10.

11 STABILITY OF FLEXIBLE RETAINING WALLS 403

FMM
Average passive lateral pressure = Kpx'Y (Ho + LIdo) = 4.6 x 18 x (3 + 1.1 x 2.95) = 517.1 kPa
Average active lateral pressure = Kax'Y x LIdo = 0.28 x 18 x 1.1 x 2.95 = 16.4kPa
Net lateral pressure = 517.1-16.4 = 500.7kPa
Net force = 500.7 x 0.2do = 295.4kN>R(= 271.1kN);
Therefore, depth of penetration is satisfactory
FSM
Average passive lateral pressure = Kpx'Y (Ho + LIdo) = 3.3 x 18 x (3 + 1.1 x 2.75) = 357.9kPa
Average active lateral pressure = Kax'Y x LIdo = 0.36 x 18 x 1.1 x 2.75 = 19.6 kPa
Net lateral pressure = 357.9 -19.6 = 338.3kPa
Net force = 338.3 x 0.2do = 186.1kN>R(= 109.4kN);
Therefore, depth of penetration is satisfactory
NPPM

Average passive lateral pressure = Kpx'Y (Ho + LIdo) = 4.6 x 18 x (3 + 1.1 x 2.41) = 467.9kPa
Average active lateral pressure = Kax'Y x LIdo = 0.28 x 18 x 1.1 x 2.41 = 13.4kPa
Net lateral pressure = 467.9 -13.4 = 454.5kPa
Net force = 454.5 x 0.2do = 219.1kN > R( = 166.7 kN);
Therefore, depth of penetration is satisfactory

Step 6: Determine the maximum bending moment.

Maximum bending moment for (FS)p = Fq, = 1.
Let z be the location of the point of maximum bending moment (point of zero shear) such that z > H o.
1 2 Z 1 2 (z - Ho)
M z =ZKax'YZ x "3-zKpx'Y(z-Ho) x 3

=! x 4 6 x 18 x (z - 3)3
2' 3
= 0.84z 3 - 13.8(z - 3)3
To find z at which the bending moment is maximum, we need to differentiate the above equation with respect to z and
set the result equal to zero.
dM
dx z = 0 = 2.52z 2 - 41.4(z - 3)2 = 38.9z 2 - 248.4z + 372.6 = 0

Solving for z, we get z = 3.68 m or 2.53 m. The correct answer is 3.68 m since zero shear cannot occur above the
excavation level in this problem (positive shear in the active zone only gets reduced below the excavation level).
Mz = 0.84 x 3.683 -13.8(3.68 - 3)3 = 36kN· m
For this problem, it is easy to use calculus to determine the maximum bending moment. For most problems, you
will have to find the shear force distribution with depth, identify or calculate the point of zero shear, and then calculate
the maximum bending moment. •

EXAMPLE 10.6 Anchored Flexible Wall

Determine the embedment depth and the anchor force of the tied-back wall shown in Fig. 1O.6a using the FSM.
Strategy You should use the Kerisel and Absi (1990) passive pressures (see Appendix C) and either the Kerisel
and Absi (1990) or Coulomb active pressures. Groundwater level on both sides of the wall is the same, so seepage will
not occur. SI units will be used in this example.
404 CHAPTER 10 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES-RIGID AND FLEXIBLE WALLS

Solution 10.6

r
Step 1: Determine Kax and Kpx.
1 m (3 It)
"" <P~s 30 50 _,_~_ = 10 = 0.4 " ' _ _.l-_~ _ _ Tie rod at 0.5 m (1.5 It)
centers
"'design = F<p = 1.2 = 2 ;
<Pdesign 25 Y = 18 kN/m 3 (113 pct)
8m
(25 It) <I>'cs = 30°
From Appendix C,
1)= f<l>~s
Kax = 0.42 (
1
<Pdesign = 25 ,~ 0 / 1
<Pdesign = 0.4,0 = :32 <Pdesign
1 )

Ysat =20 kN/m 3 (125 pet)

Kpx = 3.4 (
1
<Pdesign = 25 ,~ 0 / 1
<Pdesign = 0,0 = 2:1 <Pdesign
1 )
<I>'cs =30°
For unfactored strength values, 1) = ; <I>~s
F$= 1.2
Kax = 0.31 I
<Pes = 30 0
,~ <Pes
/ ' / 1 = :32 <Pes
= 10 30 = :3,0 ') FIGURE E10.6a
(

Kpx = 4.6 (
1
<Pes = 30 0
,~ <Pes
/ 1 = 0,0 = 2:1 <Pes
')

Step 2: Determine the lateral forces and moments.

Use a table to facilitate ease of computation and checking.
(See Fig. E10.6b.) Below the groundwater level, 'Y 1 = 20-
9.8 = 10.2kN/m3 .

Step 3: Determine d. ---Surcharge

Equate the sum of moments to zero (simplify equation by
dividing by the coefficient of d 3 ).
Soil
d3 + 7.3d2 - 44.8d -113.7 = 0

By trial and error or by using the polynomial function on a

calculator, d = 5.38m.

FIGURE E10.6b

Part Horizontal force (kN) Moment arm from anchor (m) Moment (kN·m)

2
Kaxqs(Ho + d) = 0.42 x 10 x (8 + d) = 4.2d + 33.6 (Ho; d) -h= (8; d) -1 =3+~ -(2.1d +29.4d+100.8)
2 ~Kax,!H~ = ~ x 0.42 x 18 x 8 2 = 241.9 ~Ho-h=~ x8-1 =4.33 -1047.4
3 Kax,!Hod = 0.42 x 18 x 8 x d = 60.5d Ho - h + ~ = 7 + ~ 2
-(30.3d + 423.5d)
4 lK Id2_~XO.42x10.2xd2=2.1d2 Ho-h+~d=7+~d -(1.4d3 +14.7d 2)
2 ax,! - 2:2.1d2+64.7d+275.5

5 11 .5d3 + 121 .1 d 2

'LM = -(10.1d 3 + 74d 2 + 452.9d 2 + 1148.2)

 10.11 STABILITY OF FLEXIBLE RETAINING WALLS 405

Step 4: Determine d for the unfactored strength values.

To calculate the new depth of penetration for unfactored
strength values, use proportionality, for example,
Active moment Active moment for factored strength values
=
Unfactored Kax
x -=----:-:::=-=::.:.
Factored Kax
3 2 0.31
(Mo)A = -(l.4d + 47.1d + 452.9d + 1148.2) x 0.42
= _(d3 + 34.8d2 + 334.3d + 847.5)
Passive moment: (Mo)p = (11.5d3 + 121.1d2 ) x ::~ = 15.5d3 + 163.9d2
Sumofmoments: (Mo)p + (Mo)a = 14.5d3 + 129.1d2 - 334.3d - 847.5
Solving, we get d = 3.38 m
Step 5: Determine the anchor force for d = 3.38 m.
. (2 d ) 0.31
I: Active forces = 2.1d + 64.7 + 275.5 x 0.42 = 381.9 kN
6
I: Passive forces = 17.3d2 x 4.4 = 265.8kN
3.
Ta = 381.9 - 265.8 = 116.1 kN
(Ta)design = (FS)Ta = 2 x 116.1 = 232.2kN

•
EXAMPLE 10.7 Anchored Flexible Wall
Determine the embedment depth and the design anchor force
required for stability of the sheet pile wall shown in Fig. ElO. 7a
using the NPPM. r
6m
, 1 ~ (3 tt) 1~5 m (5 tt)
___----'-T- Anchor
Ysat = 18 kN/m 3 (113 pet)
Strategy In the NPPM, you must use the unfactored (20 tt) $'cs = 30°
strength values to calculate Kax and Kpx and then determine
1) = ; $~s
the net active and net passive lateral pressures. To calculate
d, you have to do iterations. A simple approach to solve for d (FS)r=1.5
is to set up the forces and moments in terms of the unknown d
and then assume values of d until you find a d value that gives
"
the required factor of safety ((FS)r ~ 1.5). A spreadsheet
program or a programmable calculator is very helpful in
solving this type of problem. In Excel, for example, you can
use the Goal Seek function to find d. It is quite easy to make FIGURE E10.7a
errors in calculations, so you should recheck your work and
you must conduct a "hand" check when using outputs from
computer programs. Since the groundwater levels are different in front and behind the wall, you need to consider
seepage assuming a steady state seepage condition. To calculate the anchor force, you have to find d for (FS) r = 1
and then multiply the anchor force by 2 (factor of safety). SI units will be used in this example.
Solution 10.7

Step 1: Determine Kax and Kpx.

From Appendix C,

Kax = 0.28 (
<P cs = 30,
, 0
P <Pes = 0, 1) = 3"2 <P ,es )
/ '

Kpx = 4.6 (
<Pes = 30,
, 0
P <Pes = 0,1) = 21 <Pes' )
/'
406 CHAPTER 10 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES-RIGID AND FLEXIBLE WALLS

Step 2: Determine the net lateral pressure. Make a table to do the calculations and draw a diagram of the lateral
earth pressure distribution.
See Fig. ElO.7b.
Below grouudwater level =1.5m
Average seepage force / ---!iI,---~ Ta = anchor force

unitvolume: js = C:2d)'Yw
3
= (5:2d)9.8kN/m

Active zone: 'Y' = 'Y sat - 'Y w + js

= 18 - 9.8+ js = 8.2 + j s kN/m3 Lateral earth pressure from soil Porewater pressure

Passive zone: 'Y' = 'Y sat - 'Y w - js FIGURE E10.7b

= 18 - 9.8 - js = 8.2 - j s kN/m3

Depth (m) Active pressure (kPa) Passive pressure (kPa)

o o o
1 Kayh w = 0.28 x 18 x 1 = 5 o
6 Kayh w + Ka(Y' + is)(Ho - hw) o
= 5.0 + 0.28 x (8.2 + is) x 5 = 16.5 + 1.4is K p (8.2 - is)d - Ka(8.2 + is)d
6+d 16.8+1.4is = 4.6(8.2 - is)d - 0.28(8.2 + is)d
= (35.4 - 4.88is)d

Water 2(ad) 98.1d

UB = a + 2d Yw = 5 + 2d

Step 3: Calculate the lateral forces, the moment, and (FS)r.

All forces and moments are per meter length of wall. The moment is the sum of moments about the anchor position
and Rx is the resultant active lateral force. In the first column under moment, a value of d is guessed and (FS)r is
calculated. In the second column under moment, the value of d = 5.75 m was obtained using a spreadsheet program
(the actual value obtained from the spreadsheet program is d = 5.73m for (FS)r = 1.5). If you use a spreadsheet
program, the first column under moment is not needed. In Excel, you use Tools->Goal Seek to find d to satisfy the
desired value of (FS)r.

Moment(kN . m)

Part Forces (kN) Moment arm (m) d=7m d=5.75m

0.5 x 5.0 x 1 = 2.5 hw -2.1 -2.2

h -hw +3= 0.5+0.33 = 0.83
2 5.0 x 5 = 25 a -50.0 -50.0
2: - (h - hw) = 2.5 - 0.5 = 2
3 0.5 x (11.5 + 1.4is) x 5 = 28.8 + 3.8is 2a 10 -109.2 -113.4
3 - (h - hw) = 3 - 0.5 = 2.83
4 (16.5 + 1.4is) x d = (16.5 + 1.4is)d d d -1126.2 -876.0
Ho - h - 2: = 4.5 + 2:
Water:
ad(a + dhw 49d(5+d) Ho +d-h-zw
a+2d 5+2d
-1119.3 -871.9

(continued)
 10.12 SEISMIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FlEXIBLE RETAINING WALLS 407

(Continued)

Rx = 56.3 + 3.8is -2402.6 -1909.2

. 49d(5+d)
+(16.5 + 1.4Js)d + 5 + 2d

~Mr = Moment(kN/m)
Part Forces (kN) Moment arm (m) d-7m d-5.75m

5 0.5 x (35.4 - 4.88is)d 2 5179.8 2912.8

= (17.7 - 2.4js)d2

(FS) = ~Mr 2.16 1.53

r LMd

Step 4: Calculate the anchor forces for (FS)r = 1.

For (FS)r = 1, d = 4.62m. Substituting d = 4.62m, we get
Active zone
5 3
js = (5 + 2 x 4.62)9.8 = 3.44kN/m
49 x 4.62(5 + 4.62)
Rx = 56.3 + (3.8 x 3.27) + (16.5 + 1.4 x 3.44)4.62 + 5 2
+ x 4.2 6
= 320.1kN
Passive
Passive lateral force = (17.7 - 2.4 x 3.44)4.622 = 201.6kN
Ta = Active lateral force - Passive lateral force = 320.1 - 201.6
= 118.5kN
Design anchor force = 2Ta = 237 kN
•
10.12 SEISMIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE RETAINING WALLS

JEJ Access.a spr~adsh~et~thttpJjwWw:~1teY.~0p1/~6jlege/l)~~t{'¢1i~~io9Iid~~i~n~·.~~~<~~lJ.St~c~ .

. tlJfes, Chapterl0,fetwa;ltxIs.and. .clipkthi worksheet' "seisii1k'fienble:waJi"~o· ~ilalY'z¢"~fli1tiley.er
•flexible retaining \V'aJls llJ:ideiseisrtti~lqad~: ..•.. ..•.. .. .... . .. . . · ..•. i <:'. i,. ......; •.... () .~. . . .. ............ .

The seismic analysis of flexible retaining walls is similar to gravity walls except that passive
pressures are now important for stability. The forces on a flexible retaining wall under a seismic event are
shown in Fig. 10.34. The overturning moment is
P' Ho 2Ho
(10.95)
Mo = aECOSbaT+PaCOSba-3-
408 CHAPTER 10 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES-RIGID AND FLEXIBLE WALLS

FIGURE 10.34 Forces on a flexible

wall due to a seismic event.

where P~E = P aE - Pa is the dynamic increase in lateral active force, PaE is the active seismic force
[see Eq. (10.58)] and P a is the active static force. The resisting moment is

(10.96)

where P~E = PpE - Pp is the dynamic increase in lateral passive force, P pE is the passive seismic force
[see Eq. (10.61)], Pp is the passive static force and hp is the location of the dynamic increased in lateral
passive force, taken as !,J .
The factor of safety is
FS = Mr (10.97)
Mo
The wall will be in impending fail when FS = 1 and thus the critical acceleration can be obtained. If water is
1
present you can calculate the resultant hydrodynamicforces using F w = kh 'Ywh~ where hw is the difference
in height of the water. The moment due to the hydrodynamic forces is added to the dynamic active moment.

10.13 BRACED EXCAVATION

Braced excavations consist of sheet piles driven into the soil to form the sides of an excavation
(Fig. 10.35a) such as in the construction of bridge piers and abutments. As excavation proceeds within
the area enclosed by the sheet piles, struts are added to keep the sheet piles in place.
 10.13 BRACED EXCAVATION 409

I+-- 8 ---+I 8 b

Wale

I
!
Sheeting I!
!
Wall deflection I
Ii;;~~~---------Jc
I
i --1 r--
Soft, normally \. Os
0.65YHo tan 2 (45 0 <I>~S)
consolidated soil \ ........ l _..",/~ _

(8) Braced excavation (b) Lateral pressure distribution

from coarse-grained soils

0.50 Ho 0.75 Ho

~ 0.25Ho
--1 0.2Y Ho l<- --1YHo - msur--
to
Generally, m = 1 except for soft, normally
O.4YHo
consolidated soils for which m = 0.4 (FS)heave
(c) Lateral pressure
distribution from fine- Y H (d) Lateral pressure distribution YH
FIGURE10.35 Braced
grained soils with ~ < 4 from fine-grained soils with _ _ 0 ~4
u Su excavations.

The top struts are installed followed by others at lower depths. The wall displacements before the
top struts are installed are usually very small but get larger as the excavation gets deeper. The largest wall
displacement occurs at the base of the excavation (Fig. 1O.35b). Wall displacements are inconsistent with
all the earth pressure theories.
The critical design elements in a braced excavation are the loads on the struts, which are usually
different because of different lateral loads at different depths, the time between excavations, and the
installation procedure. Failure of a single strut can be catastrophic because it can lead to the collapse of
the whole system. The analysis for the forces and deflection in braced excavation should ideally consider
the construction sequence, and numerical methods such as the finite element method are preferred. Semi-
empirical methods are often used for shallow braced excavations and in the preliminary design of deep
braced excavations. The finite element method is beyond the scope of this book. We will only discuss a
semi-empirical method.
Lateral stress distributions for use in the semi-empirical method are approximations from field
measurements of strut loads in different types of soil. The lateral stress distributions used for coarse-
grained and fine-grained soils are shown in Figs. 10.35b-d. These lateral stress distributions are not real
but average approximate stress distributions. The lateral stress distribution for coarse-grained soils
(Fig. 10.35b) was extrapolated from strut loads measured for dense sand adjacent to the excavation. The
appropriat(! value of friction angle is <P~ but because we cannot rely on dilation, the design friction angle
should be <p~s' For fine-grained soils, a total stress analysis is used and the lateral stress distribution
depends on the stabililtynumber, 'Y Holsu (Peck, 1969). If the stability number is less than 4, the stress state
of the soil adjacent to the excavation can be assumed to be elastic and the recommended lateral stress
distribution is depicted in Fig. 10.35c. However, if the stability number is greater than or equal to 4, the
stress state of the soil adjacent to the bottom of the excavation is expected to be plastic and the
recommended lateral stress distribution is depicted in Fig. 10.35d.
410 CHAPTER 10 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES-RIGID AND FLEXIBLE WALLS

If the soil below the base of the excavation is a soft, normally consolidated soil, it is possible that
heaving can occur. The column of soil, abed (Fig. 10.35a), above the base acts as a surcharge on the soil
below the excavation level. This surcharge load may exceed the bearing capacity of the soft, normally
consolidated soil, resulting in heaving. Bjerrum and Eide (1956) suggested that the excavation could be
viewed as a footing of width B and embedment depth Ho. They showed that the factor of safety against
bottom heave is Su
( FS)heave = Ne H (10.98)
'Y 0 + qs
where Nc is a bearing capacity coefficient given by Skempton (1951). The coefficient Nc can be
approximated, for practical purposes, by
Ho)
Ne = 6 ( 1 + 0.2 If for
Ho 2.5
If:::; and Ne = 9Ie for
Ho > 2.5,
If Ie = 0.84 + 0.16
B (10.99)
r
where Hoi B is the depth to width ratio.
If (FS)heave < 1.5, the sheeting should be extended below the base of the excavation for stability.
The value of the coefficient m (Fig. 10.35d) is usually 1 except when the soil below the excavation is a deep,
soft, normally consolidated soil, in which case m ~ O.4(FS)heave'
The strut loads at each level are found by assuming hinged connections of the struts to the sheet
piles. A free-body diagram is drawn for each level and the forces imposed on the struts are determined
using static equilibrium. Displacements of the walls are an important design consideration as adjacent
structures may be affected. The method discussed above does not consider displacements. Analyses using
numerical methods (e.g., finite element method) are better suited for the overall analysis of braced
excavation.
The procedure for analysis of braced excavation is as follows:

1. Check the stability against bottom heave using Eq. (10.98). If (FS)heave < 1.5, the walls should be
extended below the base.
2. Determine the lateral stress on the walls for your soil type (Figs. 10.35b to d).
3. Treat the connections of the wall (sheet pile) to the struts as hinges.
4. Draw a free-body diagram at each level of the excavation.
S. Solve for the forces in the struts using the static equilibrium equations on each free-body diagram.

EXAMPLE 10.8 Braced Excavation

Determine the forces on the struts for the braced excavation in soft, normally consolidated clay as shown in
Fig. ElO.8a.

Strategy You need to determine the approximate lateral stress distribution by calculating 'Y Hoi suo To find
the forces on the struts, draw free-body diagrams-one at each level-and use statics. SI units will be used in this
example.

Solution 10.8

Step 1: Check for stability against bottom heave.

Ho = 46 = 1.5,
If Ne = 6 (Ho)
1 + 0.2If = 6(1 + 2 x 0.15) = 7.6,
qs = 0
Su 24
(FS)heave = Ne H
'Y 0 + qs = 7.6 20 x
6 = 1.52> 1.5;
therefore, excavation is safe against bottom heave
 10.13 BRACED EXCAVATION 411

Step 2: Determine the lateral pressure diagram.

"tHo __ 20 x 6 __ 5.
use Fig. 1O.35d
Su 24 '
m = 0.4(FS)heave = 0.4 x 1.6 = 0.64
The maximum lateral pressure is
"tHo - msu = 20 x 6 - 0.64 x 24 = 104.6kPa
Step 3: Draw the pressure diagram.
See Fig. ElO.8b.

1.5 m
Soft, normally
consolidated soil
Su = 24 kPa (500 pet),
4.5m
y =20 kN/m 3 (125 pet)
=
Ho 6 m (20 ft)
1 m (3 ft)
~~~-----------

B=4m(13ft)
I'104.6 kPa'1
(a) (b) FIGURE E10.8a,b

Step 4: Calculate the forces on the struts at each level.

All loads are per meter length of wall.
Levell (Fig. ElO.8c)
r.MB, = 0 = 2.0A
- [~ x 104.6 x 1.5 x C~5 + 1.5) + 1.5 x 104.6 x 0.75]
:. A = 137.3kN/m
1
r.Fx = 0: A + B1 = 2: x 104.6 x 1.5 + 1.5 x 104.6 = 235.4kN/m
:. B1 = 235.4 - 137.3 = 98.lkN/m

T
1m
A
f
1.5 m B2

2m -t T
1.5 m
2m

B,I- '1
1 C,

I- '1
(c) 104.6 kPa (d) 104.6kPa FIGURE E10.8c,d

Level 2 (Fig. ElO.8d)

B2 = C1 = 104.~ x 2 = 104.6kN/m

Step 5: Calculate the forces on each strut.

A = 137.3kN/m
B = B1 + B2 = 98.1 + 104.6 = 202.7kN/m
C = C1 + 104.6 x 1 = 104.6 + 104.6 = 209.2kN/m •
412 CHAPTER 10 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES-RIGID AND FLEXIBLE WAllS

10.14 DESIGN ISSUES

10.14.1 Lateral Stress Coefficients and Lateral Stresses

The lateral stress coefficients are approximate values for clean, uncemented soils. As discussed in
Section 10.7, you should use <p~s and conservative values of interface friction, if any. When small
displacements « 0.005Ho) are required, you should use Ko rather than Ka. A surcharge of at least 5 kPa
(100 psf) should be used to account for construction loads in addition to lateral stresses imposed
by compaction of the backfill. Either Rankine or Coulomb earth pressure coefficients can be used for
active pressures but Caquot and Kerisel (1948) earth pressure coefficients should be used for passive
pressures.
Codes (e.g., IBC, 2006) normally specify minimum lateral earth pressures for the design of earth
retaining structures. If drying out can cause a gap between the wall and the backfill, you should use the full
hydrostatic pressure on the wall.

10.14.2 Drainage
Water is the culprit for most retaining wall failures. In rigid retaining walls, clean coarse-grained soils
should be used as the backfill and a suitable drainage system must be designed. You must consider the
following:

1. How and where will the water exit the wall? Putting weep holes without considering how the water
in front of the wall will drain to an outfall or whether the wall would be stained by minerals is
unsatisfactory.
2. Drainage of surface water.
3. Toe erosion.
4. Possibility of blocked drainage system due to migration of fines, debris, and human and animal
activities.

10.14.3 Wall Deformation

All the analytical methods presented in this chapter are based on the mobilization of the active and
passive earth pressures. As noted in Section 10.7, these pressures are not mobilized at the same strain
level. When wall deformation is required to be controlled, you should use conservative values of lateral
earth pressure coefficients in the analytical methods. You should consider using FDM and FEM to
estimate wall deformations and instrument the walls where appropriate.

10.14.4 Construction
Sometimes construction places limitations on the type of wall that is applicable for a project. Rigid walls
require bottom-up construction. That is, the wall must be constructed and then backfilled from the base to
the surface. Significant construction space is required.
 10.15 SUMMARY 413

Flexible retaining walls used to support an excavation require top-down construction. The walls
are installed and then excavation proceeds from the top. Wall deformation is a key issue, especially if the
construction is in a built-up area. Bracings are added for stability and serviceability. If structures near the
excavation are sensitive to wall deformation, as they often are, you should consider monitoring the wall
deformation using inclinometers or other instruments such as lasers.
Compacting backfill always introduces additional short-term lateral stress to walls as discussed
before. It is often difficult to use compaction rollers near the walls. Hand vibrating compactors are
normally used near the wall. The degree of compaction may not be the same as for compaction rollers.
Indeed, the soil generally is looser near the wall.
Flexible retaining walls are installed using drop hammers or pneumatic hammers or hydraulic
hammers. Choice of equipment depends on the soil type, availability, project site environment (e.g., noise
control, working space, and access), and costs.

10.15 SUMMARY

We have considered lateral earth pressures and their applications to several types of earth retaining
structures in this chapter. Two earth pressure theories are in general use: one developed by Coulomb and
the other by Rankine. Coulomb's equations for the lateral earth pressure coefficients are based on limit
equilibrium and include the effects of soil-wall friction, wall slope, and backfill slope. Rankine's equations
are based on stress states of the backfill and do not account for soil-wall friction. The failure planes in the
Coulomb and Rankine methods are planar surfaces. Soil-wall friction causes the failure plane to curve,
resulting in higher active lateral earth pressure coefficients and lower passive earth pressure coefficients
than those found using Coulomb's equations.
Because of the flexibility of some earth retaining structures and construction methods used in
practice, the "real" lateral earth pressures are different from either the Coulomb or Rankine theories. It
is suggested in this book that the appropriate value of friction angle to use in the analysis of earth retaining
structures is <I>~s' Three methods of analysis for flexible earth retaining walls were considered. The
differences in the methods result mainly from how the lateral stresses are considered and how the factor
of safety is applied.

Practical Examples

JEJ Acce~s.·aspreadsM~t:at.l1ttp;I/~:WiI¢y~corn1l8~1l~gel~V.dJiU •.Clf~k~9~~Eiti6ris,~n~'~~t:thSllilC':.

tures, Chap.terl01.ietwall$1~t9aI!aly:z~~etlllh.irrgwl'iJIS~:" . . . , ....... :.. .

EXAMPLE 10.9 Cantilever Gravity Walls for Material Storage

Ore from a manufacturing plant is to be stored between two cantilever gravity retaining walls, as shown in Fig. ElO.9a.
A gantry crane will run on top of the walls to place the ore. The crane will apply a maximum vertical load of 24 kN and
a horizontal load of ±4.5 kN on each wall. The base of the ore pile is only permitted to come within 0.5 m of the top of
the walls. The ore surface should be the maximum admissible slope. The walls will be restrained from spreading
outward by steel ties or rods at 1 m centers anchored to the base slab. A 2 m layer of the ore spoils of similar
characteristics to the ore to be stored would be compacted to support the base ofthe wall. Determine (a) the stability
of the wall for the geometry shown in Fig. ElO.9a and (b) the force in the tie rods, assuming they resist all the
horizontalloads. If the tie rods were not present, would the walls be safe? Do you expect any alignment problems with
the gantry crane?
414 CHAPTER 10 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES-RIGID AND FLEXIBLE WALLS

-+I r-b = 0.6 m <t

124 kN
4.5kNt
0.5

Ho =6.8 m

I I
1 m 3.3 m 5.7 m I Tie rods FIGURE E10.9a

Strategy The maximum slope angle would be the friction angle. Since the storage is symmetrical, each wall will
carry identical loads. You will have to make an assumption regarding wall friction. You can assume 8 = <I>~s or 8 = !
~ <I>~s and use Coulomb's method to determine the lateral forces.

Solution 10.9

Step 1: Determine the lateral forces.

The maximum admissible slope is ~ = <I>~s' Therefore, ~ = 35°.
Ho = 0.75 + 6.8 + 3.3 tan 35° = 9.86m

From Eq. (10.16)

Ka = 0.7 for ~ = 35°, /) =!<I>'
2
1
Pa
2
= ZKa"YHo = Z1 x 0.7 x 22 x 9.86
2
= 748.7kN/m
Pax = Pa cos /) = 748.7 x cos 17.5° = 714.0kN/m
Paz = P a sin /) = 748.7 x sin 17.5° = 225.1kN/m

Step 2: Calculate forces and moments. Draw a diagram (show only one-half because of symmetry, see Fig. ElO.9b)
and use a table to do the calculations.

-+I r-b =0.6 m

124 kN
4.5kNt
0.5

T
8.05m
Ore pile
Ysat = 22 kN/m 3
I H o =6.8m <I>~s = 35°

lH b =0.75 +---- ~==---

5.7 m Tie rods @ 1 m CJc FIGURE E10.9b

 10.15 SUMMARY 415

Part Force (kN/m) Moment arm from 0 (m) Moment (kN/m)

Wall Vertical forces

1 (6.8 + 0.5) x 0.6 x 24 = 105.1 1.7 + 0.4 + 0.6/2 = 2.4 +252.2
2 1 2 69.0
2(6.8 + 0.5) x 0.4 x 24 = 35 1.7 +3 x 0.4 = 1.97
3 0.75 x 6 x 24 = 108.0 6/2 = 3.00 +324.0
Soil

(~ x 3.3) =
4 1 +411.1
2 x 3.3 x 2.31 x 22 = 83.9 1.7 + 1 + 4.9
5 3.3 x 6.8 x 22 = 493.7 1.7 + 1 + 3.3/2 = 4.35 +2147.6
Paz 225.1 6 +1350.6
Gantry
Pz 24 2.4 +57.6

Rz = L Vertical forces = 1074.8

Gantry Lateral forces
Px 4.5 0.75 + 6.8 + 0.5 = 8.05 -36.2
Soil
Pax 714 9.87/3 = 3.29 -2349.1

Rx = L Lateral forces = 718.5 M = L Moments = 2226.8

Step 3: Determine stability.

Rotation
M 2226.8
x = R z = 1074.8 = 2.07 m
B 6
e= 2-x = 2-2.07 = 0.93m
B 6 B
6 = (5 = 1 m; e < 6; therefore, wall is safe against rotation
Sliding
0

T = sliding resistance at base = R z tan <PI, = 1074.8 tan 20 = 391.2 kN

T 391.2
(FSh = R = 718.5 = 0.54 < 1.5
z
sliding would occur if tie rods were present.
Forces on tie rods
For (FSh = 1.5 : Ta + T = 1.5Rx
where Ta is the force on the tie rods/unit length of wall.
Ta = 1.5 x 718.5 - 391.2 = 686.6 kN1m
Bearing capacity
All horizontal forces accommodated by tie rods.
B' = B - 2e = 6 - 2 x 0.93 = 4.14m
V = 1074.8kN
N-y = 0.1054exp(9.6<p~) = 0.1054 exp (9.6 x 35 x 1;0) = 37.2

qu = 0.5-yB'N-y = 0.5 x 18 x 4.14 x 37.2 = 1386.lkPa

LRz (1
O"max
=
B x 1 + 6e)
B
= 1074.8(1
6x1 + 6 x 60.93) = 345 7kP
. a
1386.1
(FS)B = 345.7 = 4> 3; therefore, bearing capacity is satisfactory
416 CHAPTER 10 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES-RIGID AND FLEXIBLE WALLS

SUMMARY OF RESULTS

1. The wall is unlikely to rotate significantly.

2. Without the tie rods, the wall will translate.
3. The design tie rod force is :=::::687kN/m.
4. The soil bearing capacity is adequate.
5. Assuming that the base slab is rigid and the loading is symmetrical, there should be no
alignment problem. •

EXAMPLE 10.10 Flexible Wall Near a Lake

A retaining wall is required near a man-made lake in a housing scheme development. The site is a swamp and the topsoil
consisting mainly of organic material will be removed up to the elevation of a deep deposit of clay with a silt and sand
mixture. The wall is expected to retain a sand backfill of height 6 m. It is anticipated that a rapid drawdown condition
could occur and the lake emptied for a long period. A flexible retaining wall is proposed as shown in Fig. E10.lOa.
Determine the embedment depth and the force for an anchor spacing of 3 m. A surcharge of 10 kPa should be considered.

1.0 m
Normal water 0.5 m
level fluctuatiori 1.0 m

FIGURE E10.10a

Strategy You can use either the FSM or NPPM or both. Because the clay layer has silt and sand, you should
consider seepage forces for long-term conditions (assuming that the drawdown level would remain for some time).
Solution 10.10

Step 1: Determine the lateral earth pressure coefficients.

Use Appendix C to find the lateral earth pressure coefficients.

Sand: Kax; = 0.28 ( <p~s = 30°, 8 = ~ <p~s)

Clay: Kax; = 0.34 ( <p~s = 27°, 8 = ~ <p~s )

Kpx = 3.8( <p~s = 27°,8 = ~<p~s)

Step 2: Determine the seepage forces and porewater pressures.

Sand: "I' = 18.8 - 9.8 = 9kN/m3
Clay: "I' = 19.4 - 9.8 = 9.6kN/m3
. a ( 3.5) 34.3 / 3
Js = a + 2d"l w = 3.5 + 2d 9.8 = 3.5 + 2d kN m
 10.15 SUMMARY 417

Active state
Sand: l = (9 34.3) = 65.S + 1Sd
'Y fa + 3.5 + 2d 3.5 + 2d

Clay: l = (96 34.3) = 67.9 + 19.2d

'Y fa . + 3.5 + 2d 3.5 + 2d
Passive state
Clay: l = (9.6 _ 34.3 ) = 19.2d - 0.7
'Y fP 3.5+2d 3.5+2d

UB
2ad )
= ( a + 2d 'Y w =
(23.5 +
x 3.5d) 6S.6d
2d 9.S = 3.5 + 2d
2
P =!( d) = !(3 5 d) 6.S.6d = (120d + 34.3d )
w 2 a + UB 2 . + 3.5 + 2d 3.5 + 2d
a +2d 3.5 +2d
zw =-3-= 3
Ho - hw = 6 - 2.5 = 3.5 m; Ho - h = 6 - 1 = 5 m;
Hw - h = 2.5 -1.0 = l.5m

Step 3: Carry out the calculations.

Draw a diagram of the pressure distributions. Use a table (see below) or a spreadsheet program to carry out the
calculations. See Fig. ElO.lOb for the lateral pressure distributions.

1m
1IIII·1l3T-±-'''------l-+ Anchor

FIGURE E10.10b

Step 4: Calculate the anchor force.

Ta = 317.1- 20S.7 = lOS.4kN/m
Assume a factor of safety of 2.
Design anchor force = Ta(FS) x Anchor spacing = lOS.4 x 2 x 3 = 650.4kN
•
EXAMPLE 10.11 Gravity retaining wall in a seismic region

A gravity retaining wall is required to support a highway cut 4 m (12 ft) high. The backfill will be a reject sand with <p~ = 30°
and'Y sat = IS kN / m3 . The slope of the backfill will be +10°. The peak ground acceleration is 0.25 g and the peak velocity is
0.2m/s. Determine the weights of the wall for seismic and static loading. The tolerable lateral displacement is 50mm.
Assume <Pb = ~<P~, 15 = 0 and T) = 10°. As a preliminary design, dimension the wall for a factor of safety of 1.5.

Strategy Follow the procedure given in Section 10.10.2

Solution 10.11
Step 1: Calculate kh
Ag = 0.25g, Y = 0.20m/s, Pd = 0.05m
1 1

k = A( Ag Pd ) -4= 0.25 (0.25 x 9.S1 x 0.05) -4= 0.1

h 0.OS7 y2 0.OS7 x 0.22
~
co

D=5.57m D=4.39m

Moment = Forcex Moment Moment Force

Part Pressure (kPa) Force (kN/m) Moment arm from 0 Moment arm (kNom/m) (kNom/m) (kN/m)

Pal = Kaxqs Pa' Ho = 3 X 6 = 18 Ho -h =~-1 = 2 (-)33.6 -33.6 -33.6 16.8

= 0.3 X 10= 3 2 2
2 Pa2 = Kaxyh w 1 1 2 2 (-)11.0 -11.0 -11.0 16.5
2:Pa2h2=2:x14.1 x2.5=17.6 3hw - 1 = 3 X 2.5 - 1 = 0.67
= 0.3 X 18.8 X 2.5 = 14.1
3 Pa3 = Pa2 = 14.1 Pa3a = 14.1 3.5 = 49.4 ) 3.5 (-)149.7 -149.7 -149.7 46.1
2:a + (hw -
X
h =""2 + 1 .5 = 3.25
4 Pa4 = kax'Yjaa .!. _ .!.(69.1 + 18.9d) 35 2 2 (_) 463 + 126.8d -74.6 -77.5 20.2
2 Pa4 a - 2 3.5 + 2d x. 3 a + (hw - h) = 3 X 3.5 + 1.5 = 3.83
3.5+2d
= 0.3 (65.8 + 18d) 3.5
3.5 + 2d 120.9 + 33.1 d
3.5+2d
69.1 +18.9d
3.5 + 2d
5 Pa5 = Pa' + Pa2 + Pa3 + Pa4
Pa5
d= C29d+53.1d2)d
3.5 + 2d
~ +(Ho - h) = ~ +5 = d + 10
2 2 2
(_)C 6 .5d2 + 330d + 645) d
3.5+2d
-1173.1 -869.2 120.8

= 3 14.1
141 69.1 + 18.9d
+ +. + 3.52d
178.3 + 81 .3d
3.5 + 2d
Water 8.6d (120 + 34.3d)d (Ho - h) + d - Yw = 5 + d _ 3.5 + 2d (_) (11.4d 2 + 171.4d + 460) -673.0 -512.4 96.7
Ub = 3.5+2d Pw 3.5+2d 3.5+2d d
11.5+d 3
-3-
6 Pp6 = KpxYjpd - KaxYjad .!. d=.!.(66.4d-25.7)d 2 2
3d+ (Ho -h) =3 d + 5 = 2d;15 ( ) (22.1d 2 + 157.5d - 64.5)d 2 L =-2114.9 L =-1653.4 L =317.1
2 P p6 2 3.5 + 2d + 3.5+2d
+3172.9 +1653.9 208.7
= [3.8(19.2d-0.7) _0.34(67.9+ 19d)] = (33.2d-12.9)d2
3.5+2d 3.5+2d 3.5+2d
= (66.4d - 25.7) d
3.5+2d
 10.15 SUMMARY 419

Step 2: Calculate KaE

kv =0, A=lO°,
I-' "=10°,
., 8 =,
0 e = t an- 1(0.1)
1- 0 = 57°
. ,

Eq. (10.59): KaE = 0.55

Step 3: Calculate W w
Assume Ho = 4m. Normally Ho will be larger as it is measured from the base to the soil surface.

Eq. (10.72): c = cos(O + 10) - sin(O + 10) tan 20° = 3 5

IE (1- 0) (tan 20 tan5.T)
0
- .

Eq. (10.71): Ww = 3.5 [~X18 x 42 x (1 - 0)0.55]

= 277.2kN/m
Step 4: Calculate the weight of wall for static loading
Ka = 0.33

Eq. (10.73): F = 0.55(1 - 0) = 1 67

T 0.33 .

Eq. (10.75): C = cos(O + 10) - sin(O + 10) tan20° = 2 53

I tan 20 0
•

1
W = C1 X Pa = 2.53 x 2 x 18 X 42 x 0.33 = 120kN/m
Seismic amplification factor is

or
W w = 277.2 = 2 3
W 120 .

Step 5: Preliminary dimension 4m

The required weight of wall to limit displacement to 50mm with an FS = 1.5 is
Ww = 1.5 x 272.2= 408kN/m.
The area required per meter length of wall is Ww where 'Y c is the unit weight of
3 'Y c
concrete ('Y c = 24 kN 1m )
Area required = ~~ = 17 m With the dimension shown in Fig. ElO.11,
2

1
2(b+b+0.7) x4=17
la.7m
b=4m
FIGURE E10.11
This is a massive wall and could be costly. You should compare this
wall with a cantilever gravity wall.
•
EXAMPLE 10.12 Design of anchors for a tieback wall
A permanent anchored retaining wall is required to support an exit ramp along a highway. The soils investigation is
limited with only SPT values available. A cross section of the wall at a particular location is shown in Fig. E 1O.12a. As
a preliminary design, assume the anchors are located as shown in Fig. ElO.12a. Design the anchors as grouted anchors.
Assume a surcharge due to traffic load of 10 kPa.

Strategy Since only SPT values are given, you have to estimate the required soil parameters (<I>~s and 'Y). Use
conservative values particularly because the wall is permanent.
420 CHAPTER 10 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES-RIGID AND FLEXIBLE WALLS

Depth
Wall Exit ramp
---.---,~~,"~7.W~~~~--~~~~fiW-ry~~~~~~~~~~~O

2m

8m 4m 4m

8m

2m

12 m

29
••
'.
Pciorl~.gr~de~. 9,raye;wi!h.~~n·d·;GP)'
.... ." '.

16m
.....

20m

SPT values are always values over the depths given.

FIGURE E10.12a

Solution E10.12

Step 1: Make estimates of the soil parameters required. Take an average value of N60 within the excavated depth.

From Table B5.2, 'Y = 17kN/m3 , q,~ ~ 35° for (N60)avg = 10

For N60 = 8, q,~s ~ 29°
Use q,~s = 30° as a conservative value

Step 2: Calculate lateral earth pressures.

Most ofthe soils within the excavated depth are coarse-grained. Use the pressure distribution for coarse grained soils
(Fig. EI0.12b)

q,~s) = tan2 ( 45 - 2
0

Ka = tan2 ( 45 - 2
0 30 0 )
= 3"1
 10.15 SUMMARY 421

8m +

~
29.5 kPa 3.3 kPa
soil surcharge FIGURE E10.12b
Lateral earth pressure from soil is
cr~ = 0.65')' H 0 tan2 ( 45 - <l>Js)
1
= 0.65 x 17 x 8 x:3 = 29.5kPa
Lateral earth pressure from surcharge
1
= Kaqs =:3 x 10 = 3.3kPa

Step 3: Calculate forces in the anchors.

Use tributary area to estimate anchor force
Horizontal component
Top anchor,A x = (cr~ + Kaqs) (2 + ~)
= (29.5 +3.3)4 = 131.2kN/m
Bottom anchor,B x = (cr~ + Kaqs) (~+ D
= (29.5 +3.3)3 = 98.4kN/m
Required anchor force
A = Ax x S = 131.2 x 2.5 = 349 kN
cos 20' cos 20'

B = Bx x S = 98.4 x 2.5 = 262 kN

cos 20' cos 20'

You can adjust the anchor depths so that the anchor forces are about equal. We will not do this here.
Step 4: Calculate the unbonded length of anchors.

Top anchor: L = 6 tan 30' = 3 7

f cos 20' . m

Bottom anchor: L = 2tan30' = 1.2m

f cos 20
Minimum unbonded length is the greater of 3m or (2m + If) [see Figure E10.12c]
Top anchor: Lu = 2 + 3.7 = 5.7m; use 5.7m

Bottom anchor: Lu = 2 + 1.2 = 3.2 m > 3 m; use 3.2 m

422 CHAPTER 10 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES-RIGID AND FLEXIBLE WALLS

_..----::::-:::Failure surface
Wff&#ff&#&.ar -7-
I I
I < I
- _____ -II~I
0° I I
I
8m

6m

I
I

FIGURE E10.12c

Step 5: Calculate the bonded length.

Assume bond length within the SW-SM soil.
From Table 10.3, use an ultimate transfer rate of 100 kN/m
Maximum design anchor force = 349 kN
Assume a factor a safety, FS = 2
· b d1 h _ Maximum anchor force x FS
M aXlmum on engt - 100kN/m
349 x 2
Top anchor: --wo- = 7m < 12m (okay)
262 x 2
Bottom anchor: --wo- = 5.2 m, use 7 m to keep the bond length the same as the top anchor

Step 6: Select tendons.

Try steel grade 150 ksi, diameter = 32 mm.
The minimum prestressing force is 501 k N; which is greater than 349 kN; okay
Step 7: Check that top anchor meets minimum depth requirement from surface.
Top anchor total length = 7 + 5.7 = 12.7 m
Depth from surface to end of anchor = 12.7 sin 20° + 2 = 6.34m > 4.5 m; okay
Step 8: Summarize design.

Anchor length (m) bonded length (m) Reqd. Capacity (kN) Capacity provided (kN)

Top 12.7 7 349 501

Bottom 10.2 7 262 501

Tendons: 32 mm Grade 150 bar

A global stability check is required.

•
EXAMPLE 10.13 Numerical analysis of an anchored tieback wall- Staged excavation
A tieback wall is required for an excavation 9m(27 ft) deep, 100 m(300 ft) long and 20m (60 ft) wide. Grouted
anchors fastened to the wall face will be used as tiebacks. Relevant details are given in Fig. ElO.13a. Initially steel
sheet piles will be driven to 15 m (45 ft) into the soil and then the excavation will be done in five stages. Each stage will
consist of 2 m (6 ft) of excavation except the final stage, which will be 1 m (3 ft) of excavation. After the first sheet
2 m (6 ft) is excavated, the first tier of anchors will be installed. In the fourth stage, 8 m (24 ft) of excavation, the
second tier of anchors will be installed. Analyze the excavation process using a computer program.
 10.15 SUMMARY 423

1 m (3 tt) Dense sand

4m <1>' = 43°, CJ.p = 0°
(12 It)
Y= 16 kN/m 3, (density = 1631 kg/m )
3
Excavation
6 7
6m G= 6.6 x 10 Pa, K= 1.0 x 10 Pa
9m (18 It)
(27 tt) Medium Dense sand
<1>'= 38°, CJ.p = 0°
3 3
Y = 20 kN/m (density = 2039 kg/m )
6
G=16x 10 Pa
7
K= 3.47 x 10 Pa

Anchor

6m
(18 It) Clay
<1>' = 20°, CJ. p = 7°, Su = 56 kPa
Y = 18 kN/m 3, (density = 1837 kg/m 3 )
G= 8.0 x 106 Pa, K = 2.09 X 107 Pa

Notes

E = Young's modulus
G = Shear modulus
Wall Properties
K = Bulk modulus
E = 5 x 108 Pa, second moment of area = 3 x 10-3m 4,
2
area = 0.33m
Tieback properties
Slope of all tiebacks is 3:1 and the grout length is 15.8 m
The total lengths of upper tieback and the lower tieback are 31.6 m and 28.5 m
Area = 0.0103m2, E = 4.65 X 10 3 Pa
Tensile yield strength = 24750 N
Grout bond stiffness = 7 x 106 N
Grout bond strength = 1000 N/m
FIGURE E10.13a

Strategy In this example, you have to simulate the excavation of the soil and the installation of the grouted
anchors. This is often called staged construction. The program FLAC will be used. SI units will be used in solving this
example problem.

Solution 10.13

Step 1: Set up a mesh and input the necessary data.

A grid 40 x 31(mesh size 1 m x 1 m) is used as shown in Fig. 10.13b
Step 2: Select a soil model.
For a preliminary simulation, the soils are modeled as linearly elastic-rigid plastic materials with failure according to
the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.
Step 3: Decide on stress state to simulate.
The excavation is long, so plane strain condition is selected.
Step 4: Simulate the excavation process.
Some results are shown in Figs. ElO.13c to ElO.13e.
424 CHAPTER 10 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES-RIGID AND FLEXIBLE WALLS

3.500

3.000

2.500

2.000

1.500

1.000

0.500

0.000

-0.500

0.000 0.750 1.500 2.250 3.000 3.750

(A1 OA1)
FIGURE E10.13b Mesh used.

(1if1)

3.500

3.000

2.500

2.000

1.500

1.000

0.500

0.000

-0.500

0.000 0.750 1.500 2.250 3.000 3.750

(lOA 1)
FIGURE E10.13c Stage 1: Excavation and insertion of first anchor.
 10.15 SUMMARY 425

3.500

3.000

2.500

2.000

1.500

1.000

0.500

0.000

-0.500

0.000 0.750 1.500 2.250 3.000 3.750

(A10A1)
FIGURE E10.13d Stage 4: Excavation and insertion of second tier of anchor.

3.000

2.500

2.000

1.500

1.000

0.500

0.000

-0.500

-0.500 0.250 1.000 1.750 2.500 3.250 4.500

C10A1)
FIGURE E10.13e Displacement vectors and deformed mesh at end of the excavation process.
•
426 CHAPTER 10 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES-RIGID AND FlEXIBLE WALLS

EXERCISES

1. Plot the variation of active and passive lateral pressures 5. Determine the stability of the cantilever wall shown in
with depth for the soil profile shown in Fig. PlO.1. Fig. PlO.5 and sketch a drainage system to prevent buildup
of porewater pressures behind the wall.

3
'Ysot = 17 kN/m (106 pet)
4m $'cs = 20°

Backfill
Y =18.5 kN/m 3 (116 pel)
3
'Ysot = 18 kN/m (113 pet) <I>'cs = 30°
$'cs = 30° 0=20°

3
'Ysot = 17.8 kN/m (111 pet)
$'cs=2r

i - 4.5m (15ft) _I
Base soil
Clay:Y = 19 kN/m3 (119 pcf). <I>~ = 30°, <1>. = 20°, Su = 94 kPa (2000 pel)
FIGURE P10.1
FIGURE P10.5
2. A retaining wall 8 m(26 ft) high supports a soil of
saturated unit weight 18 kN 1m3 (113 pef), <P~s = 30°. The
backfill is subjected to a surcharge of 15 kPa. Calculate 6. A cast-in-place (ClP) cantilever wall is required to
the active force on the wall if (a) the wall is smooth and (b) maintain the grade for a freeway. A preliminary wall
the wall is rough (0 = 20°). Groundwater is below the base dimension is shown in Fig. PlO.6. Determine the stability
of the wall. of the wall and show how you would provide adequate
3. A retaining wall 5 m (16 ft) high was designed to drainage. Use Rankine's method.
stabilize a slope of ISO. The back of the wall is inclined
10° to the vertical and may be assumed to be rough with
o= 20°. The soil parameters are <P~s = 30° and Ysat =
17.5 kN/m3 (UOpef). After a flood, the groundwater level,
which is usually below the base of the wall, rose to the
surface. Calculate the lateral force on the wall. Neglect
seepage effects.
4. Determine the stability of the concrete gravity wall
shown in Fig. P lOA.

Compacted sand

$' = 32°
'Y ': 18 kN/m 3 (113 pet) FIGURE P10.6
0= 15°
3
'Yc = 24 kN/m (150 pet)
7. The drainage system of a cantilever wall shown in Fig.
PlO.7 became blocked after a heavy rainstorm and the
Base soil: Coarse-grained soil groundwater level, which was originally below the base,
3
$'cs = 30°,'Y = 19 kN/m ,$'b = 20° rose to 1.5 m below the surface. Determine the stability of
the wall before and after the rainfall. Neglect seepage
FIGURE P10.4 effects.
 EXERCISES 427

10. An anchored sheet pile is shown in Fig. PIO.IO.

Determine the embedment depth, the maximum bending
moment, and tne force on the anchor per unit length of
wall. Use either FSM (FeI> = 1.25) or the NPPM with
(FS)r = 1.5. Assume the soil above the groundwater to
be saturated .

. -±-
~t:~~~~~~~0.4 m (1.3ft) qs = 10 kPa (200 pst)
f+----- 4.5 m (15 ft) ------+j T
Base soil: Coarse-grained soil

Y,., = 19 kN/m 3 (119 pct). <I>'e, = 32°, <Pb = 20° 1 m (3 f t t .....,;;.;.;........;;;...,................... Anchor block
1 m (3 tt)
~~.';....2L.c..,~"---.;,:.-
FIGURE PlO.7

4m(13ft)
8. Determine the embedment depth, d, and maximum
bending moment for the cantilever sheet pile wall shown
in Fig. PIO.S. Use the factored strength method (FSM) with
FeI> = 1.25.
Coars~'grain~d soil
<I>'cs= 29",1= 17 kN/m 3 (106 pct), FIGURE PlO.10
degreecifSaturation, S = 0.9, 1) = 0°

11. Determine the depth of embedment and the anchor

force per unit length of wall for the retaining wall shown in
Fig. PlO.ll using FMM. Assume the soil above the ground-
water to be saturated and 8 = 0°.
FIGURE PlO.S

9. Determine the embedment depth, d, and maximum

bending moment for the cantilever sheet pile wall shown
in Fig. PIO.9. for long-term conditions. Use the FSM with
FeI> = 1.25, and the NPPM with (FS)r = 1.5. Compare the
results. The degree of saturation is denoted as S.

qs =10 kPa (200 pst)

t

== = = = =: Fine-grained soil = = = == = = 1m(~~~~~~~~E

Y= 17.2 kNP (108 pet), S = 0.8, <\l~s = 27°,~
Su =55 kPa (1150 psf)=-~~~~~~~~.o

/) = ~ <\l~s¥ ~ ~~::=::::::::=:::: ~::=:::: 6 m (20 ft)

I -:::.::. -= -=-= -==
-- - - - -- -=
- -=Soft
- clay:::-:::'::' -= -=
- -- - -=
- -:::.::.
-- -= - -=
- -=-.:
- -

==Ysat = 18.8 kN/m 3 (118 pet), <\l~s = 30°,::::::::::~

--=~su =40 kPa (800 pst) - -

-----'L-I-t= -- - - - -- - - - -- - - - -- - - - -- - -

';;~~~-=~ ~ Ysat = 19.2 kN/m 3 (120 pet), <\l~s = 28°,:;~

~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ _ ~ -= Su = 110 kPa (2300 pst)

FIGURE PlO.9 FIGURE PlO.11

428 CHAPTER 10 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES-RIGID AND FLEXIBLE WALLS

12. A cantilever sheet pile wall is required to temporarily 14. A braced excavation is required in a soft clay as shown
support an embankment for an access road as shown in Fig. in Fig. PlO.14. Determine the load on the struts per meter
P10.12. Determine the depth of penetration of the wall and length and the factor of safety against bottom heave.
the maximum bending moment. Select two methods from 15. A cantilever retaining wall is required to support a cut
FMM, FSM, and NPPM, and compare the results. Ground- near a residential area. A preliminary geometry of the wall is
water is 10m(32ft) below the surface. shown in Fig. P10.15. A masonry wall 3 m (10ft) high will sit
20 kPa (400 pst)
on top of the wall, centered. The masonry wall load (includ-
ing construction loading) is 9kN/m(600Ib/ft) and the uni-
++++++++

_-= Silty elay soil

~ =- Ysat = 19 kN/m 3 (113 pet) ,=-
=~ Su = 50 kPa (1050 pst) =~
; ~ <I>~s = 27° Backfill and base soil
coarse-grained soils
<j>'e, = 28°
<j>~ = 38°
FIGURE P10.12 <j>'b = 25°
Y = 17.5 kN/m3(110 pet)
13. Calculate the strut loads per meter-length for the
braced excavation shown in Fig. PlO.13.

3.5 m
(11.5 It)

FIGURE P10.15

form loading from the homesite is lOkPa(200psf).

The wall rotation is limited to 0.0005 Ho (Ho is the height of
the wall). Check the adequacy of the wall. Determine a
suitable wall geometry if the given geometry is unsatisfac-
tory. Sketch a drainage scheme for the wall. (Hint: The
tolerable wall is very small; it is less than the wall rotation to
mobilize the active earth pressure.)
16. A retaining wall is required to support a highway cut
FIGURE P10.13
5m (15ft) high as shown in Figure P10.16. The wall will be
backfilled with the existing soil sieved through a 25 mm (1 n)
mesh. Proctor compaction tests on the backfilled soil gave a

A 0.3~11t)
T
1.8 m (6 It) == Fine-grained soil
1
,,-==c.:-===.:-====::-c:=-==c.:-===.:-==:c.cr-=B'--------i--CF_-== Y,al = 19 kN/m 3 (119 pel)
:cc~~~~~ T ~ $'cs = 25'
~~~g~~ ~C 1.81(61t) r ~s".:.~_~~(800PSI)
t ~
1.8 m (6 It) _______ _
~~~~~~=U~D~______~+~-o~~=--=--=-~~~=-cc
~~~-;'-:;'-:...- 0.4 m\1.25 It) ~:~~~-=
======
---- -
- - -- -
--~---

- - -- - - - -- -
- 6m-- -
- - -- - - -
t
-- - -
It ----- ---
- -- - - - Mixed gravel, boulders and sand

FIGURE P10.14 FIGURE P10.16

 EXERCISES 429

maximum dry unit weight of 17.5 kN/m3 (110 pcf) and an 150 kPa(3 ksf) on the ground surface. The soil investigation
optimum water content of 6%. Direct shear box tests were was limited with only SPT's conducted at approximately
conducted by compacting the soil in the shear box to a unit every 2 m (6 ft) in 4 boreholes. Four soil layers were
weight equivalent to the Proctor maximum dry unit weight identified using the information from these tests. The
and optimum water content. The results at a vertical stress of average N60 values and the soil classification according
100 kPa(2 ksf) are <P~ = 42° and <p~ = 32°. Assume the base to USCS for each layer are shown in the Figure PI0.17.
soil is the same as the backfill with <p~ = ~ <p~. Peak horizontal One proposed method of supporting the excavation is a
ground acceleration and peak velocity in the area are 0.2 g and tieback anchored retaining wall. The wall will be con-
0.25 m/sec(0.8 ft/sec). Compare the designs of amass gravity structed by installing a soil-cement mix columns (secant
and a cantilever gravity wall to limit horizontal movement to wall) along the perimeter of the excavation to create a
75 mm (3 in) in a seismic event. Design a drainage system for water tight boundary for inside of the excavation. This wall
the wall. Rainfallin the area is 200 mm (8 in) per year. State all will be constructed by simultaneously drilling and mixing
assumptions made and make scaled drawings of your designs. the soil with injected cement slurry to form overlapping
columns. The bottom of the soil mix columns will be
17. An excavation 9m (30ft) deep is required for a park- embedded in the Marl (a rock like material of fine-grained
ing structure near several multi-storey office buildings. soils bonded by calcium carbonate) to completely block
These buildings exert an average vertical stress of water from flowing into the excavation. Soldier piles (steel I

A •
Secan t wall throughout
Existing
multi-storey
offices
/
tom (130ft)

Existing
multi-storey
offices
A •
Proposed
parking
structure
fO m (165ft)

, ) . 60m
•
80m
(260ft) (200 ft)

(a) Plan

Excavation
6~m[(3ft)
9m (18 ft)
(27ft)

Marl-SPT tests could

not be conducted; refusal
(b) Section A-A
FIGURE PlO.17
430 CHAPTER 10 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES-RIGID AND FLEXIBLE WALLS

beams) of size 457mm x 74.4kg/m(W18 x 50lb) will be the surface. Anchor spacing laterally is 5 m (5 ft).
installed in alternate soil-cement mix columns immediately Clearly state all assumptions used.
after the drilling and when the soil-cement mix is still wet. 4) Estimate the loads on both anchors at full excavation.
The soldier piles will be fastened laterally using steel chan-
S) Determine the lengths of the anchors.
nels. Grouted anchors fastened to the steel channels will be
used as tiebacks. Groundwater level is 20 m (65 ft) below the 6) Is it better to have the bonded length of the bottom
ground surface. The excavation will be done in stages. anchor in the Marl or the normally consolidated clay
with silt lens? Justify your answer.
The soil cement mix has the following properties.
1) Estimate the relevant soil parameters required for the
design of the anchors. Unit weight = 24kN/m3 (0.15kcf),
E = 5 x 106kPa(1000ksf), G = 2 x 106 kPa(4000ksf),
2) Discuss the accuracy of the soil parameters and how it and shear strength = 180kPa(3.6ksf).
affects the design.
3) Making reasonable assumptions, estimate the load on
the top anchor when the excavation is 4 m (13 ft) below
 ~
I

1~-~-'"-/4~-+-~=l=~-+-~~j---~---1 0.80
0.60
0040
0.00
-0040
1L....-----1._----1._----1._----1._..L-_.L.....:::::::",.J_0.80
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
<p' (degrees) <p' (degrees)
FIGURE C.1 Vertical component of the active lateral pressure coefficient. (Plotted from data published
by Kerisel and Absi, 1990.)

461
462 APPENDIX C LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS (KERISEL AND ABSI, 1970)

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
<1>' (degrees) <1>' (degrees)

~~ ~~
0.80
0.80
0.40
0.60
0.00 0.40
-0.40
-0.80 0.00
-0.40
0.1 -0.80
0'\0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
<1>' (degrees) <1>' (degrees)

. . . . . . . . . F""'."':+'"'c. . . . . .""'. . "'1 0.80

0.60
0.40
0.00
-0.40
o 1 '------'_--'-_-'-_--'-_--'--_-'----->01 -0.80
'10 1520 25 30 35 40 45
<1>' (degrees)
FIGURE C.2 Horizontal componant of the active lateral pressure coefficient. (Plotted from data published by Kerisel and
Absi,1990.)
 APPENDIX C LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS (KERISEL AND ASS!. 1970) 463

~ ~

1:<"'- 10 1:<"'-
-0.20

-0.20 -0.40
-0.40 -0.60
-0.60
1 0.1 -0.80
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
$' (degrees) $' (degrees)
1000 131$' 1000 ~W

1.00
100
~¥~1.60
···7·,······:;,...···'1.40

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
$' (degrees) $' (degrees)

1000

1.00
100 1.60
1.40
~

1:<"'-
1.40
-0.20
10 -0.40
-0.60
-0.80

1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
$' (degrees)
FIGUREC.3 Horizontal componant of the passive lateral pressure coefficient. (Plotted from data published by Kerisel and
Absi,1990.)
--- ----------------~--~~-~-~-~--------

464 APPENDIX C LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS (KERISEL AND ABS!, 1970)

<1>' (degrees) <1>' (degrees)

<1>' (degrees) <1>' (degrees)

FIGURE C.4 Vertical componant of the passive lateral pressure coefficient. (Plotted from data published by Kerisel and
Absi,1990.)
co
c