PHYSICS

Volume 1
2 Physics

1 V = u + at
2
​ 1 ​ at 2 S = vt – __
S = ut + __ ​ 1 ​ at2
2 2
2 2
3 v = u + 2as
4 ​ a ​ (2n – 1)
Sn = u + __
2

1. Motion in One Dimension

(Constant Acceleration)
2. Components of a vector (2D)

​___› ​___› ​___›

​OP​ = ​OX​ + OY​ ​
​_›
​r ​ = r cos q iˆ + r sin q jˆ
x = component along x-axis = r cos q,
y = component along y-axis = r sin q.
y
r = x 2 + y 2 , tan q = __
​ x ​

3. Relative Velocity of A w.r.t. B

​_› ​_› ​_›
 ​V​AB = ​V​A – ​V​B
 Physics 3
4. Scalar Product of Two Vectors
​_› _
​› ​_› _
​›
​a ​ ◊ ​b ​ = |​a ​| |​b ​| cos q
​_› ​_›
Here q is angle between the two vectors ​a ​ and ​b .​

5. Vector Product of Two Vectors

​_› _
​› ​_› _
​›
​a ​ × ​b ​ = |​a ​| |​b ​| sin q ◊ n̂ _
​_› ​›
Where q is angle between two vectors ​​_a ​ and ​b ​. Here n
​_› ›
is a unit vector perpendicular to ​a ​ and ​b ​ both.

​_›
​A​ = Ax î + Ay  ĵ + Az k̂
_
​›
​B​ = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂

iˆ ˆj kˆ
​_› ​_›
​A​ × ​B​ = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

= î (AyBz – ByAz) – ĵ (AxBz – AzBx)

  + k̂ (AxBy – AyBx)
4 Physics
6. Projectile Motion
A projectile of mass m is fired
with initial velocity u at angle q
with horizontal. After time t its
velocity is v at angle a
ax = 0, ay = – g
vx = u cos q, vy = u sin q – gt
x = (u cos q) t,
1
y = (u sin q) t – __ ​   ​ gt 2
2
1 x2
y = x tan q – __​   ​ g ​ ________  ​
2 u2 cos2 q
u sin q – gt
After time t tan a = ​ _________ ​
u cos q
Oblique Projection
2u2 sinq cos q u________
2
sin 2q
Range (R) = ​ ___________
g    ​ = ​  g ​

u2 sin2q
Hmax = ​ _______​
2g
2u sin q
Time = T = _______
​  g ​
 Physics 5
Horizontal projection from ground
2H
T =
g
2H
R =u
g

7. Uniform Circular Motion

Linear velocity is tangent to the circle and is given as:
v = rw
R = radius and w = angulr velocity
Tangential acceleration (In case of
uniformly accelerated circular motion)
a^ = ra
a = angular acceleration
If a = constant.
Equations of motion are given as:
wf = wi + at
​w​2f​ ​ = ​w2​i​ ​ + 2 a.q.
1
Dq = wit + __ ​   ​ at 2
2
a
__
Dqn = wi + ​   ​ (2n – 1)
2
8. Laws of Motion
1. Everybody continues in its state of rest or uniform
motion in a straight line unless acted upon by
6 Physics
N 
an unbalanced force. If  Fi = 0 ; acceleration
i =1
becomes zero and velocity remains constant both
in magnitude and direction.
​_›
2. The time rate of change of linear momentum (​p ​)
of a body is directly proportional to net force
acting on it.
 N 
dp
= k  Fi For S.I. system k = 1
dt i =1
Special case: If mass of body remains constant
N _
​› ​_
›
 ​F​i = m​a ​
i =1
3. For every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
​_› ​_›
​F​action = – ​F​reaction
9. Linear Momentum
​_› ​_› ​_›
​p ​ = m​v ​  M = mass and ​v ​ = velocity
Law of conservation of Linear Momentum
If total force acting on a system of bodies is zero
​_›
S ​F​ = 0,
Its total linear momentum remains constant or
conserved.
​_›
S ​F​ = conserved.
 Physics 7
10. Impulse
​_›
​_› d ​p ​ ​_› ​_›
T ___
​J ​ = Ú0 ​  dt ​ ◊ dt = ​p ​ (T) – ​p ​ (0)
On force-time graph, impulse
is equals to the area under the
curve.
11. Lemi’s Theorem
​_› ​_› ​_›
Let a particle acted upon by three forces ​F​1, ​F​2 and ​F​3.
Resultant of the forces is zero if
F1 F2 F3
​ _____  ​ = ​ ______ ​ = ​ ______ ​
sin (a) sin (b) sin (g )

12. Work
r  

W = ÚrB F ◊ dr
A

Special case: When force is constant

​_› r 
W = ​F​ ◊ ÚrB dr
A
​_› ​_› ​_› ​_› _
​›
W = ​F​ ◊ (​r ​B – ​r ​A) = ​F​ . ​S ​= FS cos q
Work is scalar quantity
8 Physics
13. Work – Energy Theorem
Work done by all forces acting on a body is equal to the
change produced in the kinetic energy of the body.
Kf
Ú F . dx = Ú dK W = Kf = Ki
Ki

14. Power
It is rate of doing work
​_›
​› _
dW _​ › __
___ d _ ​› _
​›
d​S ​ _
___
​ › ​_
›
P = ​  ​. ​P​ = ​  ​ (​F​. ​S ​) = ​F​ ◊ ​  ​ = ​F​.​v ​.
dt dt dt
15. Elastic collision in One- Dimension
For two bodies of masses m1 and m2 are moving along
x-axis with initial speeds u1 and u2 which collide
elastically in one dimension and after collision their
speeds are v1 and v2.
m1 – m2 2m2
v1 = ​ _______ ​ u1 + _______
​   ​ u
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 2
2m1 (m2 – m2)
v2 = ​ _______  ​ u1 + ​ ________ ​ u2
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

16. Coefficient of Restitution

It is a ratio of relative velocity of separation after collision
to the relative velocity of approach before collision of
two particles.
– (v1 – v2)
e = ​ ________ ​
(u1 – u2)
 Physics 9
(i) For perfectly elastic collision e = 1
(ii) For inelastic collision 0 < e < 1
(iii) For perfectly inelastic collision e = 0
(iv) For a super-elastic collision e > 1
17. Centre of Mass
Position vector of C.M.
​_› ​_› ​_›
_
​› m1​r ​1 + m2​r ​2 + ... mn​r ​n
​r cm ​ ​ ____________________
       ​
m1 + m2 + ... mn
Mass of C.M,
Mcm = m1 + m2 + ... mn,
Velocity of Centre of Mass
​_› ​_› ​_›
_
​› m1​v ​1 + m2​v ​2 + mn​v ​n
​V​cm = __________________
​     ​,
  
m1 + m2 + ... mn
Acceleration of centre of Mass
​_› ​_› ​_›
​_› m1​a ​1 + m2​a ​2 + ... mn​a ​n
​a ​cm = ​ ____________________
     ​
m1 + m2 + ... mn
Centre of mass of some bodies
(1) Semicircular wire
10 Physics
2R
xCM = 0, yCM = ___
​  p ​
(2) Semicircular disc

4R
xCM = 0, yCM = ___
​   ​
3p
(3) Hemispherical shell

XCM = 0, ZCM = 0, YCM = R/2

(4) Solid Hemisphere

XCM = 0, ZCM = 0, YCM = 3R/8

 Physics 11
(5) Right triangular sheet

2a b
xCM = ​ ___ ​, yCM = __
​   ​
3 3
(6) Uniform Hollow cone

h
xCM = 0, zCM = 0, yCM = __
​   ​
3
(7) Uniform solid cone
3h
xCM = 0, zCM = 0, yCM = ​ ___ ​
4
18. Moment of Inertia
It is inertia of rotational motion
due to which a body tries to maintain its state of rest
or of uniform rotational motion. Let a body consists of
particles of masses m1, m2, m3 ... situated at perpendicular
12 Physics
distances r1, r2, r3 .... from the axis, moment of inertia
is given as:
I = Smiri2   I = Ú r 2 dm.
Radius of gyration: The radius of gyration (k) of a body
about an axis of rotation is the root mean square distance
of the particles from the axis of rotation and its square
when multiplied with mass of the body gives the moment
of inertia about that axis. I = Mk 2

K is radius of gyration = r12 + r22 + ... rN2

(a) Circular Ring

(i) About an axis passing through the centre of the
ring and perpendicular to the plane of the ring

M = mass, R = radius.
I = Ú dmR 2 = MR 2
(ii) About diameter
MR2
I¢ = ​ ____
 ​,
2
 Physics 13
(b) Circular Disc
(i) About an axis passing through the centre of the
disc and perpendicular to the plane of the disc.
MR2
I = ____ ​   ​ M = Mass of disc R = radius of disc
2
(ii) About diameter:
MR2
I = ​ ____
 ​
4
(c) Thin uniform Rod about an axis passing through
centre and perpendicular to its length.
M = mass of Rod, L = length of Rod
ML2
I = ​ ____ ​
12
(d) Hollow Cylinder
(i) About an axis of cylinder M = mass of cylinder
R = radius of cylinder
I = MR 2
(ii) About the axis through its centre and perpendicular
to its length.
ML2 MR2
L = length of cylinder I = ____ ​   ​ + ____
​   ​
12 2
(e) Solid cylinder
(i) About the axis of cylinder:
M = mass of cylinder L = length of cylinder
R = radius of cylinder
MR2
I = ​ ____ ​
2
14 Physics
(ii) About the axis through centre and perpendicular
to its length.
MR2 MR2
I = ​ ____ ​ + ​ ____
 ​
12 4
(f) Hollow Spherical shell
M = mass of shell R = radius of shell
About diameter
2MR2
I = ​ _____
 ​
3
(g) Solid Sphere About diameter
M = mass of sphere R = radius of sphere
2MR2
I = ​ _____
 ​
5
19. Rolling on inclined Plane
A body of radius R having
radius of gyration ‘k’ about
centre of mass axis starts
rolling without slipping from
top of an inclined plane of
height h.
Its acceleration of Centre of mass is given as:
g sin q
a =
Ê k2 ˆ
Á 1 + ˜
Ë R2 ¯
Its final velocity on reaching ground is given as:
 Physics 15
2 gh
v =
Ê k2 ˆ
Á 1 + ˜
Ë R2 ¯
Time taken to reach bottom
1 2h Ê k2 ˆ
T = Á 1+ 2˜
sin q g Ë R ¯

20. Newton’s Law of Gravitation

m1m2
F = – G ​ _____ ​
r2
Negative sign is due to attractive nature of force. G is
called universal gravitational constant. It’s value is
6.67 × 10–11 Nm2 kg–2
(a) Due to Rotation of earth
g¢ = g – Rw2 cos2 l
Here w is rotational velocity of earth’s rotation about its
own axis and l is angle of latitude.
(b) Due to height
R2
g¢ = g ​ _______2 ​
(R + h)
‘h’ is height from earth’s surface. If h  R
16 Physics

g¢ = g Ê 1 - 2h ˆ
ÁË R ˜¯
(c) Due to depth
g¢ = g ÊÁ 1 - d ˆ˜
Ë R¯
Here d is depth of the point taken from surface of
earth.
20. Gravitational Potential Energy
The gravitational potential energy of a body at a point
is defined as the work done in bringing the body from
infinity to that point without any change in its kinetic
energy
r  
U = - Ú• F . dr
Potential energy of two masses
– Gm1m2
U = ​ ________
r ​

21. Escape Velocity

2GM
Vesp = = 2 gR
R
22. Satellite
(a) Orbital Velocity
Gm
V0 =
( R + h)
 Physics 17
H = height of satellite from earth’s surface
(b) Time period of revolution

( R + h )3
T = 2p
GM
If T = 24hr, satellite is called geostationary satellite.
This is at height 36,000 km.
(c) Potential energy of satellite
– GMm
= ______ ​   ​
(R + h)
M = Mass of earth and m is mass of satellite.
(d) Kinetic energy of satellite
GMm
= ________ ​   ​
2 (R + h)
(e) Total energy of satellite
1 GMm
E = – ​ __ ​ ______
​   ​
2 (R + h)
22. Pascal’s Law
For an incompressible fluid, pressure distributes equally
in all directions.
Hydraulic Lift
F1 F2
​ ___
a1 ​ = ​ ___
a2 ​
a = area of cross-section and F =
force on the piston
18 Physics
23. Excess pressure due to surface Tension
(1) Drop
2T
Dp = ​ ___
r​
Here T = surface tension and r = radius of drop
(2) Bubble in air
4T
Dp = ​ ___
r​
Here T = surface tension and r = radius of bubble.
(3) Bubble in a liquid
2T
Dp = ​ ___
r​
24. Stress and Strain
(a) Normal Stress = Fin/A
Dl
Longitudinal Strain = ​ ___​
l
Change of Length
= ​ _______________
  
 ​
  
Length

(b) Tangential Stress = Fin/A

A = area on which external force is applied.
Dl
Shearing Strain = ​ ___​= q
l
 Physics 19
(c) Pressure Stress = F/A
A = Surface area
DV
Volumetric Strain = ​ ___​
V
25. Relation Between Moduli of Elasticity
Y = young’s modulus, K = bulk modulus, s = Passion’s
ratio and h = modulus of rigidity
Y Y 9 1 3
K = ________
​   ​ h = ​ ________  ​ __
​  ​ = __
​  ​ + __
​   ​
3 (1 – 2s) 2 (1 + s) Y K h

26. Poiseuille’s Formula

ppr4
____
Q = ​  ​
8hl
Q = Rate of flow i.e. volume flow per unit time, p =
pressure difference across a uniform horizontal pipe,
h is coefficient of viscosity and r is radius of cross-
section, l = length of pipe.
Series Connection of Two Pipes
In this combination rate of flow remains same.
Q1 = Q2

p p1r14 p p2r24
​ ______ ​ = ​ ______ ​
8hl1 8hl2
20 Physics
Parallel Connection of Two Pipes
Total rate of flow.
Q = Q1 + Q2, p1 = p2

ppr14 ppr24
Q = ​ _____ ​ + _____
​   ​
8hl1 8hl2
27. Mean Free Path
kT
l =
2 pD 2 P
D = diameter of atom k = Boltzmann Constant P =
pressure.
28. Thermal Expansion
(a) Coefficient of linear expansion
lt – l0 dl
a = ​ ______​ = ___
​  ​
l0t ldt
lt = l0 (1 + at)
Here l0 and lt are the lengths of the solid at 0°C and
t°C respectively and t is the rise in temperature
(b) Coefficient of superficial expansion
At – A0 dA
b = ​ ______​ = ___
​  ​
A0t Adt
 Physics 21
At = A0 (1 + bt)
Here A0 and At are the areas of the solid at 0°C and
t°C respectively and t is the rise in temperature.
(c) Coefficient of Cubical Expansion
Vt – V0 dV
g = ​ ______​ = ​ ___​
V0t Vdt
Vt = V0 (1 + gt)
Here V0 and Vt are the volumes of the solid at 0°C
and t°C respectively and t is the rise in temperature
Relation between three coefficients
b = 2a
b g
g = 3a ​ __ ​ = __
​   ​
2 3
29. Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity of a solid is a measure of the ability
of the solid to conduct heat through it. The coefficient of
thermal conductivity of a solid is equal to rate flow of
heat per unit area per unit temperature gradient across
the solid.

dQ (T1 – T2)
​ ___​ = kA ​ ________​
dt l
22 Physics
dQ is heat energy flow in time dt, A is area of cross-
section, l = length and k = Coefficient of thermal
conductivity T1 and T2 are temperatures at inlet and outlet
respectively.
30. Kirchhoff’s Law
Ratio of spectral emissive power to the absorptive power
of a body is always a constant.
el
​ __ al ​ = El = constant
31. Stefan’s Boltzmann Law
Total heat energy emitted by a body per unit time is
given as
E = ŒsA (T 4 – ​T​04​ ​)
e = relative emittance, T0 = temperature of surrounding
T = Temperature of body
s = Stefan’s Costant = 5.6 × 10–8 Wm–2 K – 4
A = Surface area
32. Newton’s Law of cooling
If temperature difference between a body and surrounding
is small (T ª T0), Rate of cooling is directly proportion to
the difference in temperature
dT
​ ___​ µ (T – T0)
dt
T = T0 + ce–kt
K = Proportionality constant
 Physics 23
33. Simple Harmonic Motion
F = – kx = – mw2 x
K = force constant
d 2x
​ ___ 2
 ​ + w2x = 0
dt
X = displacement from mean position and w = angular
frequency.
x = A sin (wt + F0)
x = A sin wt + B cos wt
x = Ae – iwt
A = amplitude, f0 = initial phase and i = -1
(a) Simple Pendulum
l
T = 2p ; lR
g
Here R is radius of earth, g is acceleration due to gravity
and l is length of pendulum.
(b) Long simple pendulum
24 Physics

1
T = 2p
g g
+
l R
(c) Compound Pendulum

Ê k2 ˆ
l+Á ˜
Ë l¯
T = 2p
g
K = radius of gyration about the axis through center of
mass.
(d) Torsion Pendulum
I
T = 2p
C
I = moment of inertia and C = torsional couple per unit
twist