1

FUELS FOR ENGINES

CHAPTER IV PART I
 Introduction
2

 Why do we study about Fuel for IC Engine?

 Because fuel properties affect the combustion process in engine
and its operation
 Engines are designed to run on fuels that meet certain standards
in terms of chemical and physical properties
 Quality of fuel can affect engine durability
 To understand the attendant ill-effect of fuels that used for IC
engine on environment and human health
 Depletion of petroleum based fuel for IC Engine from time to time
 Introduction
3

Basics of Combustion
 Introduction
4

 In order to generate Heat, Combustion of Fuel are required

Combustion
Fuel+ Air Flue Gas+ Heat

 Therefore the fundamental knowledge of different types of Fuel

characteristics is essential in order to understand the combustion
process
 Introduction
5

 Fuel used currently for IC engines and some of its associated

aftermaths: pollution, global warming and resource constraints
 Environment & Energy Restriction
6

 Global warming problem

 To minimize global warming severe reduction of CO2 emission into the
atmosphere has become universal agenda
 Air pollution problem
 Reduction of toxic substances from vehicle has become a vital issues such as
 Carbon monoxide (CO), Sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), and
Particulate matter, PM2.5

 Resource and energy problem

 Transportation sector’s overdependence on petroleum must be reduced
(adaptation of alternative fuels is necessary, etc.)
 Air Pollution Issue of SI engine
7

The above motives can be achived through engine modification, after

treatment , fuel reformation and adaptation of alternative fuel
 TWC convertor
8
 Air Pollution Issue of CI Engine
9

The above motives can be achived through engine modification,

after treatment, fuel reformation and adaptation of alternative
fuels
 Fuels for Engines
10

 IC Engines can be operated on different types of

fuels
1. Gaseous
2. Liquid
3. Originally solid also but now very rarely used.

May be
1. Naturally available or
2. Artificially derived
 Solid Fuels
11

 Solid fuels have little practical application at the present

because of

 Problem of handling
 Disposing of the solid residue or ash
 Feeding are quite cumbersome

 Therefore this fuels have become unsuitable for I.C Engine

application.
 Gaseous Fuels
12

 Gaseous Fuels are ideal and pose very few problems in

using them in IC engine
 Main gaseous fuels for engines are
 Natural gas – from nature
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas - from refineries
 Producer gas - from coal or biomass
 Biogas - from biomass
 Hydrogen – from many sources
 Gaseous Fuels
13

 Advantages of Gaseous Fuels

 Mix more homogeneously with air
 Eliminate starting problems
 Disadvantage
 Storage and handling Problem
 Therefore gaseous fuels are commonly used for stationary power
plants located near the source of available of the fuel.
 Some of the gaseous fuel can be liquefied under pressure for
reducing the storage volume but this arrangement is very
expensive and risky
 Gasous fuel
14

Natural gas
 Found compressed in porous rock and shale formations sealed in
rock layer underground.
 Frequently exists near or above oil deposits.

 Is a mixture of hydrocarbons and non hydrocarbons in gaseous

phase or in solution with crude oil.

 Raw gas contains mainly methane plus lesser amounts of ethane,

propane, butane and pentane, negligible sulfur, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide and helium are present.
 Gasous fuel
15

Natural Gas

 Natural Gas may be used as

• Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).
• Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).
 Natural Gas can be made artificially called substitute, or
synthetic or Supplemental Natural Gas (SNG).
 Natural gas
16

Preparation of Natural Gas

1. Separation of liquid and gas. Liquid may be a hydrocarbon
present in the gas well along with the gas.

2. Dehydration. Water is corrosive and hydrates may form which will

plug the flow. Water will also reduce the calorific value of the gas.

3. Desulfurization. Presence of hydrogensulfide is undesirable. The

gas is called sour. When the sulfur is removed the gas is
sweetened.
 Natural Gas
17

 Composition
90-95% methane
0-4% nitrogen,
4% ethane and
1-2% propane.
Advantages of Natural Gas
 Methane is a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential
approximately 4 times that of carbon dioxide.
 Its C/H ratio is lower than that of gasoline so its CO2 emissions
are 22-25% lower (54.9 compared to 71.9 g CO2/MJ fuel).
 Has higher calorific values
 Comparison of CNG with Gasoline
18

Calorific Octane Auto-ignition

Values Number Temp (oC)
(Kcal/kg)

Gasoline 10, 400 92 390

Diesel 10, 200 low 280

CNG 11, 200 130 640

 Natural Gas
19

 If an engine is switched to CNG from gasoline, the non-methane

organic gases like CO and NOx, all reduced by 30-60%.

 Toxic emissions like benzene, butadiene and aldehydes were much

less than with gasoline.

 Natural gas can replace diesel fuel in heavy-duty engines with the
addition of a spark ignition system.

 Engines operate at  = 0.7 giving low in-cylinder temperatures and

hence low NOx.
 Natural Gas in IC Engines
20

 Heavy-duty natural gas engines are designed to meet low emission vehicle
(LEV) emission standards without a catalytic converter and will meet ULEV(Ultra-
Low Emission Vehicle) emission standards with a catalytic converter.

 For heavy-duty applications, dual fuel operation is attractive, for buses,

locomotives, ships, compressors and generators. They are operated lean to
reduce NOx.

 However, at light loads, the lean combustion conditions will degrade the
combustion process increasing HC and CO emissions.
 Typical Composition of Producer gas
21

Producer gas is a mixture of combustible gases consist of carbon monoxide

,hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen etc usually produced by
gasification process from any carbon contained materials such as biomass, coal,
petroleum, municipal waste etc

Component Percentage  Energy density of

Hydrogen 20 stoichiometric fuel-air
mixture
Carbon Monoxide 19.5
Carbon Dioxide 12.5  Producer gas: 2.5 MJ/m3
Methane 2
 Gasoline-air: 3.5 MJ/m3
Nitrogen 46
Octane Number 100-105  Diesel-air: 3.3 MJ/m3
Lower Heating Value 6.7 MJ/m3
 Liquid Fuels
22

 The three commercial types of liquid fuels are

 Benzol- a by product of high temperature coal carburization and

consist principally of benzene (C6H6) and toluene (C7H8)

 Alcohol- used as a fuel after blending it with gasoline

 Petroleum Products- the main fuels for IC engines (gasoline,

kerosene, diesel oil)
 Liquid Fuels
23

 In most of the modern IC engines, liquid fuels are being used,

which are derivatives from liquid petroleum.

 Crude petroleum consists of

 A mixture of large number of hydrocarbons

 Small amounts of sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen, and

 Impurities such as water and sand

 Liquid hydrocarbon fuels
24

 The basic families of liquid hydrocarbon fuels, their general

formula and their molecular structure is shown in table below

Family General Formula Molecular Arr.

Paraffin CnH2n+2 Chain

Olefin CnH2n Chain
Diolefin CnH2n-2 Chain
Naphthene CnH2n Ring
Aromatic CnH2n-4 Ring
 Paraffins (Alkanes)
25

 Consists of a straight chain (open chain) molecular structure like

methane, ethane, propane etc
E.g. Butane

Suffix “ane”

 The valence of each carbon atom is fully utilized in combining, by

a single bond, with other carbon atoms and with hydrogen atoms.

 They are termed as saturated compounds and characteristically

very stable
 Branch-chain paraffin
26

 Branch-chain paraffin has the same general chemical formula as the

straight-chain paraffin but a different molecular structure and
different physical characteristics and are called isomers.

 E.g. Isobutane

 Branch chain paraffins have good anti-knock qualities when used as

SI engine fuels
 Olefins (Alkenes)
27

 Are chain compounds similar to paraffins

 Are unsaturated because they contain double bond like butene

 Are not stable due to the presence of the double bond

 E.g. butene

suffix “ene”
 Diolefins (Alkadiene)
28

 Are essentially olefins with two double bonds or triple bond

 Are unsaturated and rather unstable
 Tend to form gum deposits during storage by reacting with
oxygen
 E.g. butadiene
 Napthenes or Cycloparaffins
29

 Have the same general formula as olefins but with a ring structure
 Are often formed as Cyclo-paraffins
 Are saturated, and tend to be stable
 Aromatics
30

 are ring structure compounds based on the benzene ring

 While the double bonds indicate unsaturation, a peculiar nature of

these bonds causes this family to be more stable than the other
unsaturated families

 E.g. Benzene
 General Characteristics
31

 The above families of hydrocarbons exhibit general characteristics due to

their molecular structure which are summarized below
 Normal paraffins exhibit the poorest antiknock quality when used in
SI engine.
 But the antiknock quality improves with the increasing
 number of carbon atoms and
 the compactness of the molecular structure.

 The aromatics offer the best resistance to knocking in SI Engines.

 For CI engines, the order is reversed i.e.
 the normal paraffins are the best fuels and
 aromatics are the least desirable,
 General Characteristics
32

 As the number of atoms in the molecular structure increases, the

boiling temperature increases.
 Thus fuels with fewer atoms in the molecule tend to be more
volatile.

 The heating value generally increases as the proportion of

hydrogen atoms to carbon atoms in the molecule increases due to
the higher heating value of hydrogen than carbon.

 Thus, paraffins have the highest heating value and the aromatics
the least.
 Oxygenated Fuels
33

 Alcohol
 There is hydroxyl radical –OH in the molecules
 Example: Methanol, Ethanol
 Ethers – ignition improvers for diesels
 Dimethylether (DME) – proposed as a bio diesel fuel (CH3)2O
 Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)
(CH3)3COCH3 – Octane improvement in gas gasoline engines
 Oxygenated Fuels
34

Methanol CH3OH

CH 4  H 2O  CH 3OH  H 2

Ethanol C2H5OH

starch  water enzyme

 C12 H 22O11 (maltose)
C12 H 22O11  H 2O  2 C6 H12O6 (glucose)
enzyme

C6 H12O6    2CO2  2C2 H 5OH

fermentation
 CRUDE OIL
35

 Crude oil found in rock formations that were floors of oceans thousands of
thousand years ago

 Organic matter trapped by rocks and subjected to high pressure and

temperatures

 A mixture of water, dirt, and many different hydrocarbons of various molecular

shapes and sizes

 Date of first oil well drilling in USA: 1859, Titusville, PA

 Most fuels are a mixture of hydrocarbons CxHy, typically 86 % C and 14% H by

weight
 Composition of typical crude oil
36

 Carbon: 80-89%
 Hydrogen: 12-14%
 Nitrogen: 0.3-1.0%
 Sulfur: 0.3-3.0%
 Oxygen: 2.0-3.0%
 Plus
 Oxygenated compounds like phenols, fatty acids, ketones
 Metallic elements like vanadium and nickel.
 Typical Petroleum Refinery Products
37

Product Boiling Range, oC

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) -40 to 0
Motor Gasoline 30-200
Kerosene, jet fuel 170-270
Diesel Fuel 180-340
Furnace Oil 180-340
Lube Oils 340-540
Residual Fuel 340-650
Asphalt 540+
Petroleum Coke Solid
 Refinery processes
38

1. Distillation
2. Cracking
3. Reforming
4. Polymerization
5. Alkylation

Conversion
Distillation

Process

Blending
6. Isomerization Raw Mat.
Products

7. Hydrogenation
 Refinery processes
39

Fractional Distillation
 Separating using boiling point temperature.
 Liquid petroleum vaporized at 6000C
 The vapor admitted to fractionating tower at its bottom
 The vapor is forced to pass upward along a labyrinth-like
arrangement
 The vapor with higher boiling point condensed out at lower levels
 while those with lower boiling point moves up higher levels where
they get condensed at appropriate temperature
 The factional distillation can be done
 Atmospheric

 Vacuum

 Continues (Gas separation and stabilization)

40
 Refinery processes
41

Fractional Distillation
Fractions with
low boiling
points condense
at the top

Fractions with
high boiling
points condense
at the bottom
42
 Refinery processes
43

Cracking Process
 Braking down large and complex hydrocarbons molecules into simpler
compounds.
 Thermal Cracking
 Large hydrocarbon molecules at height temperature and pressure are
decomposed in to smaller, lower boiling point molecules
 Catalytic Cracking
 Using catalysts at relatively lower pressure and temperature thermal
cracking
 Naphthenes are cracked to olefins and paraffins
 Olefins to isoparaffins needed for gasoline

 Catalytic cracking gives better antiknock property for gasoline as compared

to thermal cracking
 Refinery Processes
44

 Hydrogenation/ Hydrocracking
 Cracks and adds hydrogen to molecules, producing a more saturated,
stable, gasoline fraction under high pressure and temperature.

 Isomerisation
 Changing the relative position of the atoms within the molecule of a
hydrocarbon without changing its molecular formula.
 Converting straight chain hydrocarbons into branched isomers
 Example
 Converting n-butane in to iso-butane for alkylation
 Conversion of n-pentane and n-hexane in to isoparaffins to improve knock
rating of highly volatile gasoline
 Refinery Processes
45

 Reforming
 converts saturated, low octane (low antiknock quality), hydrocarbons into
higher octane product containing about 60% aromatics.
 It doesn’t increase the total gasoline volume
 Alkylation
 Combines an olefin with an iso-paraffin to produce a branched chain iso-
paraffin in the presence of a catalyst
 reacts gaseous olefin streams with iso-butane to produce liquid high octane

iso-alkanes.
 Example
 butylene + iso butane iso-octane
alkyation
46

Alternative fuels
 The Need for Alternative Fuels
47

 Energy Security
 Peak Oil- the world’s production of oil is close to its peak

 Global warming
 Concerns and the need to reduce C02 emissions ( calculate
the amount of CO2 in grams emitted per kilometer for every
vehicles)

 Air Pollution
 HC, CO, SO2, NOx
 Alternative Fuels
48
 Petroleum Displacement Strategies
 Replace petroleum with alternative fuels and
low-level blends.

 Reduce by promoting energy efficiency in

vehicles through advanced technologies and
more fuel efficient vehicles.

 Eliminate by promoting idle reduction, Eliminate

greater use of mass transit, trip elimination,
and other congestion mitigation approaches.
Alternative Fuels Portfolio
Alternative Fuels Blended Fuels
 Biodiesel (B100, B20)  Biodiesel/diesel blends (B2,
 Electricity B5)
 Ethanol (E85)
 Hydrogen  Ethanol/gasoline blends (E10)
 Methanol
 Natural gas  Hydrogen/natural gas blends
 Propane (HCNG)
 P-Series
 Biodiesel Properties
 Produced from renewable sources such as new and used vegetable oils and
animal fats.

 Physical properties are similar to petroleum diesel.

 Biodiesel has positive performance attributes such as increased cetane, high

fuel lubricity, and high oxygen content, which may make it a preferred
blending stock with future ultra-clean diesel.

 Biodiesel has a flashpoint higher than 150C, compared with about 52°C
for petroleum diesel and biodiesel is safer to handle, store, and transport.
 Nontoxic and biodegradable
 Reduction of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matter
 Greenhouse gas and air quality benefits
Biodiesel Considerations
 Cold weather starting and storage issues
 8% less energy per gallon than petroleum diesel
 Pure biodiesel or biodiesel blended with petroleum diesel can be used to
fuel most diesel vehicles.
 Biodiesel Use

 B20 (20% biodiesel, 80% diesel) is the most

common blend in U.S.
 Used in all unmodified diesel engines.

 Has similar payload capacity, range,

horsepower, and torque as diesel.

Biodiesel Truck
 Used to fuel compression-ignition (diesel)
engines.

 Promises rural and urban microeconomic

benefits.
Electricity as a source of fuel for vehicle

 In an electric vehicle (EV) a battery or other energy

storage device stores electricity that powers the motor
 EV batteries must be replenished by plugging into an
electrical source or using an onboard charger.

 The electricity powers the vehicle's wheels via an

electric motor.
 Electricity can be generated by (or produced from)
coal, natural gas, nuclear, wind, and other renewable.

 Although electricity production may contribute to air

pollution, EVs are considered zero-emission vehicles
because their motors produce no exhaust or emissions.
 Electricity Considerations

 Range of 50-130 mile, energy storage

capacity limited

 Electricity costs vary depending on location,

type of generation, and time of use

 Vehicles with DC electric systems costs = 0.4

kilowatt-hours (kWh) per mile

 Vehicles with AC systems costs = 0.174 to

0.288 kWh per mile
 Electricity Use

 Electricity use are two types : for EVs and

HEVs, both use batteries.
 Hybrids use an electric motor or a
combination of a gasoline engine and
electric motor.
Hybrid Electric Vehicle
 Electricity sources for battery recharging
include electrical outlet, gasoline engine
onboard generator , regenerative braking.

 Hybrids use batteries to store electricity

produced by regenerative braking and the
onboard generator.
 Alcohol
57

 Alcohols are an attractive alternative fuel because they can be obtained from a
number of sources, both natural and manufactured.

 Alcohols have high octane fuel with anti-knock index number of over 100.

 Engine using high-octane fuel can run more efficiently by using higher
compression ratio.
 Generally lower overall emissions

 The two kinds of alcohol that seems most promising and have had the most
development as engine fuel.

 Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol)

 Methanol (Methy Alcohol) and
Ethanol

• Ethanol is a clear, colorless liquid.

• Ethanol is a high-octane fuel.
• It is an alcohol-based fuel produced primarily from, starch crops,
such as corn or sugarcane (first generation) or from cellulosic
biomass (second generation) or algae (third generation)

• Octane helps prevent engine knocking and is extremely important

in engines designed to operate at a higher compression ratio, so
they generate more power.

• Ethanol enhances the octane properties of gasoline and is used as

an oxygenate to reduce CO emissions.
 Ethanol
59

• Low-level blends of ethanol and gasoline, such as E10 generally

have a higher octane rating than unleaded gasoline.
• Ethanol is the main component in E85, a high-level blend of 85%
ethanol and 15% gasoline.
• Corn-based ethanol production and use reduces GHG emissions by
up to 52% compared with gasoline (cellulosic by 86%).
• Refueling infrastructure not in place in all areas.
• Corn-based ethanol has 27%-36% less energy content than
gasoline.
• Ethanol industry creates jobs and helps the economy.
 Ethanol
 Nearly half of U.S. gasoline contains ethanol as
E10.
 E85 is used in light-duty flexible fuel vehicles
(FFVs).

 FFVs can use 100% unleaded gasoline or any Flexible Fuel Vehicle
ethanol blend.
 FFVs have a 25% reduction in ozone-forming
emissions compared with gasoline.

 FFV power, acceleration, payload, and cruising

speed are comparable whether running on
ethanol or gasoline.
 Ethanol Use
Total U.S. Light-Duty E85 FFVs
8
7
Million FFVs

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008*

Source: Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center

 Methanol
62

 Pure methanol is labeled M100, and a mix of 85% methanol and 15%
gasoline is labeled M85.

 M85 has an octane rating of 102.

 The cetane number of methanol is low at about 5, but it can be used in

compression ignition engines with diesel fuel pilot ignition.
 Advantage of Alcohol
63

 When burned, it forms more moles of combustion, which

gives higher pressure and more power in the expansion
stroke.

 It has high evaporative cooling which result in a cooler

intake process and compression stroke, Raised volumetric
efficiency and reduced required work input.
 Disadvantage of Alcohol
64

 Low energy content of the fuel. This mean that almost twice as
much alcohol as gasoline must be burned to give the same energy
input to the engine.

 But the power would be the same, as the lower air-fuel ratio
needed by alcohol.

 More aldehydes in the exhaust. If as much alcohol fuel was

consumed as gasoline, aldehyde emissions is a serious problem.
 Disadvantage of Alcohol
65

 Much more corrosive than gasoline on copper, brass,

aluminum, rubber, and many plastics.

 In this context, it puts some restrictions on the design and

manufacturing of engines to be used with this fuel.

 Poor cold weather staring characteristics due to low vapor

pressure and evaporation.

 Poor ignition characteristics in general.

 Hydrogen
 Hydrogen exists in water, hydrocarbons (such as methane), and organic
matter.

 The energy in 1kg of hydrogen gas is about the same as the energy in
3.785 liter of gasoline.

 Steam reforming of methane (natural gas) accounts for about 95% of the
hydrogen produced in the U.S.

 Pure hydrogen contains no carbon thus burns to form water with no CO2
or CO emissions.

 Fuel-cell vehicles, powered by hydrogen, have the potential to

revolutionize future transportation system
Hydrogen

 Fuel-cell vehicle’s have the potential to be 2

to 3 times more efficient than gasoline
vehicles.

 Fuel cells use a direct electrochemical

reaction to produce electricity on board the
vehicle.

 A light-duty vehicle must store 5-8.6 kg of

hydrogen to drive about 300 miles.
 Hydrogen Use
 Currently used in modified internal
combustion engines.

 Honda FCX is the only commercially-

available vehicle. Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Vehicle

 Hydrogen can be blended with natural gas

to create a fuel for natural gas vehicles.
 Fuel cell vehicles
69

• In contrast to electric vehicles, fuel-cell vehicles produce their primary

electricity using a fuel cell. The fuel cell is powered by filling the fuel tank
with hydrogen.
• Like electric vehicles, fuel-cell vehicles use electricity to power motors located
near the vehicle's wheels.

• The most common type of fuel cell for vehicles is the polymer electrolyte
membrane (PEM) fuel cell. In a PEM fuel cell, an electrolyte membrane is
sandwiched between a positive electrode and a negative electrode.

• Because hydrogen has a low amount of energy by volume compared with

fuels such as gasoline, storing hydrogen on a vehicle using currently available
technology would require a very large tank

• Fuel-cell vehicles and the hydrogen infrastructure to fuel them are in an early
stage of development. Advanced technologies are needed to reduce the
required storage space and weight.
 Natural Gas Properties

 Mixture of hydrocarbons, predominantly methane (CH4)

 High octane rating of 120, which makes it a very good SI engine fuel.
 Engines can operate with a high compression ratio.
 High octane rating is due to a fast flame speed.
 Nontoxic, noncorrosive, and non-carcinogenic
 Not a threat to soil, surface water, or groundwater
 Compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG)
 Lower ozone-forming emissions than gasoline
 From gas and oil wells

 Low engine emissions, Less aldehydes than with methanol, and less CO2.
 Fuel is fairly abundant worldwide.
 Natural Gas Considerations
 NG vehicles cost more because of tank configuration.
 A CNG-powered vehicle gets about the same fuel
economy as a gasoline vehicle.
 To store more energy in a smaller volume, natural
gas can be liquefied (LNG)
 To produce LNG, natural gas is purified and
condensed into liquid by cooling to -162°C.
 At atmospheric pressure, LNG occupies only 1/600
the volume of natural gas in vapor form.
 Because of such cold temperatures, LNG is stored in
double-wall, vacuum-insulated pressure vessels.
 Natural Gas Use

 There are two types of natural gas vehicles: bifuel

and dedicated.
 Dedicated natural gas vehicles (NGVs) are
designed to run only on natural gas.

 Bi-fuel NGVs have two separate fueling systems CNG Vehicle

that enable the vehicle to use either natural gas or
a conventional fuel (gasoline or diesel).

 CNG can be used in light-, medium-, and heavy-

duty vehicles.
 LNG fuel systems are used with heavy-duty
vehicles and locomotives.
 Natural Gas Vehicles
73

• In general, dedicated NGVs demonstrate better performance and have lower emissions
than bi-fuel vehicles because their engines are optimized to run on natural gas.

• In addition, the vehicle does not have to carry two types of fuel, thereby increasing
cargo capacity and reducing weight

• Compared with vehicles fueled with diesel and gasoline, NGVs can produce significantly
lower amounts of harmful emissions.

• The driving range of NGVs generally is less than comparable gasoline- and diesel-
fueled vehicles because of the lower energy content of natural gas.

• Extra storage tanks can increase their range, but the additional weight of the tank may
displace payload capacity.

• NGV horsepower, acceleration, and cruise speed are comparable with those of an
equivalent conventionally-fueled vehicle.
 Natural Gas
74

 Disadvantage of Natural gas

 Low energy density resulting in low engine performance.

 Low engine volumetric efficiency because it is a gaseous fuel same reason as

LPG.

 Need for large pressurized fuel storage tank. Most test vehicles have a range
of only 200 km. There is some safety concern with a pressurized fuel tank.

 Inconsistent fuel properties

 Refueling is slow process.

Propane Properties

 By-product of natural gas processing and crude oil refining

 Known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

 High octane

 33%-41% less energy content per gallon than gasoline

 60% reduction in ozone-forming emissions compared with gasoline

 LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
76

 Propane (C3H8) is a saturated paraffinic hydrocarbon. When blended with

butane (C4H10) or ethane (C2H6), it is designated as liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG).

 LPG is obtained as a by-product from:

 The lighter hydrocarbon fractions produced during the crude oil refining.

 The heavier components of wellhead natural gas.

 A common LPG blend is P92, which is 92% propane and 8% butane.

 Propane has an octane number of 112 (RON), so it can raise the compression
ratio.

 Propane requires about 5o spark advance at lower engine speeds due to its
relative low flame speed.
Propane Considerations
 Nontoxic and no threat to soil, surface
water, or groundwater
 High energy density = good driving range
 Stored onboard a vehicle in a tank
pressurized to around 300 psi
 Range vs. payload reduction issue caused
by larger fuel tanks
 A gallon of propane about 25% less
energy than a gallon of gasoline

 Liquid Propane Injection engines—higher

fuel efficiency
 Widespread infrastructure
Propane Use

 Propane is the most used alternative

transportation fuel in the U.S. and the
world.
 Used in light- and medium-duty
vehicles, heavy-duty trucks, and
Propane Bus
buses.
 Many propane vehicles are converted
gasoline vehicles.
 Popular choice for non road vehicles
such as forklifts and agricultural and
construction vehicles.
 Alternative Fuel Prices

Source: Clean Cities Alternative Fuels Price Report,

Alternative Fuel Prices

Source: Clean Cities Alternative Fuels Price Report, April 2009

 Pros & Cons of Alt. Fuels
81
 Challenges of Alt. Fuels
82

 Both economy and engineering reasons.

 Cost of alternative fuel per unit of energy delivered can be
greater than gasoline or diesel fuel.

 The energy density of alternative fuels by volume is less than

gasoline or diesel fuel.

 Today the alternative fuelled engines can be modified or retrofitted

engines that were originally designed for gasoline or diesel fuelling.

 They are, therefore not the optimum design for the other fuels.