Journal of Sedimentary Research, 2011, v.

81, 97–117
Research Article
DOI: 10.2110/jsr.2011.10

HOLOCENE OOLITIC MARINE SAND COMPLEXES OF THE BAHAMAS

EUGENE C. RANKEY1 AND STACY LYNN REEDER2

1
Department of Geology, 1475 Jayhawk Boulevard, 120 Lindley Hall, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, U.S.A.
2
Schlumberger-Doll Research, One Hampshire Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT: Although the general factors influencing the occurrence and distribution of oolitic systems are well known, details
of their landscape-scale patterns and formative processes are less systematically explored. By reviewing published studies and
presenting new data and insights, this review systematically examines a suite of Holocene systems from the Bahamas in which
patterns and processes are characterized and explicitly linked, with the goal of providing more realistic and accurate models for
variability, heterogeneity, and predictability in these systems and their ancient analogs. Sedimentological, geomorphic, and
hydrodynamical data document that each ooid shoal is unique in detail, yet shoals share common elements. Within bar forms,
systematic trends in grain size, type, and sorting are related to spatial and temporal variability in wave, tide, and current
energy. These trends are driven by connections among sedimentology, hydrodynamics, and geomorphic forms, as they shape,
and concomitantly are shaped by, each other. Similarly, due to feedbacks, a limited number of bar forms occur among shoals,
including tidal sand ridges, parabolic bars, transverse shoulder bars, tidal deltas, and sand flats; the dominant bar form broadly
corresponds with flow velocities within and among shoals. Among Bahamian tidal shoals, the mean grain size of ooids,
maximum bar heights, and the width of the oolitic facies belts are all positively correlated. Collectively, these results illustrate
the mode and magnitude of variability in shapes, orientations, and sedimentology of Holocene oolitic bodies, interpreted to be
driven by self-organization and autogenic processes. These perspectives provide testable qualitative and quantitative insights
that can be used to understand and predict the character of ancient analogs.

INTRODUCTION Reeder and Rankey 2008), forming the primary basis for many facies
models for carbonate sand bodies (summarized in Bathurst 1975; Halley
Every geoscientist who has examined a core or outcrop knows that the
et al. 1983; Tucker and Wright 1990). These studies and summaries have
stratigraphic rock record is neither homogeneous nor isotropic. This
lucidly demonstrated that oolitic sand deposits occur in a variety of
ubiquitous stratigraphic heterogeneity is, in large part, the result of
geomorphic forms, some of which are clearly preserved in the geologic
inherent complexities in depositional systems and their changes through
time. At one scale, the variability of sequence geometries and record (papers in Keith and Zuppan 1993; Harris 2010; summarized by
stratigraphic stacking patterns are clearly impacted by sediment supply, Rankey and Reeder 2011). What has remained less clear are details of the
sea level, and tectonics; these processes are reasonably well understood in relations between sediment accumulation patterns and depositional
carbonate systems (Handford and Loucks 1993; Sarg 1988; Lehrmann processes and how these vary among oolitic sand deposits.
and Goldhammer 1993; papers in Lukasik and Simo 2008). Yet, at a finer In this context, the purpose of this study is to review and compare
scale, individual facies bodies in the geologic record represent the relationships among sedimentological patterns, geomorphology, and
footprint of geomorphic evolution through time, and controls on hydrodynamical processes within and among a suite of Holocene oolitic
variability at this facies scale are less well constrained. An important tidal systems in the Bahamas, illustrating the nature and origin of
first step towards quantitative and predictive understanding of the details persistent depositional themes and motifs. Individually and collectively,
of facies-scale depositional heterogeneity centers on assessing facies the results demonstrate how feedbacks within the depositional-geomor-
bodies at one point in time, examining the range of natural variability phic shoal systems lead to the emergence of systematic trends in
within facies, and clarifying relations between depositional processes and sediments, bars, and facies belts, which could serve as more realistic
resultant patterns. and accurate models for variability, heterogeneity, and predictability in
Oolitic sands represent one important class of heterogeneous strati- ancient oolitic systems.
graphic systems. They form one of the few types of carbonate particles
found in strata from the Archean to the Recent, and, as such, oolitic sand SETTING
deposits have provided important information on paleoclimate, paleo- Geology and Geography
ceanography, and sea-level change through geologic time. To better
understand the characteristics of ancient oolitic systems, modern The Bahamian archipelago is formed of Pleistocene and Holocene
Bahamian oolitic sands have been used as analogs for decades (e.g., Ball islands which cap a series of shallow isolated carbonate platforms
1967; Hine 1977; Dravis 1977; Harris 1979; Palmer 1979; Hine et al. 1981; (Fig. 1). Bordered by the Straits of Florida and Old Bahama Channel to
Curtis 1985; Gonzalez and Eberli 1997; Rankey et al. 2006; Cruz 2007; the west and the open Atlantic Ocean to the east, this section of the

Copyright E 2011, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 1527-1404/11/081-097/$03.00

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 98 E.C. RANKEY AND S.L. REEDER JSR

FIG. 1.—Satellite image of the Bahamas, illustrating the locations of the oolitic systems discussed in detail in this paper (yellow in the on-line version, italics in the print
version), and other locations mentioned, but not documented in detail. SoF 5 Straits of Florida; OBC 5 Old Bahama Channel; CAP 5 Crooked–Acklins Platform;
TOTO 5 Tongue of the Ocean. Remotely sensed image from NASA Visible Earth. http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view_rec.php?id52651.

Caribbean spans both tropical and subtropical conditions, stretching Oceanographic Influences
from around 20u to 28u N latitude. It is geographically located within a
triangular region bounded by Florida to the northwest, Cuba to the The hydrodynamics of the platform tops in the Bahamas result from
southwest, and Hispaniola to the south. interactions of winds, waves, and tides (Smith 1995; Reeder and Rankey
The Bahamian platforms consist of more than 5 km of carbonate 2008; Rankey and Reeder 2010). The Bahamian archipelago is located in
sediments and strata (Meyerhoff and Hatten 1974; Eberli and Ginsburg the trade-wind belt, which affects latitudes between about 4u and 30u on
1987, 1989). These generally flat-topped platforms include 29 islands, either side of the equator. The easterly trade winds in the Bahamas can
over 600 cays, and thousands of islets. Many of these islands consist of exceed speeds of 10 m/s during the peak windy season of the winter
Pleistocene carbonate eolianite dunes, subtidal sands, and reef-associated months, but blow strong (. 5 m/s) throughout the year. Besides these
deposits (Garrett and Gould 1986; Aurell et al. 1995; Kindler and Hearty quotidian winds from the east, fierce winds from seasonal storms and
1996; Carew and Mylroie 1997; Hearty and Neumann 2001). fronts affect the archipelago. In the winter months (December–March),

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 JSR HOLOCENE BAHAMIAN OOLITIC SAND 99

northwesterly cold fronts bring winds that shift from the east to the south, channels slope up to the rocky island flanks, which are hard-bottomed with
west, and finally, north, with the strongest winds coming from the west to hard and soft coral growth with some seagrass-stabilized highs.
northwest. The archipelago is also prone to tropical cyclones during Because the Double Breasted Cays shoal complex is protected between
hurricane season (June–November). Due to the cyclical nature of these two parallel Pleistocene islands, winds and waves have relatively little
storms, the hurricane-force winds can blow from all directions, but the impact on the shoal, and it is tidally dominated. Tides at Double Breasted
strongest winds during a hurricane occur in the right-front quadrant. For Cays range in amplitude between 75 cm and 100 cm. Due to the
many of the historical tracks of storms passing through the Bahamas, this configuration of the islands and the shoal, ebbing and flooding tides
strongest wind direction was from the northwest. follow distinct trajectories through the area (Fig. 3B–E). With each flood
Despite the strong winds across open water, incident wave heights on tide, the highest velocities occur in the southeasternmost point of the large
the platforms are small. The open-ocean waves shoal as they approach inlet, near the northernmost tip of the northern Pleistocene island. After
the shallow platforms from the deep waters of the Straits of Florida, Old passing the rocky inlet, some currents are deflected around the sandy
Bahama Channel, or the Atlantic Ocean, greatly reducing their energy. In shoal, and currents in the southern channel exceed 60 cm/s. In contrast,
some cases, these waves break upon hitting the platform edge or reef- the flood currents of the northern channel rarely exceed 20 cm/s. During
rimmed margin, and, as a result, the platform interiors rarely experience ebb tide, however, the hydrodynamics of the channels are reversed, with
waves with significant wave heights over 1 m (Reeder and Rankey 2009a, current speeds exceeding 100 cm/s in the northern channel and much
2009b; Rankey and Reeder 2010). The orbital velocities at the sediment– lower velocities in the southern channel. Similar mutually evasive
water interface generated by these waves are generally much less than hydrodynamic patterns have been observed in siliciclastic tidal systems
25 cm/s, only strong enough to transport finer sediments. (van Veen 1950; Hayes 1975; Harris 1988).
Although the wave-related bottom currents are insufficient to transport The geomorphology of Double Breasted Cays and its mutually evasive
coarser sediments and generate larger bedforms, tidal currents in the area hydrodynamic flow pattern motivated the ‘‘spin cycle’’ conceptual model
exceed the threshold velocities of most sediment grain sizes. The tidal range (Fig. 3F; Reeder and Rankey 2008), suggesting that grains are suspended
for the archipelago is microtidal, with spring tidal amplitudes of around 1 m to allow the formation of oolitic laminations, and this sediment is
near the margins and decreasing onto the platforms. Due to the relatively transported by the higher velocities associated with the flow pattern. As
shallow water depths on the platform tops, however, the volumetric the tidal currents approach regions of less restriction past the islands, the
exchanges during the mixture of diurnal and (predominantly) semidiurnal streamlines disperse, and velocities decrease, leading to sediment
tidal cycles are magnified as water is forced through narrow channels and deposition. With a reversed tide, the currents close the cycle, with
shallow water. In some cases, these channels are between mobile geomorphic elevated velocities yielding sediment transport in the opposite direction
features such as sand bodies, and in other cases, these channels are located focused through currents on the other side of the shoal, generating a net
between bedrock islands. Currents passing through such bedrock-bounded circular transport pattern. These feedbacks result in a system where ooids
channels are the strongest in the Bahamas, and can exceed 200 cm/s twice can nucleate, grow, and be transported and deposited, all while remaining in
daily (Reeder and Rankey 2008). Away from the channels, however, tidal the shoal complex.
currents generally remain below 50 cm/s and are much less in many parts of
the platform interiors (Smith 1995; Rankey and Reeder 2010). TIDAL DELTAS OF THE ABACO ISLAND CHAIN
Ooids, the focus of this paper, are physiochemical precipitates with
concentric laminations of calcium carbonate that surround a nucleus. A The tidal deltas of the Northern Abacos are located about 20 km
combination of elevated aragonite saturation state (Broecker and southeast of Double Breasted Cays (Fig. 1). From the reef-rimmed
Takahashi 1966; Morse et al. 1984; Royal Society 2005; Lee et al. 2006) margin, this region passes platformward to a deeper back-reef shelf
and the vigorous tidal currents on the shallow platforms have been (, 10 m deep). A chain of islands (similar to Double Breasted Cays)
interpreted to be fundamental controls on the widespread occurrence of extends in this area roughly parallel to the margin break, and are
ooids in the Bahamas (Rankey and Reeder 2009, 2010). bounded to the south by the platform interior of Little Bahama Bank
(Fig. 4A). Reeder and Rankey (2008, 2009b) describe the area in detail,
and key results are summarized here.
BAHAMIAN OOID SHOAL COMPLEXES The islands of the Northern Abaco chain are separated by inlets of
variable widths, commonly 5–7 m deep. Most of these inlets are hard
To explore the nature and dynamics of ooid shoals, this paper bottomed and form non-erodible conduits through which the tides flow.
highlights a spectrum of Holocene complexes with detailed hydrodynam- Outward from the inlets, the rocky bottom passes to a coarse lag followed
ical, geomorphological, and sedimentological measurements. To be by a seagrass-stabilized bottom (3–5 m deep) and finally to the oolitic
inclusive, it reviews aspects of published descriptions and presents new sands of the flood and ebb tidal delta crests (some of which are exposed at
data from previously described areas (tidal deltas and sands of the Abaco low tide). These deltas are grossly parabolic in form, extending outward
Island Chain, Reeder and Rankey 2008, 2009a, 2009b; Lily Bank, Hine from the inlet with the shoal ends at the edges of the islands. Some tidal
1977, Rankey et al. 2006) and presents new data from other, less well- deltas result from multiple inlet systems, where more than one inlet feeds
documented areas (Schooner Cays and Fish Cays shoal complexes). into a single flood or ebb delta.
Space limitations preclude including all Holocene shoals, however, and so Similar to Double Breasted Cays, the Abaco tidal deltas are situated
the shoals presented are also limited to tidal oolitic complexes. , 5 km from the discontinuous reef-rimmed margin (Figs. 2, 4A).
However, the Abaco tidal deltas are not completely sheltered from
DOUBLE BREASTED OOID SHOAL COMPLEX
incident open-ocean or wind-driven waves. Wave heights in the back-reef
shelf vary spatially (location on the shelf) and temporally (seasonally).
The Double Breasted Cays system is an ooid-shoal complex located During major storms or the passage of cold fronts, the areas of the
between two elongate Pleistocene bedrock ridges (, 400 m apart), quasi- platform with a reef-rimmed margin experience waves with significant
parallel to both the Abaco island chain and the platform margin of Little wave heights (Hs) , 0.5 m, but, on average, Hs is , 0.1 m (Reeder and
Bahama Bank (Figs. 2, 3A; Reeder and Rankey 2008). Between these two Rankey 2009a, 2009b). These waves may influence the crests of the ebb
ridges, a central sandy, oolitic (Holocene) island is surrounded by a deltas, but further shoaling and frictional energy dissipation causes the
sigmoidal oolitic shoal, flanked on both sides by channels , 4 m deep. The rest of the inlet system to rarely be effected by waves.

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 100 E.C. RANKEY AND S.L. REEDER JSR

FIG. 2.—Regional setting of tidal deltas and sands of part of northern Little Bahama Bank. Inset indicates location on Little Bahama Bank. A discontinuous shelf-
margin reef near the shelf break is flanked platformward by reef aprons and a narrow (, 5 km) back-reef shelf. On the shelf, a series of small, low rocky islands and cays
that restrict flow and are associated with tidal inlets and sandy tidal deltas. Yellow box (solid border in the print version) is the area illustrated in Figure 3; green box
(dashed border in print version) is the Stranger’s Cay area in Figure 4.

FIG. 3.—Hydrodynamic patterns, Double Breasted Cays, an oolitic sand accumulation between two islands of Pleistocene bedrock. A) General setting. The blue and
yellow lines are the locations of the current meter transects in parts B–E. B) Flow speeds across channels and bar during flood tide. Note that flow is focused in the
southern channel. C) Flow vectors for flood tide, from same transect as in part C. D) Flow vectors during ebb tide, from same transect as in part E. E) Flow speeds across
channels and bar during ebb tide. In this instance, flow is focused in the northern channel. F) Conceptual illustration of the dominant conduits for flood (blue) and ebb
(yellow) tides. Modified from Reeder and Rankey (2008).

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 JSR HOLOCENE BAHAMIAN OOLITIC SAND 101

The region experiences tidal forces similar to those at Double Breasted 25 cm/s. As a result, there is an overall net northward (ebb) transport
Cays, and the strength of the currents varies spatially across the region. within this ebb-oriented bar. The current-meter data are consistent with
The tidal energy is concentrated through the narrow bedrock-floored the predictions of Rankey et al. (2006), suggesting ebb-current dominance
inlets, and the currents can exceed speeds of 100 cm/s (at times, , 200 cm/ in ebb-oriented parabolic bars, even within this overall flood-dominated
s). However, these ‘‘jets’’ of water do not penetrate far, since velocities system. Rankey et al. (2006) suggested that such spatial variability in
decrease as the concentrated flow disperses outward past the barriers. By currents, and the resulting morphodynamic feedbacks, drove the evolution of
the time the currents reach the shoals, the velocities have dropped to bar forms, leading to the generation of parabolic bars as an emergent
, 75 cm/s or less, and they continue to decrease across the shoal to the property.
low speeds of , 25 cm/s common outboard of the flood and ebb tidal
deltas. SCHOONER CAYS OOID SHOAL COMPLEX
For siliciclastic tidal deltas, inlet cross-sectional area is related to the
Morphology and Sedimentology
tidal prism, or the amount of water exchanged through the inlet during a
tidal cycle (O’Brien 1931). The numerous inlets and their flood and ebb The 16 km 3 60 km marine tidal bar belt of Schooner Cays occurs at
deltas of various shapes and sizes in the Abacos clearly illustrate the northern end of Exuma Sound, a deep-water embayment on the
comparable relationships between hydrodynamics and the geomorphol- eastern side of Great Bahama Bank (Figs. 1, 6). The shoal is bounded to
ogy of these oolitic shoals. For example, there is a statistical relationship the south by a slightly deeper outer shelf that includes a hard, rocky
between cross-sectional area and the spring tidal prism and between the bottom colonized by corals, sea fans, sea whips, and sponges. In some
cross-sectional inlet area and the size of the delta (Fig. 4B; Reeder and areas, however, wave- or current-rippled skeletal–peloidal–oolitic sand
Rankey 2009b). Thus, beyond facilitating the generation of the ooids and bars (Fig. 6, southwestern part of the image) reach to within 500 m of the
sediment transport, hydrodynamic processes control the sizes of individual break in slope, in waters between 4 and 6 m deep. Approximately 4 km
geomorphic bodies, such as tidal deltas. northwest of the point of Eleuthera Island, a shallow rocky ridge runs
southeast–northwest for several kilometers (dashed white line in Fig. 6C),
LILY BANK OOID SHOAL COMPLEX separating the outer shelf and the shoal complex. Dravis (1977, 1979),
Budd (1984), and Curtis (1985) provide descriptions of the surface and
Facing the open Atlantic Ocean on northwestern Little Bahama Bank shallow subsurface sediments, and aspects of geochemistry and diagen-
(Fig. 1), west of the Abaco island chain, a series of discontinuous shelf- esis. New observations on sedimentological features are presented herein,
margin reefs (Mantanilla reefs) passes to an unrimmed margin to the along with systematic observations of the waves and tides.
west. Lying bankward of the breaks in the reef, Lily Bank includes several Platformward of the rocky ridge, geomorphic forms within the bar-
general geomorphic regions: the active shoal (Lily Bank itself), and and-channel belt include flow-parallel tidal sand ridges (more common to
bankward inactive subaqueous dunes and seaward inactive flow-parallel the east), parabolic bars, and flow-oblique shoulder bars with superim-
tidal sand ridges (see Hine 1977). The active shoal (Fig. 5A, B), is set back posed linear and parabolic bars (Fig. 6). Individual flow-parallel sand
, 12 km from the shelf margin, reaches to over 4 km wide, and extends ridges are up to 13 km long and 1.5 km wide (Fig. 6A, C). As they extend
over 27 km along strike. It is flanked on its southern margin by the platformward, the crests of some ridges widen and include superimposed
muddy platform interior of Little Bahama Bank. Hine (1977) and Rankey parabolic bars with intervening channels that, at their platformward
et al. (2006) describe Lily Bank; the results are briefly reviewed here and extent, bend progressively to the north or west (Fig. 6B, C). Bar crests
supplemented by new data on current speed. include bare sands with subaqueous dunes between 20 and 70 cm tall,
Geomorphic forms within Lily Bank vary from quasi-symmetrical with various orientations, and with superimposed ripples. Sediment on
parabolic bars, to linked parabolic bars in a sinusoidal trend, to nearly the bar crests is clean (no mud or silt), moderately well-sorted oolitic sand
isolated, highly asymmetric parabolic bars (Fig. 5B). The parabolic bars (Fig. 7A), with mean grain size of , 600 mm, although platformward
have apertures between 0.7 and 3.3 km and amplitudes up to 2 km. crests may be finer (Fig. 7B). The ooid laminations in these areas are well
Although water depths can approach 5 m in places at their flanks, bars preserved. Early cemented clasts are locally abundant, as are isolated
include , 3 m maximum bathymetric relief. The parabolic bars also corals (mostly small Porites).
include subaqueous dunes at various orientations, from normal to the Many ridges are asymmetric in cross section, with a crest that slopes
central axis of the form (at the apex) to oblique (on the flanks). The flanks gently from exposed at low tide on one flank to depths of , 1.5 m on the
of some asymmetric parabolic bars form elongate, linear forms with one other, before dropping sharply into the deeper channels (Fig. 8). Ridges
gentle flank and a steep flank, termed transverse shoulder bars. In have sharp lateral margins, dipping into channels at gradients up to the
contrast to the parabolic bars, the long axis of transverse shoulder bars is angle of repose, and have either seagrass-stabilized bottoms or small-
perpendicular to highly oblique to flow, and they include subaqueous amplitude subaqueous dunes and current ripples of ooids and skeletal
dunes oriented roughly parallel to the long axis of the bar as a whole. grains (Fig. 7C).
Shoulder bars have up to 3 m relief, and can reach nearly 1 km across and Channels are between 8 and 4 m deep, and, in many cases, depths of
extend along strike nearly 2 km. individual channels gradually decrease by up to 2 m bankward (Fig. 8).
Lily Bank is a tidally dominated shoal, although waves may have some Within the bar-and-channel belt, the downdip channel areas include a
impact (Hine 1977; Rankey et al. 2006). Tidal amplitudes in the area rocky bottom with corals, sea fans, sea whips, and thin sediment cover,
range from 61 cm (neap tides) to 108 cm (spring tides), and these tides broadly analogous to the outer shelf. Much of this sediment is skeletal,
generate strong currents. Currents on the crests of both the parabolic and including whole and fragmented foraminifera, Halimeda flakes, bivalves,
shoulder bars have been measured to reach up to 60 cm/s, but probably gastropods, and corals (Fig. 7D). Within 1–2 km of the southern end of
exceed those speeds during spring tides. Current speeds on the bar crests the bars, most channels have a burrowed sandy to muddy bottom partly
exceed those in the channels. covered by seagrass. In some deeper channels (4–7 m), bedforms up to
New data collected over a two-month period in , 3 m water depth 50 cm high are stabilized by moderate-density Thalassia growth, and
from the inside of an ebb-oriented parabolic bar (red star in Fig. 5B) active subaqueous dunes (rippled, not covered by seagrass) are present
illustrate peak currents of 65 cm/s (Fig. 5C). Almost every peak ebb locally. The sediments in the channels are most commonly moderately to
(northward) current speed reaches 40 cm/s; flood tides are weaker, such poorly sorted peloid–skeletal–ooid sand and silt, with up to , 30% mud
that during neap tides, some flood-tide peak current speeds do not reach and silt, and sediments generally fine bankward (Fig. 7D–F). Ooids in

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 102 E.C. RANKEY AND S.L. REEDER JSR

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 JSR HOLOCENE BAHAMIAN OOLITIC SAND 103

FIG. 5.—Morphology and currents of Lily Bank, northern Little Bahama Bank. A) Regional setting, illustrating the active shoal (outlined in dashed line) set back
. 10 km from the shelf margin. Box outlined by solid line highlights area in part B. B) Remote sensing images illustrating the location and geomorphic character of Lily
Bank. Several types of bar forms are present, including transverse shoulder bars (TSB), parabolic bars (PB), and complex bars that are variations or combinations of
these. The star indicates the position of the current meter, from which data below were derived. Modified from Rankey et al. (2006). C) Plot of current speeds (negative
indicates an ebb current, directed off-platform) over a 30 day period. On this plot, currents exceeding 40 cm/s are highlighted by the dashed lines. Even though the shoal as
a whole is flood-dominated (Hine 1977), north-directed (ebb) currents are stronger than south-directed (flood) currents in this ebb parabolic bar, consistent with the
predictions of Rankey et al. (2006).

these areas commonly include fewer and less well-preserved laminae than (Fig. 7G). This trend appears to be related to a loss of coarse sediments;
ooids from the shoal crest. oceanward sediments include up to 23% gravel (. 2 mm, Fig. 7H; mostly
Larger-scale trends are evident in the grain-size data, which illustrate a Halimeda, coral, and mollusk fragments), whereas bankward channel
general decrease in mean grain size from the oceanward margin to the bank sediments include only rare gravel such as conch shells.

FIG. 4.—Characteristics of Abaco tidal deltas, from Stranger’s Cay area (Fig. 2), Little Bahama Bank. A) Remote-sensing image illustrating the discontinuous islands
and the flood- and ebb-tidal deltas. B) Plot of the cross-sectional area of the inlet throat (m2, log scale) versus the distance from the inlet throat to the tidal delta shoal
crest (m, log scale), illustrating a general relationship between the two.

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 104 E.C. RANKEY AND S.L. REEDER JSR

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 JSR HOLOCENE BAHAMIAN OOLITIC SAND 105

FIG. 7.—Sedimentologic characteristics, Schooner Cays ooid shoal. A) Moderately well-sorted peloid–skeletal–ooid medium–coarse sand from a bar flank. B) Well-
sorted coarse ooid sand from a shoal crest. C) Poorly sorted, fine to medium sand from near the platformward end of a bar, where it bends to the west. D) Poorly sorted,
fine-coarse skeletal–peloid sand, from a seaward channel. E) Poorly sorted fine–medium peloid–ooid sand, from the northern, on-bank part of a channel. F) Fine peloid–
skeletal sand, from near the updip end of a channel. Largest grain is an intraclast. Note that the scale on this photomicrograph is different than the others. G) Plot of
mean grain size for three illustrative transects reflecting bankward changes. Note how the bankward transect includes coarse sand (. 500 mm) only on the crests of the
sand ridges; sediments in the channels and on ridge flanks are finer. Sediments closer to Exuma Sound tend to be much coarser. H) Plot of abundance of gravel (% as a
fraction of total) for three transects that illustrate bankward changes. Note how gravel becomes much less abundant bankward, mirroring the trend in grain size.

FIG. 6.—Remote-sensing images and aerial photos of Schooner Cays ooid sand shoal, Great Bahama Bank. A) Landsat image of Schooner Cays shoal complex. The
shoal complex is bounded to the south by the deep water embayment of Exuma Sound, and to the north by the shallow waters of Great Bahama Bank. The shoal complex
includes flow-parallel tidal sand ridges to the east, but other complex bar forms to the west. The box highlights the focus area. B) Oblique aerial photograph of the
bankward termination of some of the tidal sand ridges. Note how the bars bend to the northwest. C) Interpreted remote sensing image, illustrating the general geometries.
Several types of bar forms are present, including tidal sand ridges (TSR) and parabolic bars (PB), as well as intervening channels. The stars and circles indicate the
positions of deployment of current meters and wave gauges. ‘‘P.P.’’ is Powell Point, the end of Eleuthera Island. Note how the linear tidal sand ridges pass bankward into
more parabolic bar forms. Image copyright DigitalGlobe.com.

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 106 E.C. RANKEY AND S.L. REEDER JSR

FIG. 8.—Topographic profiles and flow characteristics of flood tides across a tidal sand ridge in Schooner Cays, from oceanward (bottom) to platformward (top). On
each cross section, 8 meter depth is annotated by the dashed blue line, and velocities are color coded, with warmer colors representing higher velocity. Flow was measured
at roughly the same time in the tidal cycle for each transect. Note how updip-shallowing channels and updip-widening bars are accompanied by a general decrease in
velocity, and that maximum velocities along any one profile occur above the channel floor.

Physical Processes were less than 1 m, whereas , 10% of the waves on the outer shelf had Hs
greater than 1 m. On the platform (location Wave-02 in Fig. 6C), wave
The Schooner Cays area is influenced by both tides and waves, acting heights and orbital velocities were positively correlated with wind
within the framework established by the Pleistocene topography. velocities; greater wind velocities generated larger waves, which in turn
Semidiurnal tides in the area have a spring tidal amplitude of 110 cm increased the bottom orbital velocities. Elevated orbital velocities above
near the platform margin and slightly less in the platform interior. Tides 12 cm/s were associated only with the passage of fronts. Although the
moving on and off the bank are focused through the channels; measured majority of waves in the region are not powerful enough to initiate coarse
depth-averaged current velocities reach a maximum of , 80 cm/s in sand transport other than at some of the shallow bar crests, the greatest
channels, whereas velocities decrease to , 40 cm/s on shallow crests calculated bottom orbital velocities in the platform interior were , 25 cm/
(Fig. 8). Velocities measured on three transects at roughly the same stage s, sufficient to suspend some sediment.
in the tidal cycle on successive days (Fig. 8A–C) illustrate a general
platformward decrease in velocity, from near 80 cm/s in the basinward
Interpretation: Conceptual Model
transect to 50 cm/s or less in the platform-most transect.
Synoptic measurements illustrate how currents and waves vary through The sedimentological, geomorphological, and hydrodynamical observa-
time. In the channel near Powell Point, depth-averaged currents reach up tions reveal several trends from Exuma Sound onto the platform interior:
to 90 cm/s and peak speeds exceed 60 cm/s during many tides (Fig. 9A). 1) a general decrease in grain size, 2) a decrease in current velocity, 3) a
In contrast, the measurements from a location farther on the platform in change from more linear to more parabolic bar forms, 4) a shallowing of
a different channel illustrate a maximum measured depth-averaged channels, 5) the broadening of the shoals through bifurcation of crests, and
current speed of , 70 cm/s, with the majority of peak currents less than 6) a bend to the north and northwest at the bankward end of bars. These
50 cm/s (Fig. 9B). Summative data from both areas suggest net on-bank trends motivate a conceptual model for the links among sedimentology,
flux through these channels. Similarly, wave attributes vary across the hydrodynamics, and geomorphology in the area.
study area (Fig. 9C). During the windy season (winter), the largest The data illustrate that tides are the most important physical force
significant wave heights (Hs) measured at the platform interior location influencing the shoal complex. The tidal bulge originating in the deeper

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 JSR HOLOCENE BAHAMIAN OOLITIC SAND 107

FIG. 9.—Character of waves and tides in the Schooner Cays area. A, B) Depth averaged flow velocities from platformward (Winter ADCP, Fig. 6) and seaward
(Summer ADCP, Fig. 6) stations. In both, negative velocity refers to off-platform currents (net west for A, net south for B). Note the higher velocity from the ADCP
mounted farther seaward between a tidal sand ridge and island than the ADCP mounted within the shoal complex near parabolic bars. C) Wave-height-probability plot,
for the location oceanward of the shoal complex (Wave-04) and from on the platform (Wave-02). Not surprisingly, the southern area near Exuma Sound has larger waves.

Exuma Sound is affected by the island of Eleuthera and the shallow rock parallel tidal sand ridges, the rocky bottom, and the abundance of coarse
ridge to the northwest (e.g., bold black arrows in Fig. 10A). The currents sand and gravel. As the flow continues to expand outward from this
generated here essentially sweep most sediment from this area, extending restriction point (e.g., red lines in Fig. 10A), the velocities gradually
the rocky bottom farther into the platform here. As the incoming tide decrease (Fig. 8), and sediments fine as progressively smaller grains settle
passes the hydrodynamic restriction (bold deep red arrows in Fig. 10A), it with decreasing water velocities. Concomitant with this decreased
radiates outward and expands (e.g., brown arrows), dissipating energy. In capacity and the associated sedimentation, the channels gradually shallow
these areas, the velocity is still elevated, indicated by the linear, flow- (Fig. 8). Towards the platform interior, the flow continues to expand and

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 108 E.C. RANKEY AND S.L. REEDER JSR

FIG. 10.—General interpretive patterns of Schooner Cays flood (left, red in color version on-line) and ebb (right, blue in color version on-line) tidal flow. See text
for discussion.

passes beyond the vertical restriction of the sand shoals. In these areas, rippled bare sand (seagrass is essentially absent) with locally abundant
tidal currents are weak, and wind-influenced currents may play a greater tracks and trails indicating biological activity. Sediments here are
role, perhaps enhancing the northwestward curve of the platformward predominantly moderately to poorly sorted medium to coarse sand,
end of the bars (Figs. 6B, 10). dominated by skeletal and composite grains, and pervasively micritized
Because the shoals are flood dominated, and because ebb flow grains (Fig. 12A); little fine sand or mud is present. Scattered patches of
returning from the bank top initially is not laterally constrained by the rocky (Pleistocene?) bottom are colonized by sea fans, sea whips, and
island and ridge, the only form of restriction for the ebb tides is vertical scattered corals including isolated coral heads and small patch reefs less
restriction of the bars themselves (Fig. 10B). Therefore, currents are than 50 m across.
initially oriented off-platform, and the platformward extent of most bars Geomorphically, the shoal can be broadly subdivided into four regions:
typically have an asymmetric, ‘‘linear shoulder bar’’ morphology with a 1) tidal sand ridges to the northwest, near Long Cay, 2) well-defined bars
steep face on the southern side. Downdip, between the rock ridge and the and channels in areas proximal to the southwestern margin, 3) an
island of Eleuthera, currents are focused as water exits the shoal complex intermediate shallow, stabilized flat; and 4) a rippled sandy shoal flank to
and goes off the platform top. the northeast (Fig. 11A). The first region, with well-defined, flow-parallel
As on the other ooid shoals, these results illustrate how sediments, tidal sand ridges, occurs only on the northwestern margin of the shoal, in
bathymetric features, and hydrodynamics are closely linked at the scale of the channel between the Fish Cays complex and the Pleistocene outcrops
individual bars. Beyond this, trends from across multiple bars and the shoal of Long Cay. The five ridges, oriented northeast–southwest, extend 2–
complex as a whole illustrate comparable relations at the scale of the entire 3 km in length, are spaced 300–600 m apart with heights between 2 and
shoal complex as well. 4 m, and have subtidal crests in , 1 m water depth at low tide (Fig. 11B).
These tidal sand ridges pass to the southeast into the heart of the
FISH CAYS OOLITIC SHOAL COMPLEX complex, the shallow bar and channel belt. Shallow bars are best defined
in the southwestern half of the complex, where they are dissected by
Morphology and Sedimentology
channels 3–5 m deep that run normal to the trend of the complex as a
The Fish Cays oolitic shoal complex lies on the leeward, southwestern whole. Close to the margin, the shallow bar crests are active, and they
margin of the Crooked–Acklins Platform, in the southern Bahamas. This include well-developed ripples and low-amplitude (, 75 cm) subaqueous
complex reaches between 7 and 9 km inboard from the leeward margin, and dunes. These active bars include parabolic forms, with ebb- and flood-
extends along strike for over 35 km. It lies between the 2–4 m deep grainy, dominated areas. Many shallow, rippled shoal crests on the oceanward
peloidal platform interior to the north and east and an unrimmed, 4–30 m side of the complex are composed of moderately to well-sorted, medium
deep sandy to rocky outer shelf that dips to the south and west with slopes to coarse ooid–peloid sand (Fig. 12B, C). Very locally, the shoal crest just
between , 0.5 to 2.25u. The complex was described in very general terms oceanward of the islands is capped with coarse skeletal and lithoclastic
by Rankey and Reeder (2010) (Figs. 1, 11); new data on grain size and type, gravel. In contrast, in the lee of the islands farther northeast, oolitic bars
bar morphology, and hydrodynamics are presented herein. (observed in shallow cores) are stabilized by thin (30–40 cm) Spongites
The sandy to rocky outer shelf to the south and west of the shoal (Neogoniolithon)–sponge–seagrass meadows, parts of which can be
complex is covered with scattered sediment, including areas of wave- exposed at spring low tide. These areas include predominantly poorly

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 JSR HOLOCENE BAHAMIAN OOLITIC SAND 109

FIG. 11.—Fish Cays shoal complex, Crooked–Acklins Platform, southern Bahamas. A) General geomorphic patterns and facies. This leeward shoal complex includes
tidal sand ridges, a bar and channel belt, a stabilized shoal, and rippled sands, as well as Holocene islands. Inset illustrates the position of the complex on the platform.
The stars indicate the positions of current meter. B) Representative topographic profile across tidal sand ridges southeast of Long Cay. These ridges include several meters
of relief and the crests are at , 1 m water depth at low tide. C) Holocene island, illustrating well-developed marginal spits, suggesting net on-bank transport.

sorted medium to coarse sand composed of skeletal grains, composite bottoms include moderately to poorly sorted peloid–skeletal–oolitic sand
grains, peloids, and ooids. (Fig. 12D), partially covered with seagrass, although some have a rocky
The intervening channels largely include seagrass-covered floors, bottom with only a coarse skeletal lag. Many channel sediments include
although in some places, bedrock is exposed. Most commonly, channel more than 15% fine sand (and up to 35% medium sand), but mud is

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 110 E.C. RANKEY AND S.L. REEDER JSR

FIG. 12.—General sedimentologic character, Fish Cays shoal complex. A) Micritized grain–peloid–skeletal sand from the outer shelf. B) Medium–coarse ooid–
composite grain sand, from the crest of a bar. C) Moderately to poorly sorted medium–coarse ooid–composite grain sand from a tidal sand ridge crest. D) Very poorly
sorted peloid–ooid–skeletal fine to coarse sand from a channel. E) Abundances of different general types of grains from across the shoal complex. F) Grain sizes from
across the shoal complex. Images E and F are data from Rankey and Reeder (2010).

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 JSR HOLOCENE BAHAMIAN OOLITIC SAND 111

FIG. 13.—Hydrodynamic data, Fish Cays area. Negative values are currents flowing to the southwest, or off-platform. Velocities of less than 40 cm/s fall are bounded
by the dashed red lines. Upper plot is current velocity (cm/s) for a channel in the shoal complex (eastern star in Fig. 11A). Lower plot is current velocity (cm/s) for the
broad channel between the shoal complex and Long Cay (western star in Fig. 11).

uncommon. Patches with low-amplitude subaqueous dunes and ripples, have been interpreted as Holocene in age (e.g., Halley and Harris 1979;
with moderately well-sorted ooid–peloid–skeletal sand, lie near the Strasser and Davaud 1986; Budd 1988; Budd and Land 1990).
islands.
As these bars extend onto the platform, the channels gradually Physical Processes
shallow and widen, such that bars and channels are only subtly
differentiated. The resultant broad stabilized flat is 1 m or less deep at Hydrodynamic forces vary across the Fish Cays area. On the outer
low tide, and consists of peloid–ooid medium sand; many ooids are shelf, semi-diurnal tides have spring tidal amplitudes of 89 cm, with neap
micritized. The northeast (windward) facing margin of this flat gently amplitudes around 48 cm. These amplitudes decrease into the platform
passes into deeper water (, 3 m deep at low tide) and includes an area interior; spring tidal amplitudes in the middle of the platform are only
with well-developed low-amplitude subaqueous dunes and ripples; the 42 cm, whereas neap amplitudes are , 22 cm (Rankey and Reeder 2010).
sediment includes oolitic (up to 85% ooids) medium sand. The burrowed These tides set up currents, the characteristics of which vary along and
bottom of the platform interior dominantly includes peloidal sands across the platform margin and the shoal complex (Fig. 13). For example,
(Rankey and Reeder 2010). data collected from a channel near the northwestern extent of the shoal
Several shoal crests close to the margin have aggraded to sea level, complex illustrate a strong tidal asymmetry. Flood currents in this
forming islands. These sandy islands include spit-like features indicating channel move at speeds up to 40 cm/s, but are generally 15 to 30 cm/s
on-bank transport (Fig. 11C), and many are stabilized by mangroves and lower than the ebb currents, which can flow in excess of 50 cm/s
early cementation. Beaches contain blocks of lithified oolitic grainstone (Fig. 13A). Data from the broad channel between the tidal sand ridges
with pristine ooids cemented by equant pendant and meniscus calcite, and Long Cay suggest that currents here are also ebb-dominated,
similar to patterns in other Bahamian beach and dune successions that although the pattern is more complex (Fig. 13B). In this area, ebb tides

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 112 E.C. RANKEY AND S.L. REEDER JSR

are fairly consistent, with peak off-platform velocities between 40 and As at Schooner Cays, the Fish Cays area illustrates shoal-scale flow
55 cm/s, but occur between flood tides that vary in strength, from in restriction near the margin and expansion bankward, accompanied by
excess of 45 cm/s to below 30 cm/s. These currents within the shoal shallowing and general on-platform fining, although this shoal is more fully
complex are consistently stronger than those in the middle of the platform aggraded than Schooner Cays. The Fish Cays system illustrates that
interior, where speeds are less than 30 cm/s (Rankey and Reeder 2010). large-scale sedimentological and geomorphological patterns are strongly
Like current patterns, wave attributes vary across the area in time and influenced by different paths of flood and ebb tides, with waves important
space. The outer shelf southwest of the shoal complex includes the largest locally on shoal flanks.
waves in the area, with measured Hs exceeding 150 cm at times during a
one-month monitoring period, associated with the passage of fronts and DISCUSSION
stronger winds. Even in the deeper water (. 4 m) at the monitoring
location on the outer shelf, several fronts generated orbital velocities at Stratigraphers have developed conceptual facies models for numerous
the seafloor that exceeded 25 cm/s. Although not confirmed by stratigraphic and sedimentological systems. Such facies models represent
quantitative measurements, discussions with local fishermen and first- a distillation of observations from a suite of ancient examples and modern
hand observations from numerous (n . 15) dives in this area suggest analogs (Walker 1992; Reading 1996), and they commonly include
these wave-driven currents result in much greater speeds than those of the objective, reproducible criteria for recognition of environments of
currents driven by tides in this area. In contrast, most waves in the deposition in the stratigraphic record. Although a necessary step in
platform interior just north of the Fish Cays have Hs of less than 70 cm, stratigraphic interpretation, discernment of depositional environments, as
resulting in orbital velocities which only infrequently exceed 15 cm/s, less illustrated by the ‘‘cartoon-like’’ models found in many studies, is quite
than the velocities generated daily by tides (illustrated in Rankey and distinct from understanding and predicting lateral and vertical strati-
Reeder 2010). Waves are even more impotent within the shoal complex. A graphic variability. The most robust and informative facies models are
month of data from within the shoal (blue star in Fig. 11A) illustrates those that extend beyond mere characterization, capturing relevant
that waves in this area have Hs of only several centimeters (near detection aspects of processes active in the depositional system and making
levels), with a vast majority , 4 cm. Never during the monitoring period predictions regarding the nature and scale of depositional variability. A
did Hs exceed 15 cm inside the shoal complex. necessary first step for developing meaningful and predictive facies
models for the evolution of sedimentary systems through time involves
Interpretation: Conceptual Model understanding the processes and patterns (and their relations) at one
point in time.
The Fish Cays shoal complex is shaped by the interaction of numerous Carbonate sands represent an important element of many stratigraphic
factors. At the largest scale, the area is protected from the west-northwest systems. Many previous studies of grain-dominated modern carbonate
by Long Cay. As a result, strong winds that sweep from the west and shoals, including Bahamian oolitic systems (Illing 1954; Ginsburg 1956;
northwest during the passage of fronts (potentially generating large waves) Newell and Rigby 1957; Newell et al. 1960; Purdy 1961; Imbrie and
have relatively little impact on this shoal. In platform-interior areas, with Buchanan 1965; Dravis 1977; Hine 1977; Harris 1979; Palmer 1979,
the passage of fronts, waves large enough to suspend sediments occur in Curtis 1985; Gonzalez and Eberli 1997), focused on detailed description
waters greater than 2–3 m deep (Rankey and Reeder 2010). The occurrence of sediments and sedimentary structures as indicative of specific
of abundant wave ripples, larger waves, and lower current velocities on the depositional subenvironments. At the other end of the spectrum, regional
outer shelf west-southwest of the complex illustrate that this flank of the observations (Purdy 1963a, 1963b; Ball 1967; Hine and Neumann 1977;
shoal is largely wave influenced. These waves may propagate onto the Enos 1974; Hine et al. 1981; Halley et al. 1983; Wanless and Tedesco
platformward side of the shoal, forming the northwestward-directed spit- 1993) have qualitatively considered how important parameters such as
like feature capped with rippled ooid-rich sand. tides, waves, Pleistocene bedrock, and platform geometry and configu-
Flanks notwithstanding, the data clearly illustrate that the hydrody- ration impact the distribution and general character of oolitic sands in the
namics of the Fish Cays shoal complex is dominated by tides. The Bahamas.
bankward-oriented spits on the islands and the geometry of the shoal Collectively, these studies have formed the basis for facies models of
suggest that the system as a whole is flood-dominated, shaped by tides oolitic systems, described objective criteria for recognizing oolitic shoals
flowing onto the shallowing, arcuate platform margin. As the rising tide and their subfacies in the geologic record, and articulated the factors that
impinges on the platform, it reaches its greatest restriction (and obtains its control the occurrence and distribution of oolitic tidal sand on Bahamian
greatest current speeds) at the shoal crest, where the islands, the greatest carbonate platforms. More recently, and as reviewed here, the
concentrations of oolitic sand, and the deepest channels occur. As on- geomorphological and sedimentological patterns, the processes active
platform flow continues bankward, the streamlines expand outward and within these shoals, and the role of feedback processes in oolitic sandy
speeds decrease. In these areas with slower speeds, the seafloor is partly systems have been systematically and critically examined in detail.
stabilized by patchy seagrass and algae, ooids are proportionally less Individually and collectively, these studies of tidal shoal complexes
abundant (until the wave-influenced ooid-rich northern margin, discussed illustrate several persistent themes.
above, is reached), and channels shallow. Oolitic sands and shoals are formed and shaped by hydrodynamic
The entire shoal is not flood dominated, however. Current measure- processes. Within the framework of elevated carbonate saturation,
ments (from the channel between the shoal complex and Long Cay and platform geometry, and Pleistocene bedrock configuration and elevation
from a channel in the lee of an island; Fig. 13A) indicate that ebb currents (Purdy 1961; Ball 1967; Hine et al. 1981; Halley et al. 1983; Rankey and
dominate in some areas. Unlike rising (flood) tides which can move across Reeder 2011), many ooid-rich deposits occur in areas where on-platform
the entire shoal, as the tide ebbs off-platform and water level decreases, currents are dominant. This simple, but important, observation reflects
water is increasingly diverted around local highs (shallow subtidal to the necessity for sediment to be sequestered on the platform top to form a
intertidal bars and islands) and into deeper channels. The oolitic bars shoal, rather than be swept off the platform. In the Bahamas, strong tides
extending essentially to the dropoff of the platform margin most likely with currents can approach or even exceed 100 cm/s, even though most
reflect ebb dominance in this area. As such, this pattern might be tidal amplitudes are , 1 m or less. The best developed oolitic tidal sand
considered a larger-scale ‘‘spin cycle’’ dynamic, in which on-platform flow shoals occur in platform-marginal areas where peak spring tidal velocities
has a path which is different than off-platform flow. consistently exceed 30 cm/s. Such elevated velocities are favored by

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 JSR HOLOCENE BAHAMIAN OOLITIC SAND 113

FIG. 14.—Schematic of some of the common bar forms present in Bahamian tidal ooid shoals, and their general relations to reversing tides. Any given shoal can
include many different types of bar forms. Sand flats are not illustrated, but can be areally expansive (e.g., Joulter Cays, Fish Cays). A) Tidal sand ridges, which are
roughly parallel to flow. If large enough, these bar forms can include superimposed parabolic bars. B) Shoulder bars, which are transverse to flow. C) Parabolic bars, with
ebb- and flood-dominated forms. D) Tidal deltas, with dominant flow alternating between axial and marginal channels.

vertical restriction at the shallow ends of deepwater embayments (Tongue had suggested that carbonate tidal sand ridges are formed in association
of the Ocean, Schooners) or are markedly impacted by nearby bedrock with currents in excess of 100 cm/s. However, neither Schooner Cays
highs or islands that have the effect of lateral restriction (for example, shoal complex, which includes the archetypical carbonate tidal sand
Joulter Cays, Abaco and Exuma tidal deltas). Although elevated ridges (Ball 1967) nor the tidal sand ridges of the Fish Cays complex
velocities are common near the margin, velocities decrease as flood tides include measured currents in excess of even 90 cm/s. In fact, only the tidal
impinge farther onto the platform top, due to flow expansion and deltas of the Abacos, with their bedrock-flanked inlets, have measured
frictional dissipation of energy, including reduction of vertical restriction speeds over 100 cm/s.
(Schooner Cays, Fish Cays). These dynamics limit the formation of ooids, Qualitatively, however, the Schooner Cays and Fish Cays tidal sand
sediment transport, and the generation and maintenance of bar forms in ridges are associated with peak current speeds near or exceeding 75 cm/s,
lower-energy, platform-interior areas. In some areas (Fish Cays, Joulter comparable to those observed in siliciclastic analogs with elongate flow-
Cays), the limited current speeds coupled with abundant sediment supply parallel bars (Dalrymple and Rhodes 1995). Areas with lower current
have facilitated aggradation into very shallow waters. speeds (Lily Bank, Berry Islands) include bars with other geometries.
An implicit corollary to the simple statement that most shoals are flood Similarly, within individual shoals, the change in bar geometry across
dominated is the notion that some of the volume of water carried onto the many shoals suggests that geomorphological changes across the shoals
platform and over the shoals is carried off the platform elsewhere instead correspond to current changes. For example, both the Schooner Cays and
of flowing directly back across the shoal crest. Although this concept has the Tongue of the Ocean (Palmer 1979; Rankey and Reeder 2011; Harris
not been rigorously tested or modeled, the observations of flood- et al., in press) complexes include linear, flow-parallel tidal sand ridges
dominated currents in the center of shoals (e.g., Schooner Cays) and the near the margin that merge with arcuate bends or parabolic bars near or
flood-dominant geomorphic patterns (e.g., Lily Bank, Hine 1977) and at their bankward terminations. As discussed above, the change from
stronger ebb influence on the flanks of shoals (e.g., Fish Cays) is flow-parallel tidal sand ridges to parabolic bars may reflect waning
consistent with the patterns expected if this notion is correct. This current strength in these areas.
dynamic may reflect a broader-scale analog of the ‘‘spin cycle,’’ although Another variable that most likely has an influence on geomorphic
the idea was originally conceptualized in the context of individual bar forms is the rate of sediment supply relative to the rate of transport
forms and tidal deltas. (Harris 1988). For example, the aggraded portions of Joulter Cays
One outcome that was somewhat unexpected was that measured and much of the Fish Cays shoals obviously had a greater volume
current velocities did not show a clear relation with bar-form geometry. of sediment supplied than could be removed. Lily Bank might be
For example, based perhaps on trends in siliciclastic analogs, several considered the opposite extreme, with bar crests that cover a much
previous summaries (e.g., Halley et al. 1983; Tucker and Wright 1990) smaller area. Nonetheless, ooid growth rate and sediment flux rates of

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 114 E.C. RANKEY AND S.L. REEDER JSR

these oolitic systems are almost completely unconstrained (cf. Duguid et

al. 2010).
Geomorphologically, shoals are simultaneously always the same, but
never the same. At the scale of the archipelago as a whole, Pleistocene
(and earlier) depositional history (i.e., topography) and the currents
across the shoals control the location of oolitic sands in the Bahamas
today. Beyond this broad characterization, however, oolitic sand bodies
include a spectrum of shapes, sizes, and configurations. The geomorphic
patterns evident on the high-resolution remote sensing images (Figs. 4, 5,
6, 11) simply re-emphasize the observations of Purdy (1961, p. 54–55),
who noted that ‘‘the form of the oolite shoals is less subject to
generalization than the distribution of these deposits.’’ Such bewildering
variability was described within one shoal as a ‘‘marginal-facies mosaic’’
characterized by ‘‘facies complexities’’ (Hine and Neumann 1977, p. 376–
377).
Even though oolitic tidal sand complexes include bars with a broad
range of configurations and abundances, comparison among shoals
suggests that the component bars can be classified into a fairly limited
suite of fundamental geomorphic elements. At scales larger than ripples
and subaqueous dunes, the building blocks of shoal complexes include
longitudinal tidal sand ridges, transverse shoulder bars, parabolic bars,
and sand flats (Fig. 14; compare with siliciclastic analogs—Off 1963;
Dyer and Huntley 1999; Wood 2004). No shoal includes just one of these
types, and many complexes include several types. For example, although
there are tidal sand ridges in its eastern third, the rest of Schooner Cays
shoal system is made up of parabolic bars. The Fish Cays complex
includes a sand flat, tidal sand ridges, and parabolic bars, whereas Lily
Bank includes parabolic bars, transverse shoulder bars, and (inactive)
tidal sand ridges. Tidal deltas are the exception, in that although a shoal
complex is created from many parabolic deltas of different sizes, they
occur without other bar forms.
These features thus include elements of predictability, in that a limited
number of bar forms occur and these bar forms are closely related to the
hydrodynamics. They simultaneously include aspects of ‘‘randomness’’ in
the details of their spatial configuration and precise location, factors
which are a function of unknown (and unknowable?) temporal and
spatial contingencies.
Ooid shoals include links across scales. At the scale of individual bars,
the ‘‘spin cycle’’ has been interpreted to facilitate the growth of ooids and
the accumulation of oolitic sediment (Reeder and Rankey 2008).
Progressive growth of ooids and addition of oolitic sediment, coupled
with net on-platform transport, would encourage the expansion and
aggradation of shoals as a whole. If these fundamental concepts are
correct, they would predict systematic relationships among bars,
sediments, and currents within and among shoals.
At the scale of individual bars, there is an obvious relation between
grain type and size, bathymetry, and hydrodynamics in most of these
oolitic tidal systems. For example, on Lily Bank (Rankey et al. 2006),
sediments on the shoal crests are well-sorted oolitic sand, reflecting the
elevated flow speeds in these areas. In deeper channels between crests,
FIG. 15.—Synthesis of trends among tidally dominated ooid shoal complexes. areas with less vigorous current velocities, sediment is much finer and
Each data point represents the averages of data within a shoal system. Squares includes notably fewer oolitic grains. Broadly similar relationships are
represent data from ancient examples from the literature. Only Holocene data were found between the sediments and the bars of Schooner Cays, Fish Cays,
used to generate regression lines and define R2 values. A) Plot of mean grain size of
oolitic sand samples (mm, bars are one standard deviation) versus maximum height and Cat Cay sand shoals as well (Fig. 7, 12; Ball 1967; Cruz 2007; Reeder
(m) of mobile bars within the shoal complex. B) Plot of mean grain size of oolitic and Rankey 2008, 2009b). Likewise, although not explored in systematic
sand samples (mm, bars are one standard deviation) versus maximum width of the detail in any of the shoals described above, the petrographic character of
shoal complex (m). C) Plot of maximum height of mobile bars (m) versus width of ooids (number of laminae, laminae thickness) vary with geomorphic form
oolitic facies belt (m). Data for Holocene examples are from Cruz (2007), Rankey as well (Dravis 1977; Carney and Boardman 1993)
et al. (2006), Reeder and Rankey (2009b), Rankey and Reeder (2010), and this
Comparable links are apparent at the scale of entire shoals as well. For
study. The Pennsylvanian Bethany Falls Limestone (French and Watney 1993) is
an ancient example in parts A, B, and C. Other ancient examples are Mississippian example, in the Schooner Cays system, channels shallow and sediments
Poca Land unit (Cavallo and Smosna 1993) in part A, Mississippian St. Genevieve fine onto the platform. These physical changes are concomitant with flow
Limestone (Carr 1973) in part B, and Pleistocene Miami Oolite (Hoffmeister et al. expansion and the decrease in velocity in that direction, although peak
1967) in part C. current speeds only decrease below , 25 cm/s beyond the bankward-

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 JSR HOLOCENE BAHAMIAN OOLITIC SAND 115

FIG. 16.—Conceptual synthesis of relations between and among features of different scales on Holocene ooid shoals. As illustrated in the context of specific shoals or
relations among shoals throughout the text, the dynamics or elements of each scale (ooids, bedforms, barforms, shoal complexes) shape or create larger-scale features
(arrows towards the bottom, left side of the figure), as larger-scale features simultaneously provide boundary conditions constraining the attributes of smaller-scale
features (arrows towards the top, right side of the figure). These feedbacks and linkages represent autogenic, self-organized dynamics that are fundamental in the
generation of Holocene ooid shoal complexes.

most bar. The Fish Cays shoal complex includes a variation of this theme: (R2 5 0.95) between these parameters (Fig. 15A). Two well-constrained
sediment gradually fines onto the platform even though the individual ancient examples in which these parameters have been captured (French
bars become less well defined to the northeast as the channels broaden and Watney 1993; Cavallo and Smosna 1993) illustrate that ancient
and shallow. Here, flow speeds are much less than 25 cm/s across much of examples lie on the same general trend observed in the Holocene
the aggraded shoal. Bahamian shoals.
Given these trends and the interpreted relationships within individual At an even larger scale, if the width of the oolitic facies belt is controlled
shoals, examination of trends among shoals reveals several intriguing by tidal energy, it might be expected that stronger currents, larger ooids,
themes. For example, oolitic sand shoal systems with stronger currents and larger bars should yield broader oolitic facies belts. The data clearly
have coarser ooids. The ooids of Schooner Cays (600 mm mean size) are illustrate that the mean grain size of oolitic samples is related to the width
associated with average peak speeds of , 90 cm/s, whereas those of Lily of the oolitic facies belt (R2 5 0.89; Fig. 15B) and the maximum height of
Bank and Cat Cays (464 and 361 mm mean sizes) have lower speeds. If mobile bars is also correlated with the width of the oolitic facies belt
ooid size and current strength are linked, and if stronger currents generate (R2 5 0.99; Fig. 15C, D). As above, plotting well-constrained data from
larger bars, it might be expected that coarser ooids are associated with the literature in which these parameters are captured (Hoffmeister et al.
larger bar forms. A plot of mean grain size of oolitic samples versus 1967; Carr 1973; French and Watney 1993) illustrates that they fall on the
maximum height of oolitic bars for each shoal confirms a correspondence same trends found in the Holocene shoals, as well.

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 116 E.C. RANKEY AND S.L. REEDER JSR

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS International Exploration and Production, Chevron, ExxonMobil Exploration

Company, Pioneer Natural Resources, the contributors to the Comparative
Ooid Shoals—Archetypal Autogenic Self-Organized Geomorphic Systems? Sedimentology Laboratory. This manuscript builds on the efforts of the many
researchers who have studied Bahamian sand shoals, and to them we are
The results and interpretations highlighted in this study illustrate close grateful. Additionally, Peter Burgess, Gregor Eberli, Robert Ginsburg, Mitch
links among sedimentological, hydrodynamical, and geomorphological Harris, Jacobus van de Kreeke, Don McNeill, Lynn Watney, and Jim Weber
attributes of oolitic tidal sand systems. Within the boundary constraints provided numerous insights into oolitic sand systems and ancient analogs.
provided by regional geology, tides, waves, and waters of elevated Numerous people assisted in field data collection, including: Thiago Correa,
carbonate saturation states, the mode and magnitude of spatial heteroge- Eduardo Cruz, Bill Forsee, Rodrigo Garza, Kristen Goodrich, Brian Haus,
neity in these systems closely parallels those processes that interact across Taylor Hicks, Alison Lamb, Alycia Rajendran, Elizabeth Rankey, Mary Kate
Rankey, Chuck Reeder, Sherry Reeder, Scott Ritter, Kristine Sanchez, Lowell
scales, with clear links from smaller to larger scales and vice versa (Fig. 16). Waite, and participants in various field trips. Thanks to Michael Braynen and
Starting with the precipitation of oolitic laminae, the physical conditions Roland Albury and the Department of Marine Resources in The Bahamas for
favorable for the creation of sediments themselves arises from the shallow, permission to undertake the studies. Residents of the Bahamas have shown
agitated conditions that are created and favored by the presence of shallow wonderful hospitality, especially Barry and Barbara Albury and the residents
bars of oolitic sediments. At the scale of individual bars, bar sedimentol- of Grand Cay, Dennis and Michaela Thompson of Crooked Island, David
ogy, form, size and hydrodynamics are shaped and linked by feedbacks and Cunningham, Saulie Dean, Stancil Russell, Cynthia Williams, Deron Webb,
and all of the staff at Pittstown Point and Chubb Cay Marina. The faculty and
interactions (Figs. 3, 4B; Rankey et al. 2006; Reeder and Rankey 2008) staff of Cape Eleuthera Institute and the Island School greatly facilitated work
constraining possible outcomes and leading to the formation of a relatively in the Schooner Cays area, especially Edd Brooks and Aaron Shultz. Finally,
limited range of geomorphic bar forms (Fig. 14). At the scale of entire reviewers David Budd and Brian Willis made numerous perceptive and
shoal complexes, the close relationships among mean ooid size, bar height, constructive suggestions on how the manuscript might be improved, and JSR
and width of oolitic facies belt (Fig. 15) suggest that these factors reflect associate editor Bruce Wilkinson provided lucid and thorough input. John
fundamental hydrodynamic influences, as the creation of these forms Southard provided his usual thorough copy editing of the penultimate version.
concomitantly shapes the regional and local hydrodynamics. Because
everything from the individual ooid grains to the entire facies belt is self- REFERENCES
formed more or less in place (e.g., unlike siliciclastic analogs, in which
AURELL, M., MCNEILL, D.F., GUYOMARD, T., AND KINDLER, P., 1995, Pleistocene
sediments must be transported to the geomorphic and depositional system; shallowing-upward sequences in New Providence, Bahamas; signature of high-
e.g., Dalrymple and Rhodes 1995), ooid shoals might be considered the frequency sea-level fluctuations in shallow carbonate platforms: Journal of
archetypal self-organized, autogenic system, with systematic seascape Sedimentary Research, v. 65, p. 170–182.
BALL, M.M., 1967, Carbonate sand bodies of Florida and the Bahamas: Journal of
patterns emerging from complex interactions among coupled processes Sedimentary Petrology, v. 37, p. 556–591.
across multiple scales (Fig. 16). BATHURST, R.G.C., 1975, Carbonate Sediments and Their Diagenesis: Amsterdam,
Elsevier, Developments in Sedimentology, 12, 658 p.
BRETZ, J.H., 1962, Dynamic equilibrium and the Ozark land forms: American Journal of
Holocene Ooid Shoals and Ancient Analogs Science, v. 260, p. 427–438.
BROECKER, W.S., AND TAKAHASHI, T., 1966, Calcium carbonate precipitation on the
The close relationships and feedbacks present in Holocene ooid shoal Bahama Banks: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 71, p. 1575–1602.
systems reveal a wealth of facies attributes that could be explored within BUDD, D.A., 1984, Freshwater diagenesis of Holocene ooid sands, Schooner Cays,
the stratigraphic record, including: (1) the positive correlations among Bahamas [unpublished Ph.D. dissertation]: University of Texas, Austin, Texas, 491 p.
ooid size, maximum bar height, and facies-belt width; (2) relationships BUDD, D.A., 1988, Aragonite-to-calcite transformation during fresh-water diagenesis of
carbonates: insights from pore-water chemistry: Geological Society of America,
between bar forms and current speeds, in that elevated currents favor Bulletin, v. 100, p. 1260–1270.
both flow-parallel geometries and larger ooids; (3) general platformward BUDD, D.A., AND LAND, L.S., 1990, Geochemical imprint of meteoric diagenesis in Holocene
fining and shallowing within individual shoals; and (4) close linkages ooid sands, Schooner Cays, Bahamas: correlation of calcite cement geochemistry with
extant groundwaters: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 60, p. 43–53.
between morphology and sedimentology of individual bar forms (Rankey CAREW, J.L., AND MYLROIE, J.E., 1997, Geology of the Bahamas, in Vacher, H.L., and
et al. 2006; Reeder and Rankey 2008, 2009b). Although the results suggest Quinn, T., eds., Geology and Hydrogeology of Carbonate Islands: Amsterdam,
that such predictable trends reflecting emergent properties could be Elsevier, Developments in Sedimentology 54, p. 91–139.
present in ancient analogs, systems with feedbacks and self-organization CARNEY, C., AND BOARDMAN, M.R., 1993, Trends of sedimentary microfabrics of ooid
tidal channels and deltas, in Rezak, R., and Lavoie, D.L., eds., Carbonate
can also be accompanied by dynamic instabilities. One scale at which such Microfabrics: Berlin, Springer-Verlag, p. 29–39.
instabilities might be dominant is in the generation and evolution of bar CARR, D.D., 1973, Geometry and origin of oolite bodies in the Ste. Genevieve
forms. For example, the conceptual model of Rankey et al. (2006) Limestone (Mississippian) in the Illinois Basin: Indiana Geological Survey, Bulletin
48, 81 p.
suggested that bar forms are not static, but instead change with different CAVALLO, L.J., AND SMOSNA, R., 1997, Predicting porosity distribution within oolitic
tidal flow patterns, shaped interactively with the evolving topography. bars, in Kupecz, J.A., Gluyas, J., and Block, S., eds., Reservoir Quality Prediction in
Although the presence of parabolic bars may be favored by certain Sandstones and Carbonates: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir
69, p. 211–229.
current patterns and sediment supply conditions, the precise geomorphic CRUZ, F.E., 2007, Modern processes, depositional facies, and petrophysical heteroge-
configuration and location of a particular bar at any one time is neity of grainstone shoals at Ocean Cay, western Great Bahama Bank: lessons from a
indeterminable from first principles, shaped by unknown (and unknow- carbonate bank-margin system [unpublished Ph.D. dissertation]: University of Miami,
able?) historical and spatial contingencies. In the stratigraphic record, Miami, Florida, 265 p.
CURTIS, R.V., 1985, Sedimentology of the Holocene ooid shoals, Eleuthera Bank,
these dynamic instabilities could impart an element of real or apparent Bahamas [unpublished M.A. thesis]: University of Texas, 138 p.
randomness, depending on their time-integrated evolution and the nature DALRYMPLE, R.W., AND RHODES, R.N., 1995, Estuarine dunes and barforms, in Perillo,
of their ultimate preservation in the record. Clearly, stratigraphic testing G.M., ed., Geomorphology and Sedimentology of Estuaries: Amsterdam, Elsevier,
Developments in Sedimentology, 53, p. 359–422.
of these conceptual insights from Holocene analogs awaits field study, as DRAVIS, J.J., 1977, Holocene sedimentary depositional environments on Eleuthera Bank,
‘‘field relations are the final court of appeal’’ (Bretz 1962). Bahamas [unpublished M.S. thesis]: University of Miami, Miami, Florida, 386 p.
DRAVIS, J.J., 1979, Rapid and widespread generation of Recent oolitic hardgrounds on a
high energy Bahamian platform, Eleuthera Bank, Bahamas: Journal of Sedimentary
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Petrology, v. 49, p. 195–208.
DUGUID, S.M.A., KYSER, T.K., JAMES, N.P., AND RANKEY, E.C., 2010, Microbes and
The research has been supported through the years by the National Science ooids: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 80, p. 236–251.
Foundation (Grants # EAR-0418815, EAR-0922122) and the Army Research DYER, K.R., AND HUNTLEY, D.A., 1999, The origin, classification, and modelling of sand
Office (Grant # W911NF0510005), Schlumberger-Doll Research, Shell banks and ridges: Continental Shelf Research, v. 19, p. 1285–1330.

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo
 JSR HOLOCENE BAHAMIAN OOLITIC SAND 117

EBERLI, G.P., AND GINSBURG, R.N., 1987, Segmentation and coalescence of platforms, LUKASIK, J., and SIMO, J.A.T., eds., 2008, Controls on Carbonate Platform and Reef
Tertiary, NW Great Bahama Bank: Geology, v. 15, p. 75–79. Development: SEPM, Special Publication 89, 364 p.
EBERLI, G.P., AND GINSBURG, R.N., 1989, Cenozoic progradation of NW Great Bahama MEYERHOFF, A.A., AND HATTEN, C.W., 1974, Bahamas salient of North America:
Bank—a record of lateral platform growth and sea level fluctuations, in Crevello, tectonic framework, stratigraphy and petroleum potential: American Association of
P.D., Wilson, J.L., Sarg, J.F., and Read, J.F., eds., Controls on Carbonate Platform Petroleum Geologists, Bulletin, v. 58, p. 1210–1239.
and Basin Evolution: SEPM, Special Publication 44, p. 339–355. MORSE, J.W., MILLERO, F.J., THURMOND, V., BROWN, E., AND OSTLUND, H.G., 1984, The
ENOS, P., 1974, Surface sediment facies map of the Florida–Bahamas Plateau: carbonate chemistry of Grand Bahama Bank waters: after 18 years another look:
Geological Society of America, Map 5. Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 89, p. 3604–3614.
FRENCH, J.A., AND WATNEY, W.L., 1993, Stratigraphy and depositional setting of the NEWELL, N.D., AND RIGBY, J.K., 1957, Geological studies in the Great Bahama Bank, in
lower Missourian (Pennsylvanian) Bethany Falls and Mound Valley limestones, Le Blanc, R.J., and Breeding, J.G., eds., Regional Aspects of Carbonate
analogues for age-equivalent ooid grainstone reservoirs, Kansas: Kansas Geological Sedimentation: SEPM, Special Publication 5, p. 15–79.
Survey, Bulletin 235, p. 27–39. NEWELL, N.D., PURDY, E.G., AND IMBRIE, J., 1960, Bahamian oolitic sand: Journal of
GARRETT, P., AND GOULD, S.J., 1986, Geology of New Providence Island, Bahamas: Geology, v. 68, p. 481–497.
Geological Society of America, Bulletin, v. 95, p. 209–220. O’BRIEN, M.P., 1931, Estuary tidal prisms related to entrance areas: Civil Engineering,
GINSBURG, R.N., 1956, Environmental relationships of grain size and constituent v. 1, p. 738–739.
particles in some south Florida carbonate sediments: American Association of OFF, T., 1963, Rhythmic linear sand bodies caused by tidal currents: American
Petroleum Geologists, Bulletin., v. 40, p. 2384–2427. Association of Petroleum Geologists, Bulletin, v. 47, p. 324–341.
GONZALEZ, R., AND EBERLI, G.P., 1997, Sediment transport and sedimentary structures PALMER, M.S., 1979, Holocene facies geometry of the leeward bank margin, Tongue of
in a carbonate tidal inlet; Lee Stocking Island, Exuma Islands, Bahamas: the Ocean, Bahamas [unpublished M.S. thesis]: University of Miami, Miami, Florida,
Sedimentology, v. 44, p. 1015–1030. 199 p.
HALLEY, R.B., AND HARRIS, P.M., 1979, Fresh-water cementation of a 1,000-year old PURDY, E.G., 1961, Bahamian oolite shoals, in Peterson, J.A., and Osmond, J.C., eds.,
oolite: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 49, p. 969–87. Geometry of Sandstone Bodies: American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
HALLEY, R.B., HARRIS, P.M., AND HINE, A.C., 1983, Bank margin environments, in Special Publication 22, p. 53–63.
Scholle, P.A., Bebout, D.G., and Moore, C.H., eds., Carbonate Depositional PURDY, E.G., 1963a, Recent calcium carbonate facies of the Great Bahama Bank. 1.
Environments: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 33, p. 463–506. Petrography and reaction groups: Journal of Geology, v. 71, p. 334–355.
HANDFORD, C.R., AND LOUCKS, R.G., 1993, Carbonate depositional sequences and PURDY, E.G., 1963b, Recent calcium carbonate facies of the Great Bahama Bank. 2.
systems tracts—responses of carbonate platforms to relative sea-level changes, in Sedimentary facies: Journal of Geology, v. 71, p. 472–497.
Loucks, R.G., and Sarg, J.F., eds., Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy: Recent RANKEY, E.C., AND REEDER, S.L., 2009, Holocene ooids of Aitutaki Atoll, Cook Islands,
Developments and Applications: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, South Pacific: Geology, v. 37, p. 971–974.
Memoir 57, p. 3–41. RANKEY, E.C., AND REEDER, S.L., 2010, Controls on platform-scale patterns of surface
HARRIS, P.M., 2010, Delineating and quantifying depositional facies patterns in sediments, shallow Holocene platforms, Bahamas: Sedimentology, v. 57, p. 1545–1565.
carbonate reservoirs: insight from modern analogs: American Association of RANKEY, E.C., AND REEDER, S.L., 2011, in press, Tidal sands of the Bahamian Archipelago,
Petroleum Geologists, Bulletin, v. 94, p. 61–86. in Davis, R., and Dalrymple, R., eds., Tidal Sedimentology: Berlin, Springer-Verlag.
HARRIS, P.M., 1979, Facies anatomy and diagenesis of a Bahamian ooid shoal: RANKEY, E.C., RIEGL, B., AND STEFFEN, K., 2006, Form, function, and feedbacks in a
University of Miami, Sedimenta VII, 163 p. tidally dominated ooid shoal, Bahamas: Sedimentology, v. 53, p. 1191–1210.
HARRIS, P.M., PURKIS, S.J., AND ELLIS, J., 2011, in press, Analyzing spatial patterns in RANKEY, E.C., GUIDRY, S.A., REEDER, S.L., AND GUARIN, H., 2009, Geomorphic and
modern carbonate sand bodies from Great Bahama Bank: Journal of Sedimentary sedimentologic heterogeneity along a Holocene shelf margin: Caicos Platform:
Research, v. 81. Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 79, p. 440–456.
HARRIS, P.T., 1988, Large-scale bedforms as indicators of mutually evasive sand READING, H.G., ed., 1996, Sedimentary Environments: Processes, Facies, and
transport and the sequential infilling of wide-mouthed estuaries: Sedimentary Stratigraphy: Oxford, U.K., Blackwell Scientific Publications, 691 p.
Geology, v. 57, p. 273–298. REEDER, S.L., AND RANKEY, E.C., 2008, Relations between sediments and tidal flows in
ooid shoals, Bahamas: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 78, p. 175–186.
HAYES, M.O., 1975, Morphology of sand accumulation in estuaries: and introduction to
REEDER, S.L., AND RANKEY, E.C., 2009a, An integrated field, remote sensing, and
the symposium, in Cronin, L.E., ed., Estuarine Research 2, Geology and Engineering:
modeling study examining the impact of Hurricanes Frances and Jeanne on carbonate
London, Academic Press, p. 3–22.
systems, Bahamas, in Swart, P.K., Eberli, G.P., and McKenzie, J.A., eds., Perspectives
HEARTY, P.J., AND NEUMANN, A.C., 2001, Rapid sea-level and climate change at the
in Carbonate Geology: A Tribute to the Career of Robert Nathan Ginsburg:
close of the last interglaciation (MIS 5e): Evidence from the Bahama Islands:
International Association of Sedimentologists, Special Publication 41, p. 75–90.
Quaternary Science Reviews, v. 20, p. 1881–1895.
REEDER, S.L., AND RANKEY, E.C., 2009b, Controls on morphology and sedimentology of
HINE, A.C., 1977, Lily Bank, Bahamas: history of an active oolite sand shoal: Journal of carbonate tidal deltas, Abacos, Bahamas: Marine Geology, v. 267, p. 141–155.
Sedimentary Petrology, v. 47, p. 1554–1581. ROYAL SOCIETY, 2005, Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide:
HINE, A.C., AND NEUMANN, A.C., 1977, Shallow carbonate-bank-margin growth and London, The Royal Society, Policy Document 12/05, 55 p.
structure, Little Bahama Bank, Bahamas: American Association of Petroleum SARG, J.F., 1988, Carbonate sequence stratigraphy, in Wilgus, C.K., Hastings, B.S.,
Geologists, Bulletin, v. 61, p. 376–406. Posamentier, H., Van Wagoner, J., Ross, C.A., and Kendall, C.G.St.C., eds., Sea-
HINE, A.C., WILBER, R.J., AND NEUMANN, A.C., 1981, Carbonate sand bodies along Level Changes: An Integrated Approach: SEPM, Special Publication 42, p. 155–181.
contrasting shallow bank margins facing open seaways in northern Bahamas: SMITH, N.P., 1995, On long-term net flow over Great Bahama Bank: Journal of Physical
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Bulletin, v. 65, p. 261–290. Oceanography, v. 25, p. 679–684.
HOFFMEISTER, J.E., STOCKMAN, K.W., AND MULTER, H.G., 1967, Miami Limestone of STRASSER, A., AND DAVAUD, E., 1986, Formation of Holocene limestone sequences by
Florida and its Recent Bahamian counterpart: Geological Society of America, progradation, cementation, and erosion: two examples from the Bahamas: Journal of
Bulletin, v. 78, p. 175–190. Sedimentary Petrology, v. 56, p. 422–428.
ILLING, L.V., 1954, Bahamian calcareous sands: American Association of Petroleum TUCKER, M.E., AND WRIGHT, V.P., 1990, Carbonate Sedimentology: New York, Wiley-
Geologists Bulletin, v. 38, p. 1–95. Blackwell, 496 p.
IMBRIE, J., AND BUCHANAN, H., 1965, Sedimentary structures in modern carbonate sands VAN VEEN, J., 1950, Ebb and flood-channel systems in the Netherlands tidal waters:
of the Bahamas, in Middleton, G.V., ed., Primary Sedimentary Structures and Their Journal of the Royal Dutch Geographical Society, 2e Series, Part 67. Republished,
Hydrodynamic Interpretations: SEPM, Special Publication 12, p. 149–172. translated and annotated by Delft University of Technology, 2001. ISBN 9040723389.
KEITH, B.D., and ZUPPANN, C.W., eds., 1993, Mississippian oolites and modern analogs: WALKER, R.G., 1992, Facies, facies models and modern stratigraphic concepts, in
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Studies in Geology, v. 35, 265 p. Walker, R.G., and James, N.P., eds., Facies Models: Response to Sea Level Change:
KINDLER, P., AND HEARTY, P.J., 1996, Carbonate petrography as an indicator of climate St. John’s, Geological Association of Canada, p. 1–14.
and sea-level changes: new data from Bahamian Quaternary units: Sedimentology, WANLESS, H.R., AND TEDESCO, L.P., 1993, Comparison of oolitic sand bodies generated
v. 43, p. 381–399. by tidal vs. wind-wave agitation, in Keith, B.D., and Zuppann, C.W., eds.,
LEE, K., TONG, L.T., MILLERO, F.J., SABINE, C.L., DICKSON, A.G., GOYET, C., PARK, Mississippian Oolites and Modern Analogs: American Association of Petroleum
G.-H., WANNINKHOF, R., FEELY, R.A., AND KEY, R.M., 2006, Global relationships of Geologists, Studies in Geology 35, p. 199–225.
total alkalinity with salinity and temperature in surface waters of the world’s oceans: WOOD, L.J., 2004, Predicting tidal sand reservoir architecture using data from modern
Geophysical Research Letters, v. 33L19605, doi:10.1029/2006GL027207. and ancient depositional systems, in Grammer, M.G., Harris, P.M., and Eberli, G.P.,
LEHRMANN, D.J., AND GOLDHAMMER, R.K., 1993, Secular variation in parasequence and eds., Integration of Outcrop and Modern Analogs in Reservoir Modeling: American
facies stacking patterns of platform carbonates: a guide to application of stacking Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 80, p. 45–66.
pattern analysis in strata of diverse ages and settings, in Harris, P.M., Saller, A.H.,
and Simo, J.A., eds., Advances in Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy: Applications to
Reservoirs, Outcrops and Models: SEPM, Special Publication 63, p. 187–225. Received 3 June 2010; accepted 11 October 2010.

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-pdf/81/2/97/2828104/97.pdf

by Korea University, Myungjun Seo