office premises.
 In the office each employee is provided one telephone
set and all the telephones are connected with PBX.
 All the employees within the office premises can
communicate using 3-digit or 4-digit number
programmed in EPABX/PBX without any charge.
 EPABX/PBX is connected to PSTN (Public switched
Telephone network) via trunk lines; hence all can use
one external voice line in time shared basis.
 PSTN is connected with MSC (Mobile switching centre) of cellular networks such as
GSM/CDMA/UMTS. By this mobile cell phone user can connect to any telephone set in the office
premises using extension number. Similar to voice line EPABX/PBX can be used for Data applications.
 As shown in fig Data port of PBX is connected to LAN where so many PCs are connected and are using
same external internet connection line from ISP via Modem/router.
 The same facility of PBX can extended for WLAN users too.
 UNITS OF POWER MEASUREMENT.
 The watt (symbol: W) is a derived unit of power in the International
System of Units (SI), named after the Scottish Engineer James Watt (1736-1819).
 The unit is defined as joule per second and can be used to express the rate of energy conversion or
transfer with respect to time. It has dimensions of L2MT-3. When an object's velocity is held constant at
one meter per sec against constant opposing force of one newton the rate at which work is done is 1 watt.
 In terms of electromagnetism, one watt is the rate at which work is done when one ampere (A) of current
flows through an electrical potential difference of one volt (V).
 Two additional unit conversions for watt can be found using W = V. I above equation & Ohm's Law.
 W = V2/ Ω = I2 Ω, Where ohm (Ω) is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance.
 FEMTO WATT
 The Femto watt is equal to one quadrillionth (10−15) of a watt. Technologically important powers that are
measured in Femto watts are typically found in reference (s) to radio and radar receivers.
 For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and signal-to-noise
require that the RF energy applied to the antenna input be specified.
 PICOWATT
 The Pico watt is equal to one trillionth (10−12) of a watt. Technologically important powers that are
measured in Pico watts are typically used in radio, radar receivers, acoustics & radio astronomy.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 64]
 NANOWATT
 The nano watt is equal to one billionth (10−9) of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nano
watts are also typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers.
 MICROWATT
 The Micro watt is equal to one millionth (10−6) of a watt. Important powers that are measured in
microwatts are typically stated in medical instrumentation systems such as the EEG and the ECG, in a
wide variety of scientific and engineering instruments and also in reference to radio and radar receivers.
 Compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts.
 MILLIWATT
 The milli watt is equal to one thousandth (10−3) of a watt. A typical laser pointer outputs about five milli
watts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milli watt.
 KILOWATT
 The Kilo watt is equal to one thousand (103) watts. This unit is typically used to express the output
power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters.
 It is also a common unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio and
television transmitters. One kilowatt is approximately equal to 1.34 horsepower.
 Also, kilowatts of light power can be measured in the output pulses of some lasers.
 A surface area of one square meter on Earth receives typically about one kilowatt of sunlight from the
sun (the solar irradiance) (on a clear day at mid day, close to the equator).
 MEGAWATT
 The Mega watt is equal to one million (106) watts. Many events or machines produce or sustain the
conversion of energy on this scale, including lightning strikes; large electric motors; large warships such
as aircraft carriers, cruisers, and submarines; large server farms or data centers; and some scientific
research equipment, such as super colliders, and the output pulses of very large lasers.
 A large residential or commercial building may use several megawatts in electric power and heat.
 On railways, modern high-powered electric locomotives typically have a peak power output of 5 or
6 MW or more. Nuclear Power Plants have net summer capacities between about 500 and 1300 MW.
 GIGAWATT
 The Giga watt is equal to one billion (109) watts or 1 Giga watt = 1000 mega watts.
 This unit is often used for large power plants or power grids.
 The largest unit (out of four) of the Belgian Nuclear Plant Doel has a peak output of 1.04 GW.
 HVDC converters have been built with power ratings of up to 2 GW.
 The London Array, the world's largest offshore wind farm, is designed to produce a Giga watt of power
 TERAWATT
 The terawatt is equal to one trillion (1012) watts.
 The total power used by humans worldwide (about 16 TW in 2006) is commonly measured in this unit.
 The most powerful lasers produced power in terawatts, but only for nanosecond time frames.
 The average lightning strike peaks at 1 terawatt, but these strikes only last for 30 microseconds.
 PETAWATT
 The petawatt is equal to one quadrillion (1015) watts and can be produced by the current generation of
lasers for time-scales on the order of picoseconds (10−12 s).
 One such laser is the Lawrence Livermore's Nova laser, which achieved a power output of 1.25 PW
(1.25 × 1015 W) by a process called chirped pulse amplification.
 The duration of the pulse was about 0.5 ps (5 × 10−13 s), giving a total energy of 600 J, or enough energy
to power a 100 W light bulb for six seconds
 Operation And Principle Of Internet Protocol Telephony (IP Telephony)
 Internet Protocol Telephony (IP Telephony) is the use of IP-based networks to build, provide and access
voice, data or other forms of telephonic communications.
 IP telephony provides traditional telephonic communication over an IP-based network, the Internet - via
an Internet Service Provider (ISP) - or directly from a telecommunications service provider.
 IP telephony is designed for telecommunications infrastructure of Circuit Switched Public Data Networks
(CSPDN) & Public Switched Telephone Networks (PSTN) with packet switched IP communication networks.
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 65]
 In a consumer IP telephony solution, a soft IP phone
application and backend Internet connection enable voice
and data communication, such as calling and faxing.
 A user may call other soft phone users, send or receive faxes
and even communicate with circuit switched and cellular
communication services.
 In an enterprise environment, IP telephony is implemented
through physical IP phones that work on top of an IP
network infrastructure.
 An IP phone's built-in firmware provides the complete
functionality for initiating and managing telephonic
communications.
 Moreover, IP telephony also supports video communication
between two or more users.
 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), a popular IP telephony
implementation, only supports voice communication over IP.
 How do IP Phone Systems Work?
 The “IP” in IP phone system refers to Voice over IP, or having your phone calls routed over the internet
or your local network (LAN). This is great for many reasons.
 First of all, you don‟t have to use the telephone network of your telephony service provider for making
calls, which will reduce your costs for phone calls.
 At the same time you are gaining many technical advantages by using IP technology for your telephony.
 Users of an VoIP phone system simply plug their IP phone into the nearest LAN port.
 Then, the IP phone registers automatically at the VoIP phone system.
 The IP phone always keeps its number, and behaves exactly the same way, no matter where you plug it
in - on your desk, in the office next door or on a tropical island. All of this works because of the SIP
protocol. It is a standard widely used by ISPs, VoIP phone systems and VoIP phones world-wide.
 It makes expensive proprietary phones obsolete, and helps that all devices can talk to each other.
 IP phone systems are usually built on standard PC or embedded hardware which is more cost-effective
and powerful than the hardware of the traditional phone manufacturers.
 At the same time, IP phone systems are scalable, as they are not limited to a certain number of physical
phone ports. That means you don‟t need to replace your phone system when your company grows.

---------------- ALL THE BEST --------------------- ALL THE BEST --------------

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 66]
VI-SEM/ETC/2017(S) <APR-17, REG>

ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Sub Code – ETT-601
Full Marks: 70
Time: 3 hours
Answer any FIVE Questions
The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks
1. (a) Define Doppler Effect. [2]
(b) Explain working of CW Radar with a neat block diagram. [5]
(c) With neat block diagram describe the operation of MTI Radar. [7]

2. (a) What is Radar? [2]

(b) Derive the Radar Range Equation. [5]
(c) Explain the operation of VSAT System with a neat diagram. [7]

3. (a) What is transponder and downlink frequency? [2]

(b) Discuss the Code Division Multiple Accessing with a neat diagram. [5]
(c) Describe the operation o GPS system with neat diagram. [7]

4. (a) Define multiple accessing. [2]

(b) List the applications of optical fiber cables. [5]
(c) Discuss Satellite orbital pattern LEO, MEO and GEO. [7]

5. (a) What is numerical aperture? [2]

(b) Write short notes on modes of propagation and index profile of optical fiber. [5]
(c) Explain the operation of Direct Broadcast System with a neat diagram. [7]

6. (a) Name the types of Dispersion. [2]

(b) Explain different types of source and detector used for optical fiber system. [5]
(c) With a neat block diagram discuss about the optical fiber communication system. [7]

7. (a) Define Acceptance Angle. [2]

(b) Discuss the principle of space and time switching. [5]
(c) Describe the operation of Internet Protocol Telephone. [7]

-------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------

Collected By:-
Er. Paramananda Gouda
(Dept. of ETC, UCP Engg School)
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 67]
VI-SEM/ETC/2016(W) <DEC, BACK>

ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Sub Code – ETT-601
Full Marks: 70
Time: 3 hours
Answer any FIVE Questions
The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks

1. (a) Define Doppler effect. [2]

(b) Describe the block diagram of pulsed radar system. [5]
(c) Derive Radar range equation, types of radar system. [7]

2. (a) State radar aids to navigator. [2]

(b) Describe the block diagram of C.W radar. [5]
(c) Explain the concept of Navigation Satellite System. (NAVSAT) and GPS System. [7]

3. (a) State Satellite frequency bands. [2]

(b) Describe concept of Geostationary Satellite, calculate its height, velocity and round trip time.
(c) Explain the operation of VAST system with diagram. State its application. [7]

4. (a) Define multi accessing. [2]

(b) Describe Satellite Orbital patterns and elevation (LEO, MEO and GEO) categories. [5]
(c) Explain GPS Recieiver4 and Transmitter with block diagram. [7]

5. (a) State types of optical fiber configuration. [2]

(b) Explain Velocity of propagation, Critical angle, Acceptance angle & numerical aperture. [5]
(c) Explain difference types of Losses and Dispersions in Optical Fiber. [7]

6. (a) Define optical communication. [2]

(b) Define the modes of propagation and index profile of optical fiber. [5]
(c) Explain wave length division multiplexing (WLDM) with diagram & state its application. [7]

7. (a) Define space and time switching. [2]

(b) Discuss the function of switching system and call procedures. [5]
(c) Describe the operation of a PBX and Digital EPABX. [7]

-------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------

Collected By:-
Er. Paramananda Gouda
(Dept. of ETC, UCP Engg School)
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 68]
VI / SEM / ETC / 2018 (S) [01-05-2018, REG]

ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Sub Code – ETT-601
Full Marks: 70
Time: 3 hours
Answer any FIVE Questions
The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks
1.
a) What are the different components of a simple radar system? [2]
b) What is an optical fiber? What are its different configurations? Explain structure of optical fiber. [5]
c) What is Doppler Effect? Draw the block diagram of a CW radar system. Explain its operation. [7]
2.
a) What is the difference between a geostationary satellite and a low altitude satellite? Can a low
altitude satellite be also used for communication purpose? [2]
b) With the aid of a suitable sketch, describe the construction of a PIN diode. What does PIN stands
for? Briefly explain the operation of this diode. [5]
c) What is CDMA? How does it employ spread spectrum technique during the multiple access of the
signals? Also explain the relative merits and demerits of CDMA and TDMA. [7]
3.
a) What is a multimode step index fiber and what is its bandwidth range. [2]
b) A silica optical fiber with a ore diameter large enough to be considered by ray theory analysis has a
core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47. determine,
(i) The critical angle at the core-cladding interface;
(ii) The NA for the fiber;
(iii) The acceptance angle in air for the fiber. [5]
c) What does RADAR stands for? Derive the expression of the radar range equation. Also mention
some of its applications. [7]
4.
a) What are some of the ways of Jamming of confusing, enemy radar? [2]
b) What are elements of satellite communication system? Explain each with block diagram? [5]
c) Discuss the following (any one): [7]
(i) Internet protocol telephone (ii) Digital EPABX (iii) Aircraft landing system.
5.
a) Draw schematic diagram only of ray transmission mechanism in a multimode graded index fiber. [2]
b) Describe the optical fiber communication. [5]
c) Discuss function of switching system & call procedures in a telecommunication system. [7]
6.
a) What is LASER? What is the threshold condition for laser oscillation? [2]
b) Give the reasons as to why the uplink frequency is different than the down link frequency. Also
mention the reasons for keeping uplink frequency higher than downlink frequency. [5]
c) With the aid of a block diagram, explain fully the operation of an MTI system using a power
amplifier in the transmitter. [7]
7.
a) Define the following terms in connection with optical fiber communication: [2]
(i) Critical angle (ii) Acceptance angle.
b) Explain the construction & operation of avalanche photodiode (APD) with a neat diagram. [5]
c) Explain the concept of Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WLDM) Principle with a neat diagram.[7
-------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 69]
VI-SEM/ETC/2017(W) [06-12-2017, BACK]

ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Sub Code – ETT-601
Full Marks: 70
Time: 3 hours
Answer any FIVE Questions
The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks

1. (a) What is the function of duplexer? [2]

(b) Derive the Radar Range Equation. [5]
(c) Explain Briefly Working of Simple Pulsed Radar System with a neat diagram. [7]

2. (a) What is Geostationary satellite? [2]

(b) Explain satellite frequency allocation and frequency bands. [5]
(c) Explain different types of satellites (GEO, MEO and LEO). [7]

3. (a) What is an Optical Fiber? [2]

(b) Explain basic principle of PIN Photodiode. [5]
(c) Explain the principle of Optical Fiber Communication System with neat block diagram. [7]

4. (a) Define units of Power Measurement. [2]

(b) Describe the operation of EPABX with a neat block diagram. [5]
(c) Describe operation of Internet Protocol Telephone. [7]

5. (a) Write the different Application of RADAR. [2]

(b) State and explain the simple Radar system with a neat block diagram. [5]
(c) State the function of Radar Indicators. [7]

6. (a) What is satellite orbit? [2]

(b) Write short notes on Geosynchronous Orbit. [5]
(c) Describe general structure of Satellite Communication System. [7]

7. (a) Define Acceptance Angle. [2]

(b) Explain the basic principle of avalanched photodiode. [5]
(c) Describe the basic principle of propagation of light in an optical fiber. [7]

-------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------

Collected By:-
Er. Paramananda Gouda
(Dept. of ETC, UCP Engg School)
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 70]
VI-SEM/ETC/2017(S) <APR-17, REG>

ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Sub Code – ETT-601
Full Marks: 70
Time: 3 hours
Answer any FIVE Questions
The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks
8. (a) Define Doppler Effect. [2]
(b) Explain working of CW Radar with a neat block diagram. [5]
(c) With neat block diagram describe the operation of MTI Radar. [7]

9. (a) What is Radar? [2]

(b) Derive the Radar Range Equation. [5]
(c) Explain the operation of VSAT System with a neat diagram. [7]

10. (a) What is transponder and downlink frequency? [2]

(b) Discuss the Code Division Multiple Accessing with a neat diagram. [5]
(c) Describe the operation o GPS system with neat diagram. [7]

11. (a) Define multiple accessing. [2]

(b) List the applications of optical fiber cables. [5]
(c) Discuss Satellite orbital pattern LEO, MEO and GEO. [7]

12. (a) What is numerical aperture? [2]

(b) Write short notes on modes of propagation and index profile of optical fiber. [5]
(c) Explain the operation of Direct Broadcast System with a neat diagram. [7]

13. (a) Name the types of Dispersion. [2]

(b) Explain different types of source and detector used for optical fiber system. [5]
(c) With a neat block diagram discuss about the optical fiber communication system. [7]

14. (a) Define Acceptance Angle. [2]

(b) Discuss the principle of space and time switching. [5]
(c) Describe the operation of Internet Protocol Telephone. [7]

-------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------

Collected By:-
Er. Paramananda Gouda
(Dept. of ETC, UCP Engg School)
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 71]
VI-SEM/ETC/2016(W) <DEC, BACK>

ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Sub Code – ETT-601
Full Marks: 70
Time: 3 hours
Answer any FIVE Questions
The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks

8. (a) Define Doppler effect. [2]

(b) Describe the block diagram of pulsed radar system. [5]
(c) Derive Radar range equation, types of radar system. [7]

9. (a) State radar aids to navigator. [2]

(b) Describe the block diagram of C.W radar. [5]
(c) Explain the concept of Navigation Satellite System. (NAVSAT) and GPS System. [7]

10. (a) State Satellite frequency bands. [2]

(b) Describe concept of Geostationary Satellite, calculate its height, velocity and round trip time.
(c) Explain the operation of VAST system with diagram. State its application. [7]

11. (a) Define multi accessing. [2]

(b) Describe Satellite Orbital patterns and elevation (LEO, MEO and GEO) categories. [5]
(c) Explain GPS Recieiver4 and Transmitter with block diagram. [7]

12. (a) State types of optical fiber configuration. [2]

(b) Explain Velocity of propagation, Critical angle, Acceptance angle & numerical aperture. [5]
(c) Explain difference types of Losses and Dispersions in Optical Fiber. [7]

13. (a) Define optical communication. [2]

(b) Define the modes of propagation and index profile of optical fiber. [5]
(c) Explain wave length division multiplexing (WLDM) with diagram & state its application. [7]

14. (a) Define space and time switching. [2]

(b) Discuss the function of switching system and call procedures. [5]
(c) Describe the operation of a PBX and Digital EPABX. [7]

-------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------

Collected By:-
Er. Paramananda Gouda
(Dept. of ETC, UCP Engg School)
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 72]
VI-SEM/ETC/2016(S) <APR, REG>

ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Sub Code – ETT-601
Full Marks: 70
Time: 3 hours
Answer any FIVE Questions
The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks
1. (a) What is Radar and its classification? [2]
(b) Derive the Radar Range equation. [5]
(c) Draw the block diagram of CW Radar and explain the function of each block. [7]

2. (a) Define Doppler Effect and where it is used. [2]

(b) Explain the block diagram of Pulse Radar system with a neat block diagram. [5]
(c) Describe satellite orbital patterns (GEO, LEO, MEO) and distinguish between them. [7]

3. (a)What is the meaning of Geostationary? [2]

(b) Explain the operation of DBS. [5]
(c) Describe the general structure of satellite link system with a neat diagram. [7]

4. (a) Define optical communication. [2]

(b) Compare the advantage and disadvantage of optical fiber cables. [5]
(c) Discuss the code division Multiple Accessing and its advantages and disadvantages. [7]

5. (a) What is Numerical Aperture? [2]

(b) Write a short note on PIN diode. [5]
(c) Discuss the block diagram of an optical fiber communication system with neat diagram. [7]

6. (a) Write down any two applications of optical fibers. [2]

(b) Describe the three types of optical fiber configuration. (Single mode step Index, Multimode
step Index and Multimode graded Index). [5]
(c) Explain the working principle of LED. [7]

7. (a) Define Multi Accessing and name various types. [2]

(b) Discuss the operation of Electronic Telephone system. [5]
(c) Describe the operation of Digital EPABX with a neat diagram. [7]

-------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------

Collected By:-
Er. Paramananda Gouda
(Dept. of ETC, UCP Engg School)
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 73]
VI / SEM / E & TC / 2013 (S)
ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Sub Code – ETT-601
Full Marks: 70
Time: 3 hours
Answer any FIVE Questions
The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks
1.
a) What is Doppler Effect? [2]
b) Describe the function of radar indicator and moving target indicator. [6]
c) Derive Radar range equation & performance factor of radar and also give its importance. [8]
2.
a) What do you understand by uplink and down link frequency? Why the uplink frequency is
always higher than downlink frequency? [2]
b) Discuss different types of satellite and explain briefly the function of earth station. [6]
c) Explain the operation of Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) spread spectrum system.
[8]
3. (a) Define Acceptance angle and numerical aperture. [2]
(b) Describe the working principle of LASER. [6]
(c) Describe the working principle of optical fiber communication system with neat diagram. [8]

4. (a) What is the difference between connector and splices? [2]

(b) Describe the principle of light wave propagate through optical fiber. [6]
(c) What is optical fiber and explain different types of optical fiber. [8]

5. (a) Define space and time switching. [2]

(b) Discuss the operation of a PBX and Digital EPABX. [6]
(c) Discuss the operation of ATM and ISDN network. [8]

6. (a) Write the units of power measurement. [2]

(b) Discuss the numbering plan of telephone network (National & International Schemes). [6]
(c) Describe the operation of GPS receiver and transmitter. [8]

7. (a) Name different types of bands available in Radar system. [2]

(b) Explain Aircraft landing system. [6]
(c) Explain the concept of NAVSAT. [8]

-------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------

Collected By:-
Er. Paramananda Gouda
(Dept. of ETC, UCP Engg School)
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 74]
VI / SEM / E & TC / 2012 (S)
ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Sub Code – ETT-601
Full Marks: 70
Time: 3 hours
Answer any FIVE Questions including Q. No. 1 & 2
The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks
[GROUP – A]
1. Answer ALL question: [2x10]
a) What is MTI Radar and where it is used?
b) What do you mean by GPS system?
c) What do you mean by up-link and down-link frequency of a satellite communication system?
d) Define Geostationary orbit.
e) Define critical angle of a optical fiber communication system.
f) What is the function of repeater?
g) Define space and time switching.
h) What is ISDN?
i) Write any two advantages of optical fiber as compared to co-axial cable.
j) State the units of power measurement.
[GROUP – B]
2. Answer any FIVE question: [5x6]
a) Discuss the factors affect the range of RADAR.
b) Explain MEO and LEO satellites.
c) Describe the operation of VAST system.
d) Name the different types of optical fiber configurations and explain them.
e) Explain the concept of wavelength division multiplexing.
f) Describe the function of switching system and call procedure in Tele-communication system.
g) Discuss the principle of PDH and SDH modes of transmission.
[GROUP – C]
3. What is Doppler‟s effect? With a neat diagram, describe operation of CW Doppler RADAR [10]
4. Discuss CDMA Technology in communication system & write its advantages & disadvantages.
5. Explain principle of working of Optical Fiber Communication system with neat diagram. [10]
6. Describe the operation of ATM and ISDN network. [10]
7. Write short notes on any TWO [5x2]
(i) NAVSAT (iii) Internet Protocol Telephone
(ii) Digital EPABX
-------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------

Collected By:-
Er. Paramananda Gouda
(Dept. of ETC, UCP Engg School)

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 75]
VI / SEM / E & TC / 2011 (S)
ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Sub Code – ETT-601
Full Marks: 70
Time: 3 hours
Answer any FIVE Questions including Q. No. 1 & 2
The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks
[GROUP – A]
1. Answer ALL Question: [2x10]
(a) What is MTI Radar and where it is used?
(b) Why isolators are used in microwave?
(c) What are the applications of travelling wave tube?
(d) What are the factors influencing the maximum range of a radar?
(e) Classify satellites according to the location in orbit.
(f) What do you mean by uplink and downlink frequency?
(g) What are the advantages of optical fiber cable in communication?
(h) State the essential features of wireless communication system.
(i) Name various types of spread spectrum system.
(j) Why a cell structure is hexagonal.
[GROUP – B]
2. Answer any FIVE Question: [5x6]
(a) Discuss the basic principle of Messer.
(b) Explain with neat block diagram the working of pulsed radar system.
(c) Describe the operation of PIN diode.
(d) Explain the operation of earth station with a block diagram.
(e) Discuss optical fiber communication system and explain its need.
(f) State the importance of national and international standardization.
(g) State and explain the meaning of WLL communication system.
[GROUP – C]
3. What is the difference between TE and TM modes in rectangular waveguide? Why TE10 mode is
considered to be dominant mode in rectangular waveguide? Explain the operation of TWT with
neat diagram. Discuss its application. [10]
4. Explain the principle of RADAR system and derive range equation and performance factor. [10]
5. Explain CDMA Technology with a block diagram. [10]
6. Discuss optical fiber communication system and explain the basic principle of propagation of
light in the optical fiber. [10]
7. Write short notes on any two [5x2]
(i) The operation of magnetron with block diagram
(ii) Aircraft Landing system
(iii) Mobile Personal Communication System
(iv) TDMA
-------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------
 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
 A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 76]
VI / SEM / E & TC / 2010 (S)
ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Sub Code – ETT-601
Full Marks: 70
Time: 3 hours
Answer any FIVE Questions including Q. No. 1 and 2
The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks
[GROUP – A]
1. Answer ALL question: [2x10]
(a) What is microwave circulator and why it is essential?
(b) Define phase velocity and cut-off wavelength.
(c) Define Doppler Effect and how this principle is utilized in radar.
(d) What is second-time around echo and maximum unambiguous range?
(e) What are the advantages of satellite communication? (any four)
(f) What is refractive index and Snell law?
(g) Define spontaneous emission and where it is used.
(h) What is CDMA and where it is used?
(i) What is spread spectrum and what are the condition for spread spectrum?
[GROUP – B]
2. Answer any FIVE question: [5x6]
(a) Explain working principle of rectangular waveguide briefly..
(b) Explain the principle of working of PIN diode and its application.
(c) What are the factors affecting range of radar and what radar beacons are?
(d) Explain the working of CW Doppler radar with help of block diagram.
(e) Explain the operation of Earth Station with the help of a block diagram.
(f) Describe the structure of fiber and how propagation of light took place in fiber.
(g) What is multiple point to multiple point mobile communication and explain briefly, about
personal communication system?
[GROUP – C]
3. Explain the principle & operation of 2 cavity klystron with the help of neat circuit diagram. [10]
4. Explain the principle working of pulsed radar system with the help of block diagram. [10]
5. What are the optical fiber and explain the need of optical fiber and distinguish between copper
cable and optical fiber cable. [10]
6. (a) Describe concept of geostationary satellite & distinguish between GEO, LEO and MEO. [6]
(b) Describe briefly about INSAT satellite system. [4]
7. Explain the working of direct sequence spread spectrum techniques with the help of block
diagram & mention its advantages and disadvantages over other spread spectrum techniques.[10]
-------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------

Prepared By:-
Er. Paramananda Gouda
(Dept. of ETC, UCP Engg School)

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School
A Hand Note on ADVANCED COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING [ETT 601] [Page - 77]

 Prepared by Er. D. P. PATNAIK & P. N. GOUDA, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg School