21.

Morphological Structure of the Word: Types of Morphemes

Types of Morphemes

 Morphemes: Smallest meaningful units of language, not always

autonomous like words.

Both the word and the morpheme have content and form, but unlike a
word, a morpheme is not an independent unit, it is a constituent part of
the word.

• Words can be segmentable or non-segmentable

Words can be classified as segmentable or non-segmentable based on whether

they can be broken down into smaller meaningful units, called morphemes.

1. Segmentable Words

 These words can be divided into their constituent morphemes (roots and
affixes).
 Example:
o Unemployment → un- (prefix) + employ (root) + -ment (suffix).
o Happiness → happy (root) + -ness (suffix).
 Segmentable words are further classified into:
o Monoradical: Words with a single root (e.g., hopeful).
o Polyradical: Words with multiple roots (e.g., notebook).

2. Non-Segmentable Words

 These words cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts. They

consist of a single morpheme.
 Example:
o Boy, stone, man, home—these are simple root words that do not
have affixes or internal structures.
  Types of Morphemes:
o Roots: Lexical nucleus; e.g., hand in handy or handful.
o Affixes:
 Suffixes: Change part of speech, e.g., -ness in happiness.
 Prefixes: Modify root meaning, e.g., dis- in disappear.
o Inflectional Morphemes: Indicate grammatical meaning (-s, -ed);
discussed in grammar, not lexicology.
 Allomorphs: Variants of morphemes (e.g., im- in impossible, in- in
indirect).

Stem vs. Root

 Stem: Unchanging part of a word across paradigms (e.g., tricky →

trickiest).
 Root: Core morpheme (e.g., trick in tricky).

Morpheme Independence
According to their structural characteristics Morphemes are classified into

 Free Morphemes: Function independently root morphemes are free (e.g.,

hand, risk).
 Bound Morphemes: Only part of a word Affixes are bound morphemes
(e.g., -ful, un-). Includes:
o Unique roots (cran- in cranberry).
o Combining forms: Greek/Latin origins (e.g., tele- in telephone).

Semi-Free Morphemes

 Morphemes that can function both as affixes and free morphemes Can
act as affixes or free forms (e.g., well- in well-known and know well).
22. Classification of Morphemes According to their Structural
Characteristics

1. Free Morphemes:
o Function independently as words (e.g., hand, risk).
2. Bound Morphemes:
o Cannot stand alone; they must attach to a base (e.g., -ful, un-).
o Include:
 Unique Roots: Found only in specific contexts (e.g., cran- in
cranberry).
 Combining Forms: Often of Greek/Latin origin (e.g., tele- in
telephone).
3. Semi-Free Morphemes:
o Act as both affixes and free forms (e.g., well- in well-known and
know well).

23. Morphemic Analysis and the Classification of Words According to

Their Morphemic Composition

1. Morphemic Analysis:
o Immediate Constituents (ICs): Words are broken into smaller units
step-by-step.
 Example: unobjectionable → un- + objectionable →
objection + -able → object + -ion.
o Ultimate Constituents (UCs): The smallest non-analyzable
morphemes.
2. Classification of Words by Morphemic Composition:
o Monomorphic Words: Contain a single morpheme (e.g., dog, run).
o Polymorphic Words: Contain multiple morphemes:
 Monoradical: One root (e.g., undeniable).
 Radical-Suffixal: Root + suffix (e.g., employment).
  Radical-Prefixal: Prefix + root (e.g., disagree).
 Prefixo-Radical-Suffixal: Prefix + root + suffix (e.g.,
unselfish).
 Polyradical: Multiple roots (e.g., bookcase).
 With affixation: (e.g., tin-opener).
3. Simplexes vs. Complexes:
o Simplexes: Words without derivation (e.g., dog, charity).
o Complexes (Derivatives): Derived words (e.g., undeniable → deny).
4. Derivative Structure Components:
o Derivational Base: Core part forming the basis for new words.
o Derivational Affixes: Modify meaning or part of speech (e.g., -ful in
hopeful).
o Derivational Patterns: Arrangements for word formation (e.g., v +
er → N, as in writer).
5. Productivity:
o Productive Patterns: Actively form new words (e.g., v + er → N,
like hacker).
o Non-Productive Patterns: No longer create new words (e.g., n + ous
→ A)

24. Word- Formation: Definition, the Main Types

Definition: Word-formation refers to the continuous process of creating new

words in a language and the linguistic study of their formal, semantic, genetic
(etymological), and functional peculiarities. It focuses on understanding the
mechanisms of word-formation through derivative relations, patterns, and
classifications. This includes analyzing the morphological structure, semantic
relations, historical changes, and functional features of words.

Main Types of Word-Formation:

1. Linear Word-Formation (Morphologically Segmentable):
o Involves the sequential arrangement of elements (e.g., morphemes)
to form new words.
o Examples include:
 Affixation (Prefixation and Suffixation): Adding prefixes or
suffixes to base words (e.g., unhappy, kindness).
 Compounding: Combining two or more base words (e.g.,
notebook, greenhouse).
 Acronymy: Forming new words from initial letters (e.g.,
NASA, ASAP).
2. Non-Linear Word-Formation (Morphologically Non-Segmentable):
o Involves processes that do not rely on linear addition of elements.
o Examples include:
 Conversion: Changing a word’s grammatical category
without altering its form (e.g., to text [verb] from text
[noun]).
 Sound Interchange: Changing internal vowels or consonants
(e.g., food/ feed, breath/ breathe).
 Stress Interchange: Shifting stress patterns to form new words
(e.g., conduct [noun]/ to conduct [verb]).
 Back-Formation: Removing a perceived affix to create a new
word (e.g., editor → edit).
3. Blending:
o Combining parts of two words to form a new one (e.g., brunch
from breakfast + lunch).
4. Clipping (Shortening):
 o Shortening words by removing parts while retaining the meaning
(e.g., exam from examination).
5. Reduplication and Rhythmic Twin Forms:
o Forming words by repeating sounds or modifying repeated
elements (e.g., bye-bye, zigzag).
6. Sound Imitation (Onomatopoeia):
o Creating words that mimic natural sounds (e.g., splash, cuckoo,
purr).

Major vs. Minor Types:

 Major Types: Affixation, compounding, conversion, back-formation,

blending, and shortening. These are the most productive and innovative.
 Minor Types: Sound and stress interchange, sound imitation, and
reduplication. These have lower productivity and contribute less to
vocabulary growth.

In summary, word-formation encompasses various methods for creating new

words, each with unique structural and semantic characteristics. Among these,
affixation, compounding, and conversion are the most productive and widely
used in modern languages.

25. Affixation: Productivity, The Main Characteristics of Living Affixes

Definition of Affixation:

 Affixation is the process of creating new words by adding derivational

affixes to base forms (roots). These affixes can be of native or foreign
origin.
 Types of Affixes:

1. Dead Affixes: These are affixes that no longer function in modern word-
formation and have lost their word-forming power. They can only be
identified through etymological analysis.
o Examples:
 Suffixes: -ock (bullock), -lock (wedlock), -t (flight), -d (dead)
 Prefixes: for- (forgive), a- (arise)
2. Living Affixes: These are active affixes that are still in use to create new
words and are easily identified in modern words.
o Examples:
 Prefixes: un-, pre-, re-, inter- (unhappy, reread, interaction)
 Suffixes: -er, -ness, -ly, -less (teacher, kindness, happily,
hopeless)

Characteristics of Living Affixes:

1. Meaning Expression: Affixes express a specific meaning when added to

derivational bases.
2. Independence of Bases: After removing the affix, the base should still
function independently or form new words with other affixes.
3. Combination with Various Bases: Affixes can combine with multiple
bases, making them adaptable in different contexts.
4. Frequency of Usage: Affixes have a certain frequency of usage, reflecting
how often they appear in the language.
5. Potential for Coinages: Living affixes have the potential to form new
words, including nonce-words (temporary, context-specific creations).

Productivity:
 Productivity refers to how frequently an affix is used to create new
words. It is distinct from frequency, which refers to how often an affix
appears in existing words. An affix may be common but not productive in
forming new words.
 Productive affixes are regularly used to form neologisms and nonce-words
(occasionally coined words). For example:
o "Mondayish" (coined by analogy with words like girlish, longish)
shows the productive use of the suffix -ish.
 The degree of productivity can vary: some affixes are highly productive
(e.g., -er, -ness, -able), while others are non-productive (e.g., -th, -hood).

Examples of Productive Affixes:

1. Highly Productive Affixes:

o Suffixes:
 -ness (indicating quality): kindness, greatness
 -er (indicating agent or action): teacher, writer
 -less (indicating absence): hopeless, jobless
 -able (indicating possibility): readable, manageable
o Prefixes:
 un- (negation): unhappy, unwilling
 re- (repetition): reread, rewrite
2. Non-Productive Affixes:
o -th (indicating state or quality): warmth, length
o -hood (indicating state or condition): brotherhood, childhood
o -ous (indicating quality or state): famous, dangerous

Homonymy in Affixes:

 Homonymy occurs when different affixes with the same form but
different meanings or functions are treated as one. This can lead to high
statistics of productivity for affixes that might be considered separate.
 o Example:
 The -ish suffix:
 Adjective-forming (British, Spanish, feverish)
 Verb-forming (finish, publish)
o Example:
 The un- prefix:
 Adjective-forming (unaware, unwilling)
 Verb-forming (uncover, undo)

Productivity Testing:

 To determine if an affix is productive, linguists look at its presence in

neologisms (new words) and nonce-words. Statistical methods are often
used to measure the degree of productivity by comparing the ratio of
newly-formed words using a particular affix to the overall frequency of
that affix.

Derivational Affixes: Different Aspects and Classification

Derivational affixes help create new words by attaching to a base. These

affixes can create different levels of derivation:

 Zero derivation: This refers to a simple word that exists as both a base and
a word-form. For example, haste and boy can be used as both roots and in
different contexts without needing further modification.
 First-degree derivation: This involves adding one affix to a base, as seen in
words like hasty (from haste) or boyish (from boy).
 Second-degree derivation: A further affix is added, resulting in words like
hastily or boyishness.

Affixes can be classified in various ways based on their grammatical

function. Prefixes and suffixes can be categorized according to their
lexico-grammatical character (e.g., deverbal, denominal, or deadjectival).
 Conclusion:

Affixation is a dynamic process that contributes significantly to word-

formation in modern English. The productivity of affixes can vary, with
some being highly productive in creating new words, while others have
become obsolete or are rarely used in new formations. The study of
affixation and its productivity offers valuable insights into the ways in
which language evolves and adapts to new cultural and social contexts.

26. Prefixes: Definition, Classification

 Definition of Prefixes: Affixes added to the beginning of a word to modify

its meaning.
o Denominal: ex-president, post-war.
o Deverbal: revisit, unpack.
o Deadjectival: unhappy, impatient.

 Classification of Prefixes:

By Function:

1. Negative Prefixes:
o un- (e.g., unhappy)
o in- (e.g., incomplete)
o non- (e.g., nonexistent)
2. Locative Prefixes:
o sub- (e.g., submarine – under the water)
o inter- (e.g., international – between nations)
o trans- (e.g., transport – across places)
3. Temporal Prefixes:
o pre- (e.g., predict – before something happens)
 o post- (e.g., postwar – after the war)
4. Intensifying Prefixes:
o super- (e.g., superhuman – beyond human abilities)
o ultra- (e.g., ultramodern – extremely modern)

By Origin:

1. Native Prefixes:
o un- (e.g., undo)
o mis- (e.g., misunderstand)
2. Borrowed Prefixes:
o ante- (from Latin, e.g., antecedent – something that comes before)
o pro- (from Latin, e.g., promote – to move forward)
o anti- (from Greek, e.g., antivirus – against viruses)
o hyper- (from Greek, e.g., hyperactive – excessively active)

By Semantic Role:

1. Derivational Prefixes:
o re- (e.g., rewrite – to write again)
o de- (e.g., deactivate – to make inactive)
2. Inflectional Prefixes:
o While rare in English, some inflectional prefixes appear in other
languages.
Example: en- in enlarge may add an aspect of transformation
(though more derivational in English).
For inflectional use, compare languages like Spanish (re- in releído
– reread, marking repetition).

27. Suffixes: Definition, Classification, Compound Suffixes

 Suffixes change the part of speech of the base word. For example:

o Denominal: jobless, scornful.

o Deverbal: winner, appearance.
o Deadjectival: widen, heavily.

Definition of Suffixes

A suffix is a morpheme added at the end of a root or base word to modify its
meaning or grammatical function. Suffixes can change a word’s part of speech
(e.g., from a noun to an adjective) or alter its tense, number, or degree.

Classification of Suffixes

Suffixes can be classified by their function, origin, and semantic role:

1. By Function:

 Derivational Suffixes: Create new words by changing the word class or

meaning.
Examples:
o -ness (e.g., happiness – forms a noun)
o -ize (e.g., modernize – forms a verb)
o -able (e.g., readable – forms an adjective)
 Inflectional Suffixes: Modify a word’s grammatical features without
changing its basic meaning.
Examples:
o -s (plural, e.g., cats)
o -ed (past tense, e.g., walked)
o -ing (present participle, e.g., running)
2. By Origin:

 Native Suffixes: Originate from Old English.

Examples:
o -ful (e.g., beautiful)
o -less (e.g., careless)
o -ly (e.g., quickly)
 Borrowed Suffixes: Adopted from Latin, Greek, or other languages.
Examples:
o -tion (Latin, e.g., creation)
o -ology (Greek, e.g., biology)
o -esque (French, e.g., picturesque)

3. By Semantic Role:

 Noun-forming Suffixes: -ment, -tion, -ness (e.g., achievement,

information, darkness)
 Verb-forming Suffixes: -ize, -ify (e.g., realize, clarify)
 Adjective-forming Suffixes: -ful, -ous, -able (e.g., joyful, dangerous,
adaptable)
 Adverb-forming Suffixes: -ly, -wise (e.g., quickly, otherwise)

Compound Suffixes

Compound suffixes are combinations of two or more suffixes or a suffix and a

root element, often borrowed from classical languages like Greek or Latin.
These are used to create complex, specialized words.

Examples:

 -logy (-log + -y): Study of (e.g., biology, psychology)

 -cracy (-crat + -y): Rule or government (e.g., democracy, theocracy)
 -ectomy (-ec + -tomy): Surgical removal (e.g., appendectomy, lobectomy)
  -phobia (-phob + -ia): Fear of (e.g., arachnophobia, claustrophobia)

Compound suffixes are especially common in scientific and technical

vocabularies.

28. Compounding

1. Types of Compounds:

o Simple Compounds: Composed of simple bases like horse-race,

sunflower, and classroom.

o Mixed Compounds: One element is simple, while the other is

derived, like word-processor, lady-killer.

o Clipped/Abbreviated Compounds: Use shortened forms like TV-

show, V-day, H-bomb.

o Morphological Compounds: Linked by special elements like

speedometer or tragicomic.

o Syntactic Compounds: Resemble free phrases and maintain traces of

syntactic arrangement, like mother-in-law or good-for-nothing.

o Reduplicative Compounds: These include rhythmic or alliterative

patterns, e.g., goody-goody, boogie-woogie, zigzag.

2. Derivational Compounds:

o These are hybrids of compounding and affixation, where the

compound base is followed by a derivational suffix (e.g., kind-
hearted, old-timer). Such compounds can also serve as bases for
further derivation.
 3. Semantic Aspects of Compounds:

o Motivation: Most compounds have a meaning that is derived from

the individual meanings of their components, but this is not always
the case. For example, workshop (a place for work) and bookshop
(a place for selling books) demonstrate how the meaning comes
from the combination of their parts.

o Structural Meaning: The arrangement of components in a

compound can influence its meaning. For example, horserace (a
contest between horses) versus racehorse (a horse used in such a
contest).

o Non-motivated Compounds: Some compounds do not have an

immediately clear relationship between their components, such as
fiddlesticks (nonsense) or doodlebug (a type of bomb).

In sum, the semantic transparency and motivation of compound words vary,

and understanding the structure and order of components is key to grasping
their full meaning.

Compounds vs. Free Word-Groups:

1. Distinguishing Compounds from Phrases:

o Compounds function as a single word and express a unified

concept, while free word-groups (phrases) have separate
components conveying distinct ideas.

o For example, blackboard (compound) refers to a specific object,

while a black board (free phrase) refers to a board that is black.
 2. Criteria for Differentiation:

o Graphic: Sometimes unreliable, as the same word may be spelled

differently (e.g., necklace vs. neck lace).

o Phonetic: Compounds usually have single stress (e.g., slowcoach),

but some may have double stress (e.g., absent-minded).

o Semantic: In compounds, the meaning is cohesive, whereas in free

word-groups, the components retain individual meanings (e.g.,
wallflower is one concept, but wall flower represents two ideas).

o Morphological/Syntactic: Compound words show functional unity,

while free word-groups can undergo grammatical transformations.
For example, slowcoach (compound) doesn't change form, but a
slow coach (phrase) can be transformed morphologically, like the
slowest coach.

29. Conversion: General Characteristics

1. What is Conversion?
o Conversion involves changing the part of speech of a word without
altering its morphemic structure. It is a highly productive process
in modern English, particularly for forming verbs from nouns.
o Example: hand (noun) > to hand (verb), surf (noun) > to surf (verb).
2. Historical Context:
o Conversion emerged in Middle English when the language lost
most of its inflections, making it possible for words to shift
categories without changing form.
o The process works because words' paradigms (e.g., hands, handed)
indicate their word class.
3. Types of Conversion:
o Noun to Verb: contact (noun) > to contact (verb), screen (noun) >
to screen (verb).
o Adjective/Adverb to Verb: blind (adj.) > to blind (verb), down (adv.)
> to down (verb).
o Verb to Noun: to thrash > thrash (noun), to release > release (noun).
o Occasionally, noun to noun conversions also occur, such as ups and
downs.
4. Conversion and Other Word-Building Processes:
o Conversion can be combined with other processes, like
compounding, resulting in words like to blackball (from black ball)
or to stonewall (from stone wall).
5. Semantic Relations in Conversion:
o Conversion is based on semantic derivation, meaning that the
meaning shifts according to the part of speech, making it a form of
semantic change. For example, to rescue (verb) > rescue (noun).

6.4.1 Conversion: Semantic Relations

Conversion is a process that creates new words by changing the part of

speech of a word without altering its form. It results in semantic
derivation, where the meaning of the source word shifts as it transforms
into the converted word. Here are the main semantic patterns for
conversion:

Verbs Converted from Nouns (Denominal Verbs):

1. Action characteristic of the object:

o ape (noun) > ape (verb), wolf (noun) > wolf (verb).
2. Instrumental use of the object:
o screw (noun) > screw (verb), whip (noun) > whip (verb).
3. Acquisition or addition of the object:
o fish (noun) > fish (verb), coat (noun) > coat (verb).
4. Deprivation of the object:
o dust (noun) > dust (verb), skin (noun) > skin (verb).
 Nouns Converted from Verbs (Deverbal Substantives):

1. Instance of the action:

o jump (verb) > jump (noun), move (verb) > move (noun).
2. Agent of the action (often with a derogatory meaning):
o bore (verb) > bore (noun), cheat (verb) > cheat (noun).
3. Place of the action:
o drive (verb) > drive (noun), walk (verb) > walk (noun).
4. Object or result of the action:
o peel (verb) > peel (noun), find (verb) > find (noun).

6.4.2 Criteria of Semantic Derivation

To evaluate conversion, it is important to identify the source word and

the converted word. Several criteria help distinguish between the two:

1. Non-Correspondence of Root Meaning and Part-of-Speech Meaning:

o In the pair screw (noun) > screw (verb), the noun refers to an
object, while the verb refers to an action. Thus, the source word is
the noun.
2. Analogy Between Synonymic Word-Pairs:
o This criterion is less reliable, but it uses analogy with other word
pairs to identify the source word. For instance, show (verb) > show
(noun) might be analogized to exhibit (verb) > exhibition (noun),
where the source word is the verb.
3. Testing Word Clusters:
o Examining word clusters where words follow certain derivational
patterns (e.g., hand (noun) > handful, handy, handed) can help
identify the source word based on the pattern's regularity.
4. Semantic Derivation Patterns:
o By identifying the semantic relationship between the source and
converted words, such as in brush (noun) > brush (verb), where the
verb implies the instrumental use of the noun, we can identify the
source word as the noun.
5. Frequency of Occurrence:
 o The word used more frequently is typically the source word in the
conversion pair.

6.4.3 Conversion in the Diachronic Perspective

Conversion is a dynamic process in the English language, and its

productivity is most evident in the formation of verbs from nouns.
Compound words are also often converted into verbs, such as corkscrew
(noun) > to corkscrew (verb), or streamline (noun) > to streamline (verb).

Diachronic Analysis:

 In older forms of English, words like love (noun) and love (verb) had
distinct paradigms, but they are now homonyms in Modern English due
to the loss of inflections.
 Re-conversion is a related phenomenon where a word's meaning evolves
through a shift in its semantic structure. For example, the noun cable
(meaning "rope of wire") was converted into the verb to cable ("to
transmit by cable"), and later re-converted into a new noun meaning
"telegram."

30. Back-Formation and Shortening (Clipping)

Back-formation refers to the process of creating a new word by removing

a presumed affix from an existing word, typically an affix that does not
exist. This often results in words being formed by analogy to other
derivational pairs.

A classic example is "to beg", which was derived from the noun "beggar"
through back-formation. The noun beggar came from the Old French
begard, and over time, people mistakenly thought it was derived from a
verb and formed beg as if it were analogous to paint (noun) > painter
 (verb). Another example is "to butle" (meaning "to serve as a butler"),
which was formed by removing the imagined affix from butler.

Historically, back-formation also includes newer examples like "edit"

from "editor", "swindle" from "swindler", and more modern forms such as
"to automate" from "automation". Other cases include "to enthuse" from
"enthusiasm" and "to reminisce" from "reminiscence".

Shortening (Clipping)

Shortening or clipping involves removing part of a word to form a new,

abbreviated version. This process is common in everyday language,
especially in spoken English. Examples include "demo" (from
"demonstration"), "fridge" (from "refrigerator"), and "vac" (from "vacuum
cleaner").

Clipped words often serve as bases for new word formations, such as
"eco-friendly" (from "ecology") or "faxable" (from "telefax"). There are
three types of clipping:

 Final clipping (e.g., "ad" from "advertisement"),

 Initial clipping (e.g., "plane" from "aeroplane"),
 Medial clipping (e.g., "flu" from "influenza").

31. Abbreviations and Blends

Abbreviation

Abbreviations are shortened forms of words or phrases. Some are read as

initials, such as BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) or VIP (Very
Important Person), while others form acronyms like NATO (North
Atlantic Treaty Organization) or AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome).
 In some cases, abbreviations become regular words, such as "radar" (from
"radio direction and ranging") and "laser" (from "light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation"). Abbreviations can also form the basis
for new words, like "H-bomb" (Hydrogen bomb).

Blends (Blending)

Blends, or portmanteau words, are created by merging parts of two

different words. Famous examples include "brunch" (from "breakfast" and
"lunch"), "smog" (from "smoke" and "fog"), and "motel" (from "motor" and
"hotel"). Newer blends include "infotainment", "rockumentary", and
"infomercial", which combine concepts into concise expressions.

Blending is a productive word-formation process that reflects a tendency

for brevity and a combination of ideas into a single term, evident in
modern language and media.

32. Word-Groups: Lexical Valency

1. Word-Groups as Lexical Units:

o Words rarely occur in isolation; they form word-groups (or word
combinations) that represent structurally complex but functionally
unified lexical units.
o Word-groups range in cohesion, with the highest degree
observable in phraseological units (e.g., idioms like kick the
bucket), where the meaning is global and not deducible from
individual components.
2. Syntagmatic Relations:
o These describe how words combine in context, forming
connections based on their lexical and grammatical valency.
 Lexical Valency:

Lexical valency refers to the ability of a word to combine with other words in a
manner that is semantically meaningful and contextually appropriate. It reflects
the compatibility of meanings between words.

(Լեքսիկական վալենտությունը վերաբերում է բառի կարողությանը

միանալու այլ բառերի հետ իմաստային իմաստով և համատեքստում
համապատասխան ձևով: Այն արտացոլում է բառերի միջև իմաստների
համատեղելիությունը:) For example:

 In English, we say "set an example", while in Armenian, a comparable

phrase would be "օրինակ ծառայել".
 Certain collocations, such as "tighten one's grip" or "eat sensibly", are
expected combinations based on the norm and frequency of use in the
language.

Deviations from lexical valency norms are possible but are typically used for
stylistic or rhetorical effects, as illustrated in Kurt Vonnegut's creative use of
unconventional collocations in Cat's Cradle.

33. Word-Groups: Grammatical Valency

Grammatical valency refers to the ability of a word to fit into specific

grammatical structures, determined by its syntactic roles and part-of-speech
characteristics. For example:

 In English, the gerund follows a preposition ("for cutting", not "for to

cut").
 Alternative structures can sometimes occur based on grammatical
valency, e.g., "capable of doing" (gerund) vs. "capable to do" (infinitive),
though such flexibility is language-specific.
Lexical and grammatical valency work together, with grammatical structures
providing the "skeleton" of expression and lexical combinations giving it
"substance" and meaning.

3. Interaction Between Lexical and Grammatical Valency:

o Though different, both types of valency work together:
 Lexical valency provides the content (semantic
relationships).
 Grammatical valency offers the structure (syntactical
relationships).
o Example: The phrase capable of doing combines grammatical
requirements (of + gerund) with lexical compatibility (capable and
doing).

34. Word-Groups: Structural and Semantic Features

Structural Features

1. Patterns and Distribution:

o Structural patterns include combinations like Adj + N, V + Adv, or
good at + N.
o Distribution refers to the arrangement and order of components.
2. Types Based on Distribution:
o Endocentric Word-Groups:
These have a head word that can represent the group
grammatically (e.g., "red wine" → "wine"; "She dances well" → "She
dances").
o Exocentric Word-Groups:
These lack a central head and cannot be replaced by a single
member (e.g., "from time to time", "turn pale").
3. Part-of-Speech Classification:
Based on the head word, word-groups are categorized into:
o Nominal: talented artist, successful attempt.
o Adjectival: good at drawing, central to usage.
 o Verbal: run fast, break one’s promise.
4. Syntactic Pattern:
o Predicative: Contains a subject and predicate ("She is intelligent").
o Non-Predicative: Does not have a subject-predicate structure and
may involve:
 Subordination: talented artist, break one’s promise.
 Coordination: ladies and gentlemen, off and on.

Semantic Features

1. Combined Lexical Meaning:

Word-groups act as unified semantic units, where the meanings of
components are interdependent. For instance, environmental issue
combines ‘related to the environment’ and ‘problem/question’, conveying
a broader concept like ‘preserving ecological systems’.
2. Connotations and Stylistic Reference:
Word-groups may acquire stylistic references different from their
components:
o Neutral words like breath and air create a literary phrase a breath
of air.
o After the fashion of somebody is formal, unlike the neutral fashion.
3. Motivation and Idiomaticity:
o Motivated Word-Groups: Both lexical and structural meanings are
transparent (e.g., persistent rumour, unwritten rule).
o Non-Motivated Word-Groups: Meanings are idiomatic and cannot
be deduced from components (e.g., lock horns, kith and kin).
4. Degrees of Motivation:
Word-groups range from fully motivated (complete education) to
idiomatic and opaque (nip something in the bud). Idiomaticity often
characterizes phrases like crocodile tears or wet behind the ears.
In summary, word-groups are analyzed through their structural arrangements,
distribution, and syntactic roles, alongside their semantic cohesion,
connotations, and degrees of motivation. These features highlight the unity and
complexity of multi-word constructions.

35. Phraseology: Main Characteristics of Phraseological Units and

Criteria of Classification

Main Characteristics of Phraseological Units:

1. Semantic Integrity:
o Phraseological units have an internal semantic cohesion that makes
their meaning distinct from the literal interpretation of their
individual components (e.g., "kick the bucket" means "to die").
2. Stability:
o They exhibit lexical and grammatical stability. Changes to the
components often alter the meaning significantly or render the
unit nonsensical.
3. Idiomaticity:
o Many phraseological units have idiomatic meanings that cannot be
inferred directly from the meanings of their parts.
4. Reproducibility:
o These units are prefabricated and reproduced as complete entities
in speech and writing.
5. Stylistic Functionality:
o They often carry stylistic or emotive nuances, such as humor,
formality, or cultural connotations.
6. Structural Variety:
o Phraseological units can be word-like (e.g., "red tape"), sentence-
like (e.g., "Rome wasn’t built in a day"), or somewhere in between.
Criteria for Classification:

1. Degree of Idiomaticity (Vinogradov’s Classification):

o Phraseological Fusions: Completely opaque and idiomatic (e.g.,
"spill the beans").
o Phraseological Unities: Partially idiomatic with some metaphorical
transparency (e.g., "blow off steam").
o Phraseological Collocations: One component is used in its literal
sense, while the other is figurative (e.g., "meet the demand").
2. Contextual Approach (Amosova):
o Phrasemes: Fixed expressions with one component carrying a
bound meaning determined by the context (e.g., "grind one’s
teeth").
o Idioms: Fully inseparable units with no variability (e.g., "kick the
bucket").
3. Functional Inseparability (Smirnitsky):
o Classifies units as word-equivalents with semantic and grammatical
inseparability:
 Phraseological Combinations: Limited figurative meaning
(e.g., "fall in love").
 Idioms Proper: Strong idiomatic meanings (e.g., "fish in
troubled waters").
 Traditional Phrases: Common collocations with no
idiomaticity (e.g., "take an examination").
4. Structural and Semantic Features (Kunin):
o Groups expressions based on their stability and meaning:
 Phraseological Units: Fully or partially idiomatic (e.g., "red
tape").
 Phraseomatic Units: Literal combinations with fixed
structures (e.g., "launch a campaign").
5. Western Traditions (Cowie, Gläser):
o Pure Idioms: Entirely idiomatic and non-transparent.
o Figurative Idioms: Metaphor-based but partially transparent.
 o Restricted Collocations: Limited variability (e.g., "set a price").
6. Modern Classifications (Minaeva):
o Multi-word units categorized by semantic opacity, including
idioms proper, restricted collocations, and commonplace free
collocations.

36. Introduction to Stylistics

Stylistics is a branch of applied linguistics that examines style in texts, focusing

on their functional and expressive features. While primarily associated with
literary works, stylistics also studies other types of discourse.

Definitions of Stylistics

1. General Definition:
Stylistics analyzes the use of figures, tropes, and rhetorical devices that
provide variety and distinctiveness to written or spoken language.
2. David Crystal's Definition:
Stylistics investigates situational and distinctive language uses by
individuals or social groups, aiming to establish principles governing
these choices.
3. I. R. Galperin's Definition:
Stylistics studies functional styles and expressive means of language,
focusing on the effects produced by utterances.

Main Concepts in Stylistics

1. Functional Styles:
Defined as coordinated systems of language means aimed at achieving
specific communication goals. For example:
o Colloquial style: Used for casual communication.
o Scientific style: Focuses on delivering information clearly.
 o Publicist and literary styles: Aim to create emotional impact.
2. Decoding Stylistics:
o Founded by Michael Riffaterre, it examines how readers decode
meaning from texts.
o Emphasizes the "Author-Text-Reader" relationship and how texts
convey aesthetic impressions and multiple interpretations.
3. Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices:
o Expressive Means (EMs): Linguistic forms that enhance emotional
or logical intensity, e.g., interjections or inversion.
o Stylistic Devices (SDs): Intentional literary techniques that amplify
language forms, e.g., metaphors, similes.

Subfields of Stylistics

1. Linguostylistics:
o Focuses on language elements, connotative meanings, and stylistic
devices in texts.
2. Literary Stylistics:
o Centers on literary genres, trends, and the author's individual use
of language, incorporating knowledge of literary history.

Significance of Stylistics

Stylistics bridges linguistics and literature, helping to analyze and interpret

texts systematically. It enhances understanding of:

 Textual aesthetics.
 Cultural and emotional resonance in communication.
 Variations in language use based on social and contextual factors
Syntactic stylistic devices utilize structural elements of sentences to enhance
expressiveness, create emphasis, or achieve artistic effects. Below is an overview
of key devices:

37. Syntactic stylistic devices

1. Inversion

 Definition: A reversal of the standard word order (Subject-Predicate-

Object).
 Purpose: Adds emotional or logical emphasis.
 Types:
1. Object precedes the subject: "Talent he has; capital he has not."
2. Attribute follows the noun: "With fingers weary and worn."
3. Predicative precedes the subject: "A good generous prayer it was."
4. Adverbial modifier starts the sentence: "Eagerly I wished the
morrow."
5. Modifier and predicate precede the subject: "Down dropped the
breeze."

2. Parallel Construction

 Definition: Identical or similar syntactical structures in successive

sentences or parts.
 Example: "Let every nation know... that we shall pay any price, bear any
burden, meet any hardship."
 Purpose: Reinforces rhythm and cohesion.
3. Chiasmus (Reversed Parallel Construction)

 Definition: A grammatical or conceptual reversal in successive clauses.

 Example: "She has all my love; my heart belongs to her."
 Purpose: Enhances symmetry and draws attention to contrast.

4. Repetition

 Definition: Recurrence of words or phrases for emphasis.

 Types:
o Anaphora: Repetition at the beginning of clauses.
"I don’t want to hear; I don’t want to know."
o Epiphora: Repetition at the end.
"...in such a case as that."
o Anadiplosis (Chain Repetition): Last word of a sentence begins the
next.
"Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering."
o Framing: Repetition at the beginning and end of a sentence.
"How beautiful is the rain! ... How beautiful is the rain!"

5. Enumeration

 Definition: Listing of items to create a cumulative effect.

 Example: "Soldiers, sailors, Jews, chalk, shrimps, officers, and dockyard
men."

6. Suspense

 Definition: Delays the main idea by introducing subordinate details first.

 Example: "Mankind, for seventy thousand ages, ate their meat raw."
  Purpose: Builds curiosity and engagement.

7. Climax

 Definition: Gradual intensification of meaning or emotion.

 Types:
1. Quantitative: Based on size or number.
"They climbed hundreds of stairs, thousands of ladders,
innumerable mountains."
2. Qualitative: Emotional intensification.
"A lovely city, a fair city, a gem of a city."
3. Logical: Each concept gains importance.
"Not just for the nation, not only for humanity, but for life itself."
 Opposite: Anticlimax, which reduces intensity for humorous effect.
"She could face the devil himself—or a mouse."

8. Antithesis

 Definition: Contrasting ideas placed side by side for effect.

 Example: "Youth is fiery, age is frosty."
 Purpose: Highlights differences and creates rhythm.

9. Asyndeton

 Definition: Omission of conjunctions between phrases.

 Example: "Youth is fiery, age is frosty, wisdom is serene."

10. Polysyndeton

 Definition: Repeated use of conjunctions.

  Example: "With the odours of the forest, and the dew, and the damp of
meadows."
 Purpose: Adds emotional weight or rhythmic flow.

11. Graphon

 Definition: Deliberate alteration of graphical representation to reflect

pronunciation or emotions.
 Examples: "gonna" (going to), "HELP!"
 Purpose: Adds authenticity, humor, or emphasis

38. Phonological Stylistic Devices