Level Measurement and Control

Level Measurement and Control

Table of Contents

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... 2

Table of Figures ................................................................................................................. 4

1. Scope............................................................................................................................ 5

2. Principles of Operation ............................................................................................... 5

2.1. Floats .................................................................................................................. 5

2.2. Displacers ........................................................................................................... 5

2.3. Differential Pressure Sensors ............................................................................. 5

2.4. Contact Probes ................................................................................................... 6

2.5. Non-Contact Sensors.......................................................................................... 6

2.6. Level Gauges...................................................................................................... 7

3. Device Selection .......................................................................................................... 7

3.1. Floats .................................................................................................................. 7

3.2. Displacers ........................................................................................................... 9

3.3. Differential Pressure ......................................................................................... 11

3.4. Contact Probes ................................................................................................. 13

3.5. Non-Contact Sensors........................................................................................ 15

3.6. Level Gauges.................................................................................................... 15

3.7. Switches ........................................................................................................... 22

3.8. Transmitters ...................................................................................................... 23

3.9. Controllers ........................................................................................................ 25

4. Device Mounting........................................................................................................ 26

4.1. Internal.............................................................................................................. 26

4.2. External............................................................................................................. 27

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4.3. Stand-pipes....................................................................................................... 28

4.4. Interface............................................................................................................ 29

4.5. Level Gauges.................................................................................................... 29

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 Level Measurement and Control

Table of Figures

Figure 1: Typical Float Sensors ........................................................................................8

Figure 2: Typical Displacer Sensor.................................................................................10

Figure 3: Differential Pressure Type Level Measurement.............................................13

Figure 4: Capacitance-Type Level Sensor .....................................................................14

Figure 5: Pad-Type Gauges.............................................................................................16

Figure 6: Tubular Gauge..................................................................................................17

Figure 7: Tubular Gauge/Valve with Wire Glass Cage ..................................................18

Figure 8: Transparent Gauge Glasses............................................................................19

Figure 9: Cross Section–Transparent Gauge ................................................................19

Figure 10: Transparent Gauge with Two Sections and Offset Gauge Valves .............20

Figure 11: Reflex Gauge Glass .......................................................................................21

Figure 12: Cross Section–Reflex Gauge ........................................................................21

Figure 13: Dry Contact Switch ........................................................................................23

Figure 14: Typical Level Transmitter ..............................................................................24

Figure 15: External Tank Connections ...........................................................................27

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1. Scope

This tutorial covers equipment types, selection criteria, operating principles, and typical
mounting practices for Level Instruments that are frequently used in oil and gas production
and processing facilities. Common types are emphasized; other types are briefly mentioned
and references are provided.

2. Principles of Operation

Of the more than 12 types of level sensing elements available, five common basic types are
used in hydrocarbon facilities: float sensors, displacer sensors, differential pressure sensors,
contact probes, and non-contact sensors. Other sensors, such as bubblers, diaphragm
detectors, resistance tapes, and thermal sensors, are discussed in Section 3 of the Chilton
Process Measurement Handbook.

2.1. Floats

A float is a device that follows a liquid level or the interface between two liquids
of different specific gravities. Standard floats are normally spherical in
construction. The float is linked to the operated device (switch or transmitter) via
a rod or chain mechanism designed to activate the operated device in proportion of
the buoyancy force exerted on the float. See Section 3.9 of the Chilton Process
Measurement Handbook for more detailed information.

2.2. Displacers

Displacer-type sensors are similar to floats except that they operate on the basis of
a fixed cross-sectional area immersed in a liquid. Typically, a displacer (which is
heavier than the liquid) is connected to the operated device (switch or transmitter)
via a torque link or spring-loaded lever. As the liquid covers more of the
displacer, the displacer's weight decreases and causes a proportional change at the
operated device. More specific details are presented in Section 3.8 of the Chilton
Process Measurement Handbook.

2.3. Differential Pressure Sensors

As the name implies, a differential pressure level sensor is simply a differential

pressure transmitter with one side connected to the vessel in the liquid section and

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the other side connected to the vapor section. For atmospheric vessels, the high
pressure side is connected to the vessel liquid section, and the low pressure side is
vented to atmosphere. For pressure vessels, the connections are reversed, and the
high pressure side is connected to the vessel's vapor section. See Section 3.7 of
the Chilton Process Measurement Handbook for more details. Also, refer to
Figure 3 of this document.

2.4. Contact Probes

Contact probes include sensors such as capacitance probes, impedance probes, and
infrared probes.

2.4.1. Capacitance Probes

Capacitance probes are formed of two electrodes; typically, one
electrode is the probe and the other is the vessel. When a potential is
applied and this probe is immersed in a liquid, the capacitance changes
as the level changes, and this produces a proportional change in the
activated device, which is normally calibrated in level units. See
Section 3.4 of the Chilton Process Measurement Handbook.

2.4.2. Impedance Probes

An impedance probe is basically a modification of a capacitance
probe. Generally, the modification is the addition of a second
electrode, which provides a back-emf or voltage to overcome the
effect of corrosive build-up on a capacitance probe.

2.4.3. Infrared Probes

Infrared probes (optical detectors) use a light beam to detect level.
When a liquid reaches the detector, it disrupts the light beam and
activates a sensing unit. These units are used for switch applications
only.

2.5. Non-Contact Sensors

Non-contact sensors include ultrasonic and radar systems.

2.5.1. Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic level sensors use sonar principles to detect level. A detailed
discussion is presented in Section 3.20 of the Chilton Process
Measurement Handbook.

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2.5.2. Radar
As the name implies, radar level sensors use electromagnetic waves to
detect level. Unlike sonar, a radar beam is not affected by changes in
temperature, foam, vapors, or turbulence.

2.6. Level Gauges

Visual observation is the simplest form of level monitoring. There are two basic
types of level gauges: gauge glasses and level indicators.

2.6.1. Gauge Glasses

Level gauge glasses provide a reliable indication of vessel level via a
direct view of the contained liquid. See Section 3.11 of the Chilton
Process Management Handbook for a detailed discussion.

2.6.2. Level Indicators

The magnetic follower level indicator is similar in design to a gauge
glass, except that it contains a float with a magnet that activates an
external indicator mechanism, switch, or transmitter. The basic
magnetic follower indicator (gauge) is also discussed in Section 3.11
of the Chilton Process Measurement Handbook.

3. Device Selection

3.1. Floats

3.1.1.
Floats are the most common level sensors in low pressure service and
can be used at higher pressures if care is taken to prevent collapse of
the float due to pressure differential. They are appropriate when the
sensing point can be set by the mounting and no adjustment is required
or when adjustment over a small range is adequate. Floats are
appropriate for most level switch functions. See Figure 1 for a typical
float sensor.

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Figure 1: Typical Float Sensors

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3.1.2.
The float shall be selected so that it will float in the lower fluid and
sink in the upper fluid. The manufacturer's literature will give a
minimum specific gravity and a minimum differential specific gravity.
The lower fluid shall have a higher specific gravity than the minimum.
The difference in specific gravities for an interface shall be at least the
manufacturer's stated minimum, and the manufacturer shall be given
accurate data to properly ballast the float.

3.1.3.
Wetted float materials shall be suitable for the fluids they contact. For
most hydrocarbon use, 316 or 304 stainless steel is suitable.
Manufacturers normally publish a chart that can be used to determine
which materials are suitable for the particular fluid. If a chart is not
available, contact the manufacturer's representative.

3.2. Displacers

3.2.1.
Displacers are somewhat similar to floats except that they are not
positively buoyant in either of the fluids of the interface. The level is
sensed by measuring the apparent weight of the displacer, usually by
spring displacement or torque tube deflection.

3.2.2.
Some displacers are used as switch mechanisms. In a typical
"displacer level switch”, a displacer of greater specific gravity than the
liquid is suspended by a cable attached to a spring. As the liquid level
rises over the displacer, its apparent weight decreases, allowing the
spring to retract and trigger the switch. To sense more than one level,
several displacers can be installed on a cable, and the mechanism can
sequentially sense each level set point. This feature of multiple level
set points gives displacer level switches the edge over float level
switches in wide differential applications, as in pump control.

3.2.3.
When a level is to be measured over a more continuous span, a
"displacer level transmitter" (also called a "displacer level controller")
may be used. Typically in this type, torque tube deflection is used as a
measure of apparent weight, and the displacer itself is a long, slender
cylinder. As the liquid level rises and the cylinder becomes
incrementally submerged, the torque tube from which it is suspended

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 Level Measurement and Control

gradually unwinds. The extent of this unwinding corresponds to a

precise liquid level measurement. Displacer level transmitters are
available in standard lengths from 4 to 120 inches. Figure 2 shows a
typical version of this type of sensor. Since weight and expense
increase with cylinder length, applications requiring more than a 48-
inch displacer are normally handled using another type of sensor.

Figure 2: Typical Displacer Sensor

3.2.4.
Unlike floats, displacers are not hollow, so they are more suitable for
high pressure applications. The pressure and temperature ratings for
displacers will be given by the manufacturer. The displacer ratings
shall meet or exceed the rated pressure and temperature of the vessel.

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Displacer pressure ratings do not have as large a safety factor as that

which is designed into pressure vessels.

3.2.5.
Wetted displacer materials shall be suitable for the fluids they contact.
For most hydrocarbon use, 316 or 304 stainless steel is suitable.
Manufacturers normally publish a chart that can be used to determine
which standard materials are suitable for a particular fluid. If a chart is
not available, contact the manufacturer's representative.

3.3. Differential Pressure

3.3.1.
Differential pressure sensors (DP sensors) are used to measure levels
where greater range is needed than can be reasonably obtained with a
displacer or float. Typical production facility applications are for fuel,
water, or product storage tanks. Differential pressure sensors are best
applied in fluids of relatively constant density.

3.3.2.
Differential pressure sensors can be used for sensing liquid interface
levels. This requires measuring the differential pressure between a
point in the upper fluid and one in the lower fluid. The location of the
interface is determined by knowing the specific gravities of the two
fluids and the distance between the measuring points. However, since
the specific gravity of production fluids tends to vary, use of DP
sensors is not practical in most applications.

3.3.3.
DP sensors are useful in fluids that tend to foul displacer or float-type
sensors.

3.3.4.
The instruments used for level measurement are very similar to those
for flow measurement; however, many manufacturers offer a model
for level measurement which mounts directly on a vessel flange. The
range is usually specified in inches of water and converts to inches of
process fluid by application of a specific gravity correction.

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3.3.5.
Instruments mounted remotely are usually connected by tubing and
have NPT connections. A method to prevent condensation in the
equalizing leg (upper vessel connection) shall be provided if one is
used and if the vapors are likely to condense at ambient temperature.
Transmitter and controller outputs shall be compatible with the
receiving device, and wetted materials shall be selected to avoid
excessive corrosion.

3.3.6.
Level can be derived by measuring the head pressure at the bottom of
a vessel or tank. The head at the bottom can be calculated by:

Equation 1

H = h SG

where :

H = head, in H 2O
h = height, in
SG = specific gravity of the liquid (water = 1)

3.3.7.
A differential pressure indicator can be provided with a suitable scale,
and the height of the liquid can be read directly. As shown in Figure
3, vessels that are vented to atmosphere can use a single connection at
the bottom of the tank and measure against atmospheric pressure. In
most cases, pressurized vessels must have a liquid sensing point at the
bottom and a equalizing vapor sensing point above the highest liquid
level.

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Figure 3: Differential Pressure Type Level Measurement

3.4. Contact Probes

3.4.1. Capacitance Probes

1. Capacitance probes may be used to measure an interface when the
difference in dielectric constant between the fluids is significant.
Heavy oil/water interfaces and emulsion pads are two of the most
common examples. Probes used for switching use horizontal
mounting, while those used for continuous measurement use
vertical mounting. Capacitance probes are useful to measure the
interface between two liquids when the specific gravity difference
is too small or the interface is too gradual because of an emulsion
pad. Capacitance probes are best applied in fluids where fouling
due to paraffin or solids is at a minimum.

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2. Figure 4 shows a capacitive level sensing device. The sensing

element (rod) is insulated from the tank and acts as one plate of the
capacitor; the tank is the other plate. Capacitive level
measurements sense the dielectric constant of the material between
two plates. The detected capacitance changes are calibrated in
units of level.

Figure 4: Capacitance-Type Level Sensor

3.4.2. Impedance Probes

Similar to capacitance probes, impedance probes are used in switch
and continuous level detection applications. Although slightly more
expensive than capacitance probes, impedance probes are less
susceptible to corrosive buildup around the probe.

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3.4.3. Infrared Probes

Infrared probes, also called optical probes, are not generally used in
process applications where the fluid may contain contaminants or
emulsions that tend to clog or distort the probe sensor. They are,
however, used with good success in storage facilities where the
products are reasonably clean. Typical applications are tank high level
shutdown systems.

3.5. Non-Contact Sensors

3.5.1. Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic level sensors can be used in both on/off and continuous
service applications. They are well suited for applications where it is
desirable to minimize contact with the process liquid. In some cases, it
is possible to sense level without tank or vessel entry. Usually located
at the top of a vessel, ultrasonic sensor systems transmit pulses of
sound toward the liquid surface. An echo of reflected pulses returns to
the sensor, which notes the time elapsed between the sound's departure
and return. This measured time is the basis for a liquid level
calculation. A common application is storage vessel level control.

3.5.2. Radar
Radar-based level sensors can be used for point, continuous, and
interface sensing applications. Radar sensors are not affected by fluid
density. A common application is storage vessel level control.

3.6. Level Gauges

3.6.1. Gauge Glasses

Several types of gauge glasses are manufactured, and proper selection
requires knowledge of their characteristics.

1. Pad-type level gauges are those which mount onto a metal pad
welded over a circular hole or slot so that the liquid inside the
vessel can be directly observed. Low cost is an advantage of this
type, and pad-type gauges are sometimes found on economy
process packages. The need for a flat surface to mount this type
gauge and the need to empty the vessel for cleaning limit its usage.
Typical pad-type gauges are shown in Figure 5.

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Figure 5: Pad-Type Gauges

2. Tubular gauges are those in which a clear glass tube is mounted

between two special gauge valves. The process liquid can be
observed in the glass tube. Manufacturers of tubular gauges can
provide metal rod or wire cage protectors to protect the tube from
breakage. Even so, tubular gauges are generally considered unsafe
for flammable, toxic or high pressure fluids. Tubular gauges are
shown in Figure 6 and 7.

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Figure 6: Tubular Gauge

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Figure 7: Tubular Gauge/Valve with Wire Glass Cage

3. Armored gauge glasses (also know as flat gauge glasses) are used
in most production applications. Armored gauges are
manufactured in two basic types: transparent and reflex. Both
types are available in nominal 14-inch standard lengths with a wide
range of materials and pressure ratings (other lengths are
available). For large visible lengths, two or more gauges may be
assembled together or overlapped. Typically, for safety, gauge
overall lengths are limited to 5 feet between connections. Armored
gauge glasses are constructed of bolted heavy cast steel or other
metal surrounding the glass portion. Small slots allow observation
of the fluids without sacrificing the strength and durability of the
metal framework.
4. The transparent type has glass on two sides of the chamber so that
one looks through the liquid. The liquid can be directly observed,
and thus an interface between two liquids of different color can be
seen, as well as the interface between a liquid and gas. Where it is
difficult to differentiate between the fluids, the gauge is fitted with
illuminators. Typically, an illuminator is a light source attached to
the apex of a clear plastic wedge that is attached to one side of the

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gauge. Transparent armored gauge glasses are shown in Figures 8,

9, and 10.

Figure 8: Transparent Gauge Glasses

Figure 9: Cross Section–Transparent Gauge

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Figure 10: Transparent Gauge with Two Sections and Offset Gauge Valves

5. The reflex-type gauge has a single glass with prisms cut in the
glass on the chamber side. Light striking the glass in the vapor
area is refracted back to the viewer (the vapor space appears
silvery white). Light striking the glass in the liquid zone is
refracted into the liquid, making it appear dark (black). Liquid
level can easily observed, even in low light conditions. While this
characteristic is usually beneficial, it prevents use of reflex gauges
when liquid interfaces or color must be observed. Reflex gauge
glasses are not recommended when viscous or dirty liquids are to
be measured, since the liquid may coat the reflex surface, resulting
in a false level indication. Figures 11 and 12 illustrate reflex
gauges.

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Level Measurement and Control

Figure 11: Reflex Gauge Glass

Figure 12: Cross Section–Reflex Gauge

6. Several accessories for level gauges are available. The most

common are frost extensions, illuminators, and external heating
coils. Frost extensions are used in low temperature service to
prevent frost from forming on the glass viewing slot. Different
extension lengths are available and are a function of the process
temperature. In any case, the extensions shall extend past the
insulation.

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7. Illuminators provide backlighting for transparent level gauges

through the use of a single source light and lucite reflector. In
most applications, the illuminators shall be explosion-proof.
8. Level gauges can be equipped with external tubes for heating.
Heating coils are used to prevent fluid freeze-up in the level gauge.
9. Level gauge glasses are manufactured to different pressure and
temperature ratings. The pressure and temperature rating of the
selected instrument shall equal or exceed the rated pressure and
temperature of the vessel. Level gauge costs range from
approximately $20/ft (U.S.) for tubular to $200/ft for armored.

3.6.2. Level Indicators

Magnetic follower level indicators are used in toxic or corrosive
services. Most designs consist of a stainless steel gauge with an
internal float riding on the liquid. A magnet in the float is coupled to
the external indicator or device. An advantage of these units is the
availability of both switches and transmitters designed for attachment
directly to the indicator column. Although the cost of a magnetic
follower level indicator is much more than a standard level gauge (on
the order of 2 to 3 times), they become economic when applying
integral level switches and transmitters. The economics include the
reduction not only in gauge mounting costs but the separate mounting
costs of switches and/or transmitters.

3.7. Switches

Switches are available in the "normally open" or "normally closed" position; these
designations refer to the switch position when there is no electrical power or
pneumatic signal. Switches merely turn either an electronic or pneumatic signal
on or off as required for the control scheme. Any of the level sensors discussed in
Section 3 can be used to activate the switch.

3.7.1. Electric
The most widely used and approved switch is the dry contact type. An
example of this switch is illustrated in Figure 13.

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Figure 13: Dry Contact Switch

1. The electrical switch is usually either single-pole, double-throw

(SPDT) or double-pole, double-throw (DPDT). DPDT switches
are preferred to allow flexibility in control circuits.
2. The cost of electric level switches can vary from $150 to $800 U.S.
depending on specified features (e.g., gold plated contacts,
stainless steel, body, etc.) The average price of level switches used
in the petroleum industry is approximately $400 U.S.

3.8. Transmitters

3.8.1.
Level transmitters are used to interface control, indication, and data
systems with the process. They are also used when several devices are
to be operated from a single measurement. The output is usually 4-20
milliamps for electronic transmitters or 20 to 100 kPa (3-15 psig) for
pneumatic transmitters. Other signals can be used if required by the
receiver, but these are the most common and shall be used if possible.
A typical electronic level transmitter is shown in Figure 14.

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Figure 14: Typical Level Transmitter

3.8.2.
Several companies offer microprocessor-based level transmitters,
sometimes called "smart transmitters”. These transmitters can be
remotely programmed and/or calibrated for any desired range, either
by the main process computer or by a special programmer. These
transmitters are usually used in Distributed Control System (DCS)
applications.

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3.9. Controllers

3.9.1.
Every process vessel shall have some form of level control. In some
vessels the liquid overflows a weir and neither operator control nor
automatic control is required. However, this is possible only for
atmospheric vessels or where vessels designed to operate at the same
pressure are connected in series. If the liquid flows from a vessel to
another which is to operate at lower pressure, a level control valve
shall be needed to assure that the first vessel is not emptied of liquid;
if this emptying occurs, gas entering the first vessel could "blowby" to
the second vessel, putting both vessels in pressure communication.
Some form of control is necessary for this level control valve.

3.9.2.
Manual control is practical for some situations where the flow is low
and fairly constant. Visual observation of the level and adjustment of
a valve or other device may be all that is required. Except for very low
liquid flow applications where infrequent emptying of the vessel is all
that is required, manual control is often difficult in production
operations due to the fluctuating nature of the liquid flow and the
potential hazards of gas blowby and overpressure.

3.9.3.
Automatic control by instruments is usually required for most
separator and other production applications. A level controller
receives input from any of the sensors described in Section 3,
"Principles of Operation”, or from a transmitter. It converts this input
either to a pneumatic signal or electronic signal which is used to
activate a control valve as required to maintain a near constant level in
the vessel or tank. The controller output is usually either a 20 to 100
or 40 to 200 kPa (3 to 15 or 6 to 30 psig) pneumatic signal. Electronic
controller output is 4 to 20 mA.

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4. Device Mounting

4.1. Internal

4.1.1.
Level instruments can be mounted so that the float or displacer is
installed inside the vessel. This method is simple and inexpensive.
Vessels that can be removed from service and drained for level
instrument maintenance without serious interruption of the facility
often use internal mounting. Internal mounting is also used when the
fluid is too viscous for flow through small pipes at ambient
temperature. In some locations, internal mounting is preferred where
there are ambient conditions of short duration sufficient to require heat
tracing of externally mounted level devices.

4.1.2.
The main problem with internal mounting is that the instrument cannot
be serviced without interruption of the process. Another problem is
that vessels with considerable flow have currents and turbulence in
their fluids. This fluid movement can cause external force, swinging,
and binding of the sensor.

4.1.3.
Fluid movement problems can be greatly reduced by using a stilling
well. A stilling well is a pipe that is fixed to the vessel and surrounds
the level sensor. Enough clearance is provided to allow free
movement of the sensor. Numerous slots or holes are provided in the
well to ensure that the level inside the well is the same as in the
surrounding vessel.

4.1.4.
The vessel nozzle shall be large enough to allow insertion of the
sensor. The internals of the vessel shall be designed so that the
insertion and operation of the sensor is not hampered.

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4.2. External

4.2.1.
Level sensors can be mounted in a small vessel called an external
cage, as shown in Figure 15. The cage is connected to the main vessel
through nozzles and valves at the top and bottom of the cage. The
liquid moves through the nozzles to maintain the same level in the
cage as in the vessel. The cost of external mounting is more than
internal mounting because of the added cage, valves, and additional
nozzle.

Figure 15: External Tank Connections

4.2.2.
External mounting is very common for level switches that have to be
tested periodically. The switch can be tested without affecting the
actual level in the vessel. A low level switch can be tested by isolating
it from the vessel and carefully opening both the vent valve and the
drain valve. A high level switch can be tested by closing the top
connection to the vessel and opening the vent valve, provided the
vessel is operating at a sufficiently high pressure to cause the level in

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the cage to rise past the switch when the liquid in the cage is vented to
the atmosphere.

4.2.3.
The advantage of eternal mounting is that the instrument can be
isolated from the vessel and serviced or replaced without removing the
vessel from service. External mounting is quite common to reduce
expensive interruptions of product flow for level instrument
maintenance.

4.2.4.
Viscous liquids, high paraffin liquids, or liquids with significant solids
content can cause slow flow or clog the valves or cage. This can cause
the level in the cage to lag the level in the vessel or make the sensor
inoperative in severe cases. High pour point liquids may solidify in
the cage unless the cage is insulated and/or heat traced.

4.3. Stand-pipes

4.3.1.
A stand-pipe is a vertical pipe that is mounted on the vessel at the sides
near the top and bottom. The standpipe is usually 51 to 102 mm (2 to
4 in) in diameter and is connected to the vessel through isolation
valves. The lower vessel connection shall be installed in a horizontal
position to reduce plugging. Several level instruments are attached to
the standpipe at the appropriate levels. Bridle mounting is a form of
external mounting that shares the same advantages and disadvantages.
Bridles have the added advantages of reducing the number of
penetrations in the vessel and the fact that an instrument can be moved
by modifying the standpipe without cutting and welding on a coded
vessel. In addition, if external mounting is required, bridles tend to be
more economical than individual external instruments. The use of
bridles that are typically further removed from the vessel may
aggravate the problems associated with viscous fluids.

4.3.2.
Instruments installed on a bridle often have individual isolation and
drain valves. The bridle usually has vent and drain valves so that the
level in the bridle can be varied independently of the vessel level for
testing and for service.

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4.4. Interface

Level instruments used to measure the interface between two liquids in a three-
phase vessel shall have the top connection connected into the upper liquid phase if
they are mounted externally. An instrument connected into the lower liquid phase
and the gas phase will not show a true level. It is necessary to provide three
connections for bridles used for interface levels so that all three phases have a path
into the standpipe and the levels can equalize with those in the vessel.

4.5. Level Gauges

4.5.1.
Level gauge accuracy can be reduced significantly by high viscosity
liquids that flow slowly or boiling liquids that are turbulent with no
flow. A solution to both of these problems is to use a gauge with a
larger than normal liquid chamber. Large chamber gauges are
available in tubular, transparent, and reflex types.

4.5.2.
Level gauges are usually mounted with angle valves called gauge
cocks. These valves are available in several materials, forged carbon
steel and stainless steel being the most common. Carbon steel is
usually used for hydrocarbon service. Stainless steel gauge cocks shall
be used for more corrosive applications. Gauge cocks come in straight
and offset patterns. The offset pattern is usually specified because it
allows the gauge to be cleaned without disassembly. Gauge cocks are
normally equipped with ball velocity checks to minimize leakage to
the atmosphere if the level gauge leaks or breaks.

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