GANDHARVAS & KINNARAS

IN

INDIAN ICONOGRAPHY

BY

Vidyoratna R.S. PANCHAMURGIL M.A.,

Director, Kannada Research Institute, Dharwar,

KANNADA RESEARCH INSTITUTE, DHARWAR

1951
® Printer
Vv. Y, Jathar
Karnatak Printing Works,
Dharwar.

Publisher
Shri R, S, Pauchamulshi
Kannada Research Institute,
- Dharwar. *
 CONTENTS

Preface v-vii
List of plates yill-ix

Bibliography x
Introduction 1-2

Chapter one: The status and functions of the

Gandharvas and Kinnaras in Literature. 3-12
Chapter two: The. Gandharvas and Kinnaras in the
Jaina and Buddhist pantheons. 13-15
Chapter three: The Gandharvas afd Kinnaras in
Inscriptions. 16-19
Chapter four: Iconography of the Gandharvas and
Kinnaras as made ont from Literature 20-29
Chapter five: A study of typical Gandharva and
Kinnara images found in India, Burma and
Ceylon. 30-49
ro. Chapter six; Iconometry of the Gandharva and
Kinnara images. 59-53
Tr. Index.
Eyvata
 PREFACE
The writing ofa memoir on the Indian demi-gods, the
Gandharvas and Kinnavas was suggested to mein 1939 when I
had prepared a note on ‘‘The Gandharvas and Kinnaras in Indian
Iconography ”’ for the Tenth All-India Oriental Conference held
at Tirupati in March, 1940. Shri. O. C. Gangoly, the Sectional
President of the Conference appreciated the treatment and
suggested that afuller study would be a good contribution to
the subject. The late Rao Bahadur K. N. Dikshit, M.A., the then
Director General of Archaeology in India assigned this subject
tome in the same year and issued geferal instructions to all
the Superintendents under him to அரு me with the
photo-prints that I may require for may study. But in the
meanwhile, I was appointed the Director of Kannada Research
Institute, newly started by the Government of Bombay at
Dharwar in 1939, and owing to the heavy responsibility of
starting research work in history, archaeology and Kannada
literature ete. inthe new area, the study and writing of the
"memoir had to be deferred till the middle of 1945, when I began
_ togather the necessary material for the work on hand.
The Museum attached to the Kannada Research Institute
contains some fine specimens of the Gandharva and Kinnara
images and this.afforded me a further stimulus to study their
iconography in greater details and embody the results in this
brochure. I undertook tours to important centres of ancient
Karnatak sculptural art like Badami, Pattadkal, Aibole, Lakkundi
etc., and made a comparative study of these icons with those
found elsewhere and described in the works on Indian Sculpture
and Painting.
The subject under treatment has not been dealt with in full
details in any works on iconography. Though the deities treated
here hold a minor rank in the Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina
pantheons, their appearance in every temple, Si@pa or Basadt is
inevitable either as a retinue of the principal god or as separate
‘images. The position and functions and the multiple yariety of
delineation both in sculpture and painting deserve to be studied
by every student of the history of sculptural art and it is the
object of this memoir to make some contribution to the study of
this subject, from the iconographical and historical points of view.
While.writing the Preface, I came across A. B. Keith’s
paper ‘A New explanation of the Gandharvas‘ published in
the Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vol, V pp.
32 ff. and ‘Vedic Gandharva and Pali Gandhabba’ etc. by
O. H. De A. Wijesekera and “the philosophical import of
Vedic Yaksha and Pali Yakkha ” by the same author published
in the University of Ceylon Review, Vol. II and Vol. I
respectively. Though¢éhe subject is treated in these articles on
the background of comparative mythology, nothing is said in
them about the iconogsephy of these demigods: I have briefly
touched upon this point on p.48f. below agreeing to the
similarity in the conception of Vedic Gandharva and Avestan
Gandhareva with Greek Kentauros, bat differing from Prof,
Pezyluski’s conaecting Vadic Gandharva with: Gardabha=ass.
The status and function of the Gandharvas in the Buddhist and
Jain pantheons are briefly narrated in chapter II.
Icannot but refer here to the brilliant note of Shri O.C,
Gangoly on “ A Gupta pillar at the Museum in Benares ” publi-
shed in Oriental Art Vol. IEI, No, 2 (1950) to which my atten-
tion was kindly drawn by the author. His significant remarks
“Indeed, the apolication of sculptural ornamentation to struc-
tural forms is one of the basic characteristics of Indian archi-
tecture from early times ” are perfectly true in regard ‘to the
representations of thé Gandharva, Kinnara, Yaksha, Naga and
similar semi-divine beings carved on the beams and pillars of
ancient temples. They have survived to the present day even
in the modern domestic architecture where the symbolic orna-
mentations of the pillars and beams can be traced to the full-size
images of the fabulous semi-divine animals such as Naga,
Gandharva, Kinnara, Kirtimukha which at one time adorned
the sanctugqries of the Vedic Gods, the Buddhist vtharas and the
Jain Basadis. Ihave not dwelt on this point in the book, as
the discussion would naturally land into the study of evolution
of the principles of Temple architecture, which is beyond the
scope of this pamphlet.
. I must record my sincerest gratitude to the late Rao Bahadur
K.N. Dikshit, for all the help he rendered me in my work, but
for which this brochure would not have been completed at all.
The helpof the several publications and literary works which
Ihave consulted in the preparation of the book deserves to be
acknowledged with thanks. My thanks are also due to the Depart-
ment of Archaeology in India for the supply of photographs
of-the Gandharva and Kinnara images which have been used for
illustration in the book.
The brochure which was to be published by the Department
of Archaeology could not be published by “that body due to the
intervention of the world-war and the consequent control on the
printing and paper facilities, In the meanwhile, it was considered
advisable to publish this pamphlet under the auspices of the
Kannada Research Institute and I now place this before the
scholars and students of iconography. I am conscious of the short-,
comings in this publication which are partly due to the want of a
good Reference Library at Dharwar and the non-availability of
some valuable works on Indian art which are either out of print
ot out of stock. In spite of this, I have tried to do some justice
to the subject and I hope that the treatment will prove an
incentive to the more intensive study of Indian art and
iconography in its different aspects, against the back-ground of
regional and provincial influences.
Iam thankful to Shri 0. 6. Gangoly a well-known art

critic of Calcutta for adding anintroduction to the book. My

thanks are also due to the Superintendent, Photo- zinco Office,
Poona, for the excellent blocks prepared for this brochure,
and to the Manager of the Karnatak Printing Works, Dharwar
neat and speedy printing of this book at a short notice.
for fhe

KANNADA RESEARCH INSTITUTR, R. S. Panchamukhi

நறுக்க க்‌ ்‌ நிரசல்‌0 ம] .11412224 41௪828707/.
 INTRODUCTION
Lam happy to add a few words of introduction to this
interesting Memoir of Vidyaratna R. S. Panchamukhi. Ten
‘ years ago I had the pleasure of listening to bis original paper,
which has now been expanded at my suggestion.

The Kinnaras and Gandharvas and other fictitious creatures

in Indian Mythology,—curious creations of fertile imagination,—
occur continuously in Indian Plastic Art— throughout its
un-interrupted history. As very piquant and spicy elements—in
Sculptural and Pictorial illustrations—they have been demanding
a scholary enquiry—into their history, both plastic and literary—
which a learned schélar has now provided for the benefit of all
students of Indian Art and Mythology.
The subject has from time to time received some attention
from scholars European and Indian, but never exhaustively dealt
with. Our author does not claim an exhaustive treatment of the
subject—-but his references to literary texts are fairly complete,
if not exhaustive.
The earliest study on the subject we owe to H. Luders,a
great German scholar. Recently, the topic has been partially
covered by an Indian scholar Mr. H.R. Kapadia: (Gigantic
Fabulous Animals in Jaina Literature —‘ New Indian Aniiquary’
April-June 1946).

I am quite sure the present study will inspire other scholars

to dive deeper into the topic and all subsequent scholars will
certainly feel grateful to our author for his erudite presentation
of the literary data. Perhaps, the references to the Buddhist
texts bearing on the topic are not as complete as one should —
expect —as many of the Buddhist monuments embody interesting
plastic representations of Kinnaras and Gandharvas very closely
related to Dtvydvaddna and other Buddbist Texts. Relevent
references in the Kathd—Sartt sagara could have been usefully
utilized. It is hoped these minor blemishes would be corrected
in a subsequent edition.
 7
Evidently for saving expenses—the publishers have not been
able to provide as many illustrations as the topic damanded,
The lack of adequate illustrations has seriously hampered the
author’s excellent presentation. This imperfection may also be
covered in a subsequent edition. We have a very excellent
model—as to how such topics could be treated—in Coomarswamy’s
marvellous monograph on YAKSHAS, and it is hoped the next
edition of this Memoir will fulfil all our expectations. The topic
also demands a comparison with analogous treatment of
Fictitious and Symbolic creatures in European Art.
What Vidyaraina Panchamukhi has actually given us is
a valuable aid to our understanding of th® motifs which enrich
the beauty and expressiveness of Indian Art.

2, ASHUTOSH MUKHERJI ROAD,

Elgin Road Fost C fice ்‌
CALCUTTA—20 INDIA O. C, Gangoly
23ra April, 1951,
 LIST OF PLATES
Serial No. Description, For Page:
ர Barahut pillar ', ‘ag
I Kanhéri, Bombay Suburban District, Cave No. 66,
Buddhist-Litany 33.
III " Nagarjunakonda, Guntur District, Carved slab re- .
presenting a stupa with standing figure of Buddha 33
preaching. . 4u
Iv Aihole, Bijapur District, Old temple belonging to
Huachchappayya, Ceiling sculpture, Vishnu on
Ananta 34
v Aihole, Bijapur ¢District, Gandharva panel kept in
the Durga temple- 36.
VI Aihole, Bijapur‘ District, Durga temple ‘three
sculptured slabs on South side 36
VII Aihole, Bijapur District, Sculptures in a temple in,
the field 36.
VIII Aihole, Bijapur District, Old temple belonging to
Huchchappayya in the village 36
IX Badami. Bijapur District, Gandharva pair. Ceiling -
panel, cave No, I 36
x Mahabalipuram, Chingleput District, Details from
Arjuna’s penance 37
XE Mahabalipuram, Chingleput District, Details from
Arjuna’s penance 38
311 Rajshahi, Paharpur, Terracotta plaque, showing the
Gandharva with necklace unstrung 38
111 Rajshahi, Paharpur, Terracotia plaque, showing
Gandharva riding Rhinoceros 38
XIV Rajshahi, Paharpur, Terracotta plaque, showing
Gandharva holding sword and noose 48
 LIST OF PLATES—( Cozsa.)

Serial No, Description. , For Page

XV Dharwar, Kannada Research Institute, Gandharva
playing on a musical instrument 38
XVI Aihole, District Bijapur, Ladkhan Temple: Two
standing human figures, one clearly horse-headed in
the act of attack and defence 43
XVII Rajashahi, Paharpur: Stone image showing a Kinnara
pair in wall. 46
XVIIE Dharwar, Kannada Research Institute, Wooden image
. of Kinnari. 45

XIX Nellore, Nellore District : Sculptuge of a Kinnari on

a pillar 46

XX Udayagiri, Nellore District, Paneltofa Kinnarion a

pillar of Kalyana-mandapam near Krishna temple. 44
 Bibliography of important works consulted
in the preparation of this memoir.:
Revéda with Sayana’s commentary.
உழு ஐல இடு ஆலு உரு

" Yajurvéda (text ).

Rgveda ல
‘Atharvavéda ,,
Manusnriti.
Yajiiavalkya-smriti.
Bhagavata with the comms.
Agnipurana.
Matsyapurana.
Vahnipurana.
Vishnudharmottaga purana.
SEA

. Brahmanda purana.
4

Tattvarthasiitra ( Jaina ).
RH

Tattvarthadhigamasiitra (do).
AH

Jindlankara-tika,
AAW
டி

Mahabharata.
Ramayana.
வொ

37. Raghuvazhéga.
18. Kumdrasambhava,
10. Sigupalavadha.
20. Trishashtigalakapurana.
ai. Sabdaugha-Kalpadruma.
22. Vachaspatya.
23. Sabdartha Chintamani.
24. Amarak5Sa.
25. Nanarthasangraha.
26. Abhidhanaratnamala
27. Abhidhanarajéndra.
38. Sagvatakoéa.
29. Sabdakalpadruma.
30, Médinikasa.
31. Sivatatvaratnakara.
32. Manasara.
33. Ripavaliya.
34: Silparatnam.
35- Pratimaé—méana-lakshana.
36. Mayasastram.
37: Three volumes on Mohenjo Daro by Sir John Marshall.
38. Volumes of the Epigraphia Indica. ன க
39. Annual Reports of the Archaeological Survey of India
Igo3-04 onwards. -
40. A History of Fine Arts in India and Ceylon by V. A. Smith.
தா. Memoirs of the Archaeogical Survey of India. |
42. Ajanta Paintings, Parts I & 11 edited by Yazdani.
43- Hindu Mythology by W. J. Wilkins.
44. Elements of Hindu Iconography by T. A. Gopinatha Rao.
45- Mediaeval Singhalese Art by A. K. Coowaraswamy
46. The Antiquities of Orissa Vol. II, by R L. Mitra.
47- South Indian Gods and Goddesses by H. K. Sastri.
48. Monier William’s Sanskrit-Engtish Dictionary.
49. The Beginnings of Buddhist Art, by A. Foucher,
50. The Cave Temples of India by Fergusson and Burgess.
5. Amaravati Sculptures in the Madras Government Museum.
52. Barahut, Books I and II by B. M. Barna, M.A., Ph.D.
53. Annual Report on Kannada Research, by
R.S. Panchamukhi. {1939-40 )
54. Proceedings of the All-India Oriental Conference.
5. Guide te Safichi Stipa.
56. Indian Culture. Vol. 111. .
57 South Indian Inscriptions, Texts and Translations
{ Old Series )
58. Ripam,
59. University of Ceylon Review (1945 )-
6௦. Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art—Vol. V.
 GANDHARVAS AND KINNARAS
IN

INDIAN ICONOGRAPHY -

INTRODUCTION
The human mind has an inborn tendency to adore the
sublime and the best in Nature. Even the conception of an
omnipotent and omniscient God who pervades throughout the
universe both animate and inanimate, does not preclude the
worship of the deified powers of nature. Worship of Godsin
various forms is common to almost all ancient culturesin the past
and the Hindu culture which is an admixture of different types of
culture from the Vedic times down to the classical age is not an
exception to this. From the earliest phase of Indian civilization
as made out from the extant literary evidences namely the Vedas
and the auxiliary lores, and from the latest archeological dis-
coveries at Mohenjo Daro and Harappa, itis possible to infer
that worship of divinities, some times by visible representations
bas been a striking feature of Indian religion. References to
temples and images of gods and godlings are met with in abundance
particularly in later Vedic literature, and the relics unearthed in
India’s prehistoric sites at Mohenjo Daro and Harappa lead to the
surmise that temples and temple architecture were known to the
authors of the Indus civilization. The terra cotfa figurines of
the Mother goddess, figures of gods on the seals and sealings and
the stone Jiviga and other antiquities have led the scholars to
characterise the type of the civilization represented by them as
highly developed both temporally and spiritually. During the
vast interval of time from the close of the Indus period (circa 2500
B.C.) tothe historic period of the Buddha ( circa 500 B.C. ),
what particular forces combined to mould the special typ of the
Hindu culture, there are no means to understand. Whatever be
 2

the lines of development, the Indian mind was traineti,to inter-

pret divinity in terms of things temporal and as a corollary of
this, temples and images began to be worshipped by all theistic
religions in India. The Hindu pantheon with one supreme God
as an Invincible All-powerful Divinity admitted numerous minor
deities under Him, that represented different cultural forces, or a
-harmonious building of an uniform homogeneous civilization
called the Aryan culture. Among these minor ‘deities, the
Gandharvas and Kinnaras play a significant part in Indian
temples. It isthe object of this Memoir to study the position
and functions of these demi-gods in the Hindu pantheon, to note
their iconographical features from the extant sculptures and
paintings and to institure a comparison between the Hindu,
Buddhist and Jaina icons of these godlings classified under chrona-
logical periods of Ififian sculptural art, so that their true
character as a piece of sculptural art-production may be set forth
in a true perspective.
 CHAPTER’ I
THE STATUS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE GANDHARVAS
AND KINNARAS, IN LITERATURE

The Vedic Literature contains numerous references to

Gandharva and Kinnara as performers of specifie functions which
are explained in detail in the Pauranic literature. They also
throw light on their status and position in the Vedic Pantheon.
The dictum that the Itihasa and Purdya are explanatory digests
on the enigmatic truths of the Vedas ( afferaquomeai ag ஜுலி)
isexemplified in the interpretation of the figures under notice. The
word Gandharva is derived in various ways,in the Rigvéda and
the same meaning is upheld by explanatory notes in the Puranas.
In Rigvéda VIII, 77, 5, Indra is statgd to have cut asunder
Gandharva in the etherial regions, ( ageay qafarmaraeaaeag
WEG அகர | எளி களன்‌: Sayana ) for the protection of
the Brahmanas ( எனன ₹598- எனின்‌ wa 3 qana—Sayana ). Here
the word Gandharva is @escribed by Sdyana as meaning
‘acloud’ ( myzé anadth aeaat Aa: 1 ).
Another Rik of the same mandala records the expedition of
Satakratu (i¢.Indra) incompany with Kutsa, against the
invincible Gandharva who had inflicted a defeat on the Sage
Etasa. Gandharva is here equated with Sirya i.e. Sun-god.
Sayana explains in his commentary on this Rik, that Gandharva
was Sarya ( neaa wai Galai gait qa), But in Rigvéda I, 163,2,
Gandharva is regarded as one of the genii who regulate the course
of the sun’s horses. According to Siyana’s gloss, the horse which
had been given by Yama t,o, Fire-god, was yoked to the chariot
by fia t.e. Wind-god and was seized by reins (i.e, controlled ) by
Gaudharva i.¢.Sdma. The Gandharva is called the protector of
Soma and VayukéSa. He is referred to in plural which clearly in-
dicates that there was a class of demi-gods called the Gandharvas
ஸா
(ானண என ஜு ஈண்‌ “ எ எகா ட 278111, 35, 6...
ay a8 aaa எனா கனி. என்ட ears ஊளளகி எள
saga t- Sayana } who were to guard the Séma. This function
 4
of the Gandharvas is clearly mentioned in the Rik. IX, 83-4:—~
எஸ்‌ ஊரா ரன என்‌ எர கோள்‌ என்னா? |
ணாள [0 ஏஏ எள: ஏச என்‌ எள ॥
In the ninth mandala, Sikta 86, 36, the heavenly Gandharva
( fast aeaq ) is identified with Soma. He is called Visvavasu
(Rv. X,139,4.5,6; fenag aaawdand etc. ளகர ae ang feat
aeqaj etc. ete, ) and knows and makes known the secrets of

heaven and divine truths generally. He has a mystic power over

women and a right to possess them, Heisinvoked to unite the
woman with her husband ( aeafqes gga dara denea fi— R.V.
X, 85,22). Asa clasg, the Gandharves live in the sky and guard
Séma ( d aeaal: sean a aa tam eafeaedt ofiea-R 1. IX,
113,3). Their habjtation is stated in some Riks to be-the
region of the air and the heavenly waters qeqaea gq [email protected]. I,
22, 14). Sayana explains this ga qé@ as wafiq and quotes a
statement of the Nrisintha Tapaniyasakha that the sky is inhabi-
ted by groups ( am ) of Yakshas, Gandharvas and Apsaras
( agaeaakatanahaaakeq—g. a. 102). %In R.V.IX, 85, 12,
the Gandharva is identified with the sun illuminating the Heaven
and Earth ( geealef mat gf: ) and is stated to inhabit
the heaven ( seqf aeqal afsars weayg). From R.V.X, ro, 4, it is
clearly seen that he lives with his wife in heavenly waters. A
further interesting description of this demi-god is contained in
8. 7, 28, ௩72, 2 that the Gandharva uttered a speech in the
womb, which the q@aq i.e. the sun had bornein his mind. This
heavenly speech was given out thereafter by the poets ( ஏர்‌ ஏரார்‌
‘ead welicigaca G2 saat faaifi u ). It may also be pointed out that
the second Rik of the eleventh s#kia of the same mandala seems
to hint that the Gandharvas were delighted to join the mind to
the music or sound of the river ( mada ) ( wageudieena Aa AREA
mz afaig % aa; 1) which idea is developed in epic poetry where
the Gandharvas are well-known as celestial musicians or heavenly
singers in the court of Indra. Thus, inthe Rigvéda, we find the
Gandharvas invested with mystic power ovér woman, having |
 5.
their habftation in the-heaven or the region of the air or the
heavenly waters, They are introduced aa an individual or as a
class and one of them is called Vigvavasu. They are designated
_ by the term Vayukésa ( wind-haired ) and stated to guard the
heavenly Soma for the sake of which Indra fought with them and
took it forcibly for the good of the human race. They are end-
owed with sweet speech and have a power to possess or seduce
women, Inthe hymns quoted above, the Gandharvas are des-
cribed as fisq neqq or the heavenly Gandharva as opposed to
aqea aeyq oor human Gandharva, who are ‘introduced in the
Upanishads andepic mythology,

The statements of the Rigvéda descrihing these demi-gods,

are rendered more clear in the hymns of the Atharva Véda. The
Bhuvanapati-Sikta in the second book ( ர்த்கின காச \, introduces

the heavenly Gandharva ( fesay ueaal yanea geafa: ) who was

inhabiting the sky ( fee a wea ) and had the Apsaras

whose abode was the sea, for wives. The latter had the power
to mystify the mind (a@gg: arat ஷம்‌ ஏனிணிககி௧4 AA: |
A. V.II, 5). In the fifth book of theAtharva Véda (A.V. II.5,2)
the Gandharvas are enumerated along with the Pityis, the gods
(ளை: ), and the minor deities ( gavgqr; —-) and their number
is given as six thousand three hundred and thirty three ( 6333).
In the Papamochana-sikia, ( A.V. II, 6,4)the Gandharvas and
Apsaras areinvoked along with the ASvins, Brahmanaspati and
Aryaman for the removal of sin and in the frag (A.V. XIV.
2, 34~36), their blessings are prayed fora happy unionof the
couples in marriage ceremonies. The Gandharva is the receptacle
of secrets ( ஏவி என பெர்‌ geraa, ) and knows and makes known

the secrets of heaven and divine truths generally (A.V,II,2)

said to mike an enticing speech ( அணிகள்‌ ச்‌
He is
A.V. XX, 128, 3)
* In epic poetry, the Gaudharvas are described as the celestial
musicians or heavenly singers,( எ என்‌ ANAK US ARAL |
saat சோ: சன்‌ கர உட வளன்‌. 71, 161,26). I have
already pointed out that in the Rigvéda the Gandharva is endowed
 6
with sweet speech (cf. arg qq: of the Atharva Véda XX, 128, 3)
which in the epic mythology bas been ascribed to the Gandharvas
and Kinnaras who form the orchestra at the banquets of the gods
and belong together withthe Apsaras to the Indra’s heaven sharing
alsoin his battles. The Yajiavalkya~smyiti corroborates this
idea when it says that the Gandharvas granted an auspicious
voice to women (chapt.I, 71). That these celestial musicians
held the monopoly of divine music is set forth in the classica] and
technical literatures and inscriptions also from the earliest period
down to the r7th century A D. when the religious and spiritual
traditions of the followers of Vaidika rites were alive on the
Indian soil. These will be dealt with later on,
«

Thus, we are furnished with the following meanings of the

word Gandharva asegplained by Sayana viz.
(௩) afaaa gsila: fa a sera: | என்டு
ள்‌ எ 5 எர: டஎாராக்‌ வருவ aeaal ae ட fe. one
that contains water ¢ e, the cloud is the Gandharva
(2) aeaq nat ஸனிஎர்‌ walk aa (the sun) and by the same process °
of derivation (3) negafqodaraam. In the Sabdakalpadruma
however, is offered a more appropriate derivation explaining
their functions directly in the words ௭௭ம்‌ எரி கண்களில்‌ என்ன்‌
எனி ef 1 cai maa: 4.6. the heavenly musician who takes delight
in singing and playing on musical instruments. This etymology
is suggested in A.V. 12, 1; 2, 3, where the odour ( gandha ) of the
earth is said te rise to the Gandharvas ( aca எ: gfafy aaa a
ரரி gare: | a neaal sara HAR ). The Gandharvas are
classified under two heads viz. (1) fgsq ueaq or divine
Gandharvas and (2) aqsq meqq fe. the human Gandharvas.
The former are extolled in the hymns from the Védas cited above
and hold a higher position and status in the pantheon of the
Védic theologists, than the human Gandharvas. They areeborn
of the divine seed ( 299௭௪: ) and are divided into eleven
categories according to the Vahnipurana:— எளி என்‌ ஸ்‌
என்ன தத | 8: ஏக வனா விள ண்ணா ட னாக ஊனு ஈகி
 7
weal TW {| —quoted from the Vachaspatya under Gandharvas.
Campare in this connection Siyana’s gloss on R.V. III, 38,6 ©
என்னிய ல்க ளன in which the Abbraja gana is specified.
Jatadpara, however enumerates the eleven classes differently as
follows :—
ளே ச னி எள்‌ எனகன |
விளதாஞ்ணி
ண எள 8 ஊரா: ॥
- quoted from the Vachaspatya.
While narrating the origin of the Universe, the Manusmriti
introduces the ten Prajipatis who-crcated the seven Manus, the
Maharshis ( the sages ) and the Yakshas,- Rakshasas, Pisachas,
Gandharvas, Apsaras. Asuras, Nagas, Sarpds, Suparnas, the groups
( aq ) of the Pitris. ... Kinnaras, Vanaras etc.
eo

( 3a ta: faaraia aeaaiael Sgua |

அளவாக ர்‌ ஏ ராக |...
faauramteaceniftaaia இன்னை chapt. I, 37-39
The commentator Kullikabhatta explains: எக; |
agra: sazaqi: , following the renumeration of Jatadhara. In
the Sivatatua-ratndkara an encpclopaedic work of Basavaraja of
Keladi (17th centvry A.D.) the Déva-Gandharvas are divided
into Maunéyas and Prapéyas each of which has sixteen and ten
clans respectively. Their names are enumerated in Kalléla III,
chapt. 3, vv. 4-15. This classification is not found elsewhere
and appears to follow some local Viragaiva tradition.
In the third book ( eqra ) of the Bhagavata whose present
reeension is ascribed by scholars to the 8th sentury A.D. but
which from the evailable epigraphical and literary evidences may
be relegated in its original form to a very high antiquity going
back to the Pre-Christian era, there is a lucid and thorough
account of the creation ot the universe. In the narrative of the
divine creation ( aaa 3, the following verses specily the eight-
fold creation thus :—~the Visudha (Gods ), Piivis ( manes) Asuras,
Gandharva, Apsarasas, Siddhas, Yakshas, Rakshasas, Chdranas,
Bhiitas, Prétas, Pigachas, Vidyadharas, and Kinnaras
 8

“அண்ண ஏல்‌ ந faatisga: |

ஏண்ட; Rrgr: ageatfa are: 1
Wa Fa arava ana: face: |
aaa fagueara எளின்‌ பேர: ॥
The commentators Vijayadhvaja (14th century A.D.) and
Yadu patyacharya ( 17th century A.D. ) recencile the discrepancy
in the original statement ( ap faa: ) and the actual enumeration
which exceeds fourteen categories, by the process of inclusion of
some into the main heads so as to bring the number to eight
(ஏ என எக ae Beifeeaald qaale - fasaeasia on IT, 3, 17,
27-28 )

The functions and duties of the several godlings given here

ம க 6, : .
are explained in the commentaries as follows :—
sama களின்‌ எனா கனகா |
fog ண்‌ ளாக எட்டு ॥
கர 88 8 8 பச எள: |
என்‌ 43௫ எள: இரளன்‌ ஈகி |
amseg aafaededts Faint nat: |
quoted in the Vijayadhvajiya. Their functions are explained
more clearly in the Yddupatya in the following prose passage :—
ஏன ma sale afa எண்னை | area walt aff ae cary) எரிக்க
gaife ane: | fag நே எள்‌ உரம்‌ ஜி எகா வடி! எட்‌
புய த டப பப்ப்த ப பப தபது ப்தட்பப்ப்பட்கி
The Gandharvas and Apsaras perform singing and dancing
before the gods; the Yakshas and Rakshasas are to act as their
vehicles or conveyances besides doing battles for the gods. The
Siddhas should always proclaim ‘‘ success, success’ to the gods
and the Charanas should function as spies ( ஏரா: ர. The Bhitas,
Prétas, Pigichas, Vidyadharas and Kinnaras, should rehder
service to the gods by assuming various bodies. The functions
of these demi-gods are also indicated in the verses sung in praise
of God Narasithha by the Gandharvas, Kimpurushas, Kinnaras
 ட
etc., which are extracted below from the Bhagavata, Skandha
VII, 8, 50 ete.,
neal aa உன்‌ 84 சாணளாக 846, 15௦1
“Oh Lord we are your singers, actors and dancers.”

figen sa: — a Pagasreed கு எனன ௭: |

. அவ்‌ gyal as) fa: area ॥ 53 ॥
we look like Purushas (ரக்கா ) but you are indeed a

Great Purusha. For,

“ This despicable person (i.e. Hiranya KaSyapa) despised by
the good people is' destroyed (by you) ”
ர்க ca: — எளிஎ கரா சலா
fafada fale agasa afta etc,
“(Oh Lord, we are your servants. But this son of Diti ( t.¢.
Hiranya Kagyapa ) caused us to serve him forcibly ( fafg= forced
labour)” The nature of the service is not specified

A word will now be said about the habitation of these demi-

gods according to the Purinas As stated above, the sky
(அச ) and the waters were specified in the Védas as their
locale, The Sabda-Kalpadruma locates the Gandharvaldka above
the region ofthe Guhyakas and below ‘that of the Vidyadharas,
The Kasikhanda describes the Gandharvas and their residence in
the following verses which corroborate the statements made
above on the basis of the Puranic and Védic texts :—
வண்ண Basel aeaata quan t
aaa mae aa aM: eqfansat: 0
oat ஒர்‌ விர என்ன்‌ afar |
egafa 3 amedia aa atta alfem:
எல்‌ உணர்‌ கள்‌ எணண a |
சவர்‌ கரன்‌ கர்விணர்கள: ॥
ஜான: ஜை விர்‌ எக்னலி |
௭ பர8௭ எாஏனி ateedai fadiaa ॥
—quoted from the
Sabdakalpadruma,
 Io

“This is the world of the Gandharvas who are the singets of

The Charanas who are expert musicians are the
the gods,
” reciters of eulogies and please the kings by their songs, They
the wealthy persons through greed for money, They
praise
frequently give away to Brahmanas whatever articles of per-
wealth, clothes etc, they receive as gifts through the
{umery,
king’s favour, Throngh merit thus obtained, they will be eligible
to the Gandharvaléka”, These are evidently the Manushya
Gandharvas who by tbe performance of such meritorious deeds
are entitled to a place in theGandharvaléka The same idea
is expressed in the Sabdarthachintamant which explains the
distinction between the Déva-Gandharvaand Manushya Gandharva
in the following verses :-—
எண்‌ என: எ goa has: |
wesaed BAI REA TET Weas |
qAweI SHEA, BURT SRA |
எண்ன TRANS A a Kay Teas |
The Déva-gandharvas are mentioned in the Védic hymns quoted
above and the Manushya-gandharvas whose status is much lower .
in the gradation of the Védic pantheon are also referred to in the
epic and classical poems, In the Ramayana, Lava and Kuéa are
described as twin brothers endowed with sweet voice like the
Gandharvas (grad eavaarat araalfaa efisil u. 4, 10) who are
evidently the human Gandharvas.
That the Gandharvas havea prior right to possess women is
also indicated in the marriage verse :— uo

aia: saat [48% எளி ர சோ |

gaat afhib of ஷரிசன்‌ ஷன; ப. (847. 4 85, 40-49)
which states that a bride is first taken to ‘wife by Sma,
Gandharva and Agni in order before she is married by the human
bridegroom. The Yajiavalkya-Smyiti (1, 71) declares that Soma
imparted purity to women, Gandharva an auspicious speech
( spatter ) and Agni all sacredness, regarding them ever pure
(fem 3 aifadi aa:). This is only an extension of the Vedic concep-
tion of the #4 qa: of the Gandharvas and of the epic idea of
 It

their being the musicians of the heaven. A brief account of the

origin and description of these demigods is given in chapter XI of
the Hindu Mythology by W.J. Wilkins and in T.A, Gopinatharao’s
Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol.Il, p. 568.

The Kinnaras who are included in the eight-fold divine crea-

tion (24 a4 ) of Brahma given in the Bhagavata (III-11-27~28)
quoted above are also the semi-divine beings who according to
the Yadupatyam were to render service to Gods in various ways
( afacaPacaia fay Sara aft aaa fata). The Kinnaras are
enumerated along side the Rakashasas, Vanaras, and Yakshas as
the progeny of Pulastya in the Mahabharata, (Bharata, Aranya-
Kaparva, chapt.6 ) while the Kimpurushas are clubbed together
with the Salabhas, Sirhhas (lions ), Vyaghras (tigers), Yakshas
and H4hamrigas (ibid) among the descendants of Pulaha, In
Bhagavata ( VIII, 20, 13), the Kinnaras are accordingly
mentioned separately from the Kimpurushas in the verse ( Haug
Sena: aseat neadGiges frau su u.)., Like their compeers the
Gandharvas, they are also endowed with sweet voice and are
known in literature for their melodious songs, (compare for
example yareaafueslh feauni—@acene, fafas fer afte gea—
UAT \. The physiological and iconographical features of
these semi-divine beings as made out from literature and
inscriptions will be studied in the next chapter, The Sabdakal-
padruma locates the Kimpurusha-varsha between the Hémaktta
(4¢, Méru } mountain and the Himalayas includedin the nine
continents (@vg) of the Jambidvipa. But its exact situation
can not be made out clearly, The same authority suggests the
derivation of the word Kinnara as gfeaay az: . Monier Williams
explains it as ‘what sort of man'( feat) being originally a
kind of monkey (va-nara) and in later times reckoned among
the Gandharvas or celestial choristers. They were attached to
the Service of Kubéra who is known as the lord of Kinnaras
( fisatar ), in literature and inscriptions,

It may be observed that the divine creation which the four—

is
faced God Brahma made in the beginning of the universe
 r2

wholly transplanted in the Brahmanda (1.e, created universe)

where, even quarters for the various beings are allotted. This
is followed suit in the buildings of a city or town which-according
to the science of town-planning, should contain among others,
separate quarters for the Gandharvas who are represented by
the drummers, musicians and dancing courtezans, The Mdnasdra
states thatin the Gandharva part, should be the houses of the
drummers etc,, halls fit for the dancing or music of courtezans
and the residences of the architects ( னாக ).should be situated
in the Gandharva plot, Even a temple should have a separate
plot for the Gandharva where should bea pavilion for gathering
flowers for worship (Manasara chapts. IX ahd XXXII ).
Dweliing houses also should be marked by various plots of which
the one for the Gamharva should contain the house of those
princesses who can be seen by the moon, These are the top-most
portions of a mansion or the antariksha plots which are suitable
_for the quarters of the queens of kings of nine ranks
( Ibid, chapt. XXXVI).
 CHAPTER II
THE GANDHARVAS AND KINNARAS IN THE JAINA
AND BUDDHIST PANTHEONS.
The Gandharvas and Kinnaras are adopted by the Jainas
also in their system of theology. Théir description and functions
do not materially change from the ones given above from the
Vedic and post-Vedic evidences, But the classification and their
habitat are slightly different, According to the Tattvarthasitra
chapt. IV. sitras 1-12, the gods of the Jaina pantheon are of four
orders namely Bhavanav4si i e. Residential], VyYantara i.e peripa~
tetic, Jydtishka ¢.¢, Stellar and Vaimanika 7¢, Heavenly. Every
class has ten grades:— geg, maifas, qafaa, alten, acne, alan,
அளிக, Sate, sfeatza (that grade of celestial beings who form
themselves into conveyances as horse, lion, swan etc,, etc. for the
other grades) and fifSaqy% ( the servile grade ). But the gods in
the sqqq and sqfsx regions are denied the privileges of having
the grades of safeq ( like ministers or priests, being thirty three
jn number ) and a@qre (the police or the protectors of the people).
The gods of the Vyantara region are given in Sitra as aqaqr: fR-
ac Peegea wean aedq get ware yo fara: n 99 al Some of 410656
live in the innumerable oceans and continents, The seven classes
of the Vyantara gods, i.e. all except the Rakshasas live in the
Khara-bhaga or first upper-most stratum of the first earth
Ratnaprabha. The Rakshasas live in the second or Panka-bhaga
of thesame, It may be remarked that among the Bhavanavisi
gods all except the Asuta-kum&ras viz, Nagakuméra, Vidyut-
kamara, Suparnakumara, Asni-kumira, Vatakumara, Stanita-
kumiara, Udadhikumara, Dvipakumara and Dik-kumara reside in
the Khara-bhiga of Ratnaprabha, whereas the Asurakumaras-
likg the Rakshasas, live in the Panka-bhaga ( see the Taitvarthadhi-
gamasitra by Umasvami Acharya edited by J. H. Jaini, ma,,
pp. 96-99). It is interesting to mote that the Kinnaras are
distinguished as a separate class, from the Kimpurashas in the
Sitra quoted above, evidently from the difference in their
 14
respective physiological features which will be discussed in the
sequel,
The functions of the Gandharvas are explained in Abhidhdna-
vajéndva of Vijayarajéndra-siiri, a Jaina lexicon of the medieval
period, by the synonym amjaz ( singer of the gods )} SATACISTAAR -
They are divided into twelve classes:—(1) gigi, (2) ge, (3):
wart, (4) anan, (5) aferfeer, (6) yaafee: (7) aera:
(8) nemmera:, .(9) Yaar, (10) fagaaa:, (12) wagaa:
(12) saaga: whose functions are,as can be surmised from
their names, intimately connected with musie and singing. The
Kinnares are likewise divine beings who have to perform similiar
duties. The gods of the first three orders viz., aqaqiet, saeqz and
salfasm have bodily sexual enjoyment like human beings up to
the second heaven or [gana (ஏகி எ wma tw it) and
in the rest have the sexual] enjoyment by means of touch, sight
of beauty, sound and mind as follows :—

In the third and fourth heavens by touch only.

» 5, 6, சயாம்‌ 8th ,, ,, sight only.
வ 9, 10, 1r andizth ,, ,, sound only.
» 13, 414, 15,and16th ,, ,, mindonly.

The Vaimanikas -have no. sexual enjoyment. Beyond the

16th heaven there is only the mule sex ( ibtd. pp.98). It would
thus be seen that the Gandharvas and Kinnaras live on this earth
in the Khara-bhdga or the upper stratum and mix up with the
human beings. .

The Buddhists speak of three kinds of gods ( dévas ); those

by common consent (sammaiti), those by purity ( Visuddhi)
and those by birth ( upapait?), The kings and royal personages
are the gods by recognition, the recluses and ‘other holy per-
sonages are the gods by purity, Brahma, Prajapati and other
celestial beings are the gods by birth. The Niddééa list of dévatas
comprises five groups of five kinds of each: (x) ascetics,
(2) domestic animals ( elephants, horses, cows, cocks, crows ),
 55
(3) physical forces and elements ( fire. stone etc.), (4) lower
gods ( Bhummadéva Naga, Suparwna, Yakshd, asura, gandhabbd )
( Digh-N., ii, p. 254,257), (5) high gods (inhabitants of the
déva-léka proper: Maharaja, Chanda, Suriya, Inda, Brahma ).
Thus, the Gandharvas etc. are classed under the lower gods
whose function isto attend on the Buddha and Bédhisattva.
Pafichagikha Gandharva, the harper of Indra and Dhritarashtra-
Yaksha the guardian of the Eastern quarter are frequently
mentioned in the Buddhist legends (see Barhut, Book II, Jataka
scenes by B. M. Barua, p. 56-57) At all important junctures
of the life of Buddha Sakyamuni, Dhritarashtra-Yakha whe as the
epithet indicates, isa holder of the royal scepture, a Maharaja,
the supreme lord of the Gandharvas, is said to have come with
his retinue to ward off the dangers and pay homage to the
Bodhisattva and Buddha now and then. *
In the opinion of Vincent Smith these godlings were the
most powerful forces in the primtive aged and ‘‘ must be regard-
ed as the last remnant of a whole host of forgotten powers, once
mighty and to be placated, each in its own place. Strange beings
of another sphere, they could not wholly be passed over either by
Brahman or Buddhist. (A History of Fine Art in India and
Ceylon, p. 7).
 CHAPTER Ii]
THE GANDHARVAS AND KINNARAS IN INSCRIPTIONS.
A study of the inscriptions and sculptures belonging to the
several historical periods and epochs of sculptural styles as
demonstrated in the ancient temples both South Indian and
North Indian will, it may be pointed out, show that the
Gandharvas, Kiunaras and other godlings were to attend on the
principal deity in the céntral shrine doing Him suitable services
such as singing, dancing, waiving fly-whisks, and offering garlands
of flowers etc., in a worshipping attitude. The technical literature
in Sanskrit on the Hina and Jaina pantheoas, dealing with the
iconographical features of the various deities, will form an incon-
trovertible piece of ewidence in support of the conclusions arrived
at by an independent study of the icons found in different parts
of India. I shall briefly notice here a few typical examples from
Indian records where the Gandharvas etc , are introduced as the
retinue of the principal deity. In some temples these minor
deities used to be worshipped, as a necessary part of the temple
establishment. From one of the inscriptions in the Lahore
Museum ( gthecentury A.D.), it appears that the temple was
adorned with theimages of Krishna and of the gods ( déva),
demons ( daitya}, Gandharvas, Yakshas, Kinnaras and the
Siddhas (Sirsa stone inscription of Bhdjadéva, Ep. Ind. Vol.
XXI p. 196 04. ர ளே எரர்‌ கர எர ளோ aged). The Talgund
pillar inscription (Ep. Ind. Vol. VIII,p. 30) of Kadamba Kakustha-
varman (6th century A.D.) similarly records that the temple
of Pranavésvara contained the images of groups of the Siddhas,
Gandharvas and Rakshasa (cf. ஏ 3g anadl naearfa ன வண்‌:
fag araq wiinti: Oa— verse 33). The Gandharvas ete. are
also referred to in the Nasik Cave inscriptions (ibid. p. 60,-
No.3, plate I, lines 8-9) as participating in battles fought by
SiriSatakarni Gotamiputa qqa aeeltra qavaa farat ya aaa ஏரா
a@ fama aaa ngfafan eax fafa சரடு aq—t 8-3 ). That the
demi-gods took part in battlesis learnt from the Yadupatyami,
a commentary, on Bhdgavata Ill, xx, 27-28 quoted above
 17
( அகர gaily apg:.|). These demi-gods were the devout wor.
shippers of the main deity offering prayers, music and dancing,
as already made out from the literary evidences quoted above.
The epigraphical evidence also points to the same conclusion.
The-Tipperah copper-plate grant of Lékanatha dated in his forty-
fourth regnal. year (A. D. 650; Ep Ind Vol XV, p. 307)
records the construction of the temple of Bhagavan Ananta
Narayana whose person is stated to have been adored by the
chief gods, the ‘asuras, the sun, the moon, Kuvéra, the Kinnara,
the Vidyddharas, the chief serpent-gods, the Gandharvas,
Varuna, the Yakshas (aq எரிவு ரகக எள Zax (கண்‌
fanaz aden neag aan ser... fgaaghsacaaegnca ). The Chandrehe
inscription of PrabGdhasgiva dated in the Kalachuri year 724
(A.D 973) (Ibid. Vol, XXI, P. 151), states, while describing
the god “Siva, that his fame was incessantly sung with delightin
a light tone by Gandharvas and Vidyadharas in the assembly of
Indrain the celestial garden ( aq@lqna nég dale gal என்‌ இண்ட
எச ௮ ஏச :... அரள: aga maa 18 fl The Acthuna inscription
of the Paramara Chamundaraya dated in A.D. robo ascribes the
singing and music tothe Kinnarasin the verse grgeqaca acne
riaddafitern | wakaar gateriasfas ait | 2 l (Ep. Ind. Vol.
XIV pp. 297. ff.) . -
The Tiruvorriyir inscription of Tammusiddhi, (Zbid. Vol. VII.
p 15r) dated in Saka 1120 (A.D. 1207-8) states while describ-
ing the glory of Tammusiddhi, in the verse
aS. gy aca aan gual Gaz yg:
Bese: warn qau: feaeqand | verse 26-
(when the thousand-eyed (Indra) in his court constantly
hears of his (¢.¢. Tammusiddhi’s) brilliant fame, pleasant
to the ear, from the sweet-voiced mouth of the Kinnaras,
etc. ), that the Kinnaras were the musicians in the court of
Indra. From the Velvikudi grant of Nedufijadaiyan (civea A.D.
770), in which Ncdufijadaiyan son of Térmaran is described
 18

with a string of epithets such as Maniipaman, Marddita-viran,

Giristhiran, gita-Kinnaran etc, it: may be gathered that the
Kinnaras were taken asa standard to test the quality of music.
These ideas are common tothe Jainasalso according to whom
the Gandharvas and Kinnaras belong tothe Vyantara region.
One of the Jaina sculptures of Mathura represents the worship of -
a stipa by two Suparnas and five centaurs or Kinnaras who
carry jars filled with flower-bunches, fans made of branches etc-
(Ep. Ind. Vol. Il, p 319). This shows that the Suparnas and
Kinnaras were the attendants of the Tirthankaras doing services
of various kinds. That the Gandharvas were the repositories of
the science of music is also learnt from the statementin the
Hathigumpha incri ption of Kharavela that he (the king* versed
in the science of the Gandharvas (t.e. music) entertained the
capital with the exhibition of dapa ( country dance ), dancing.
singing and instrumental music aad by. causing to be held
festivities and. assemblies (samd@ja} (Ep. Ind. Vol. XX,
p. 87 ).
From the few typical the epigraphical references ranging in
date from the rst century A D. onwards, quoted above, it may be
concluded that the traditions recorded-in literature were actually
handed down in practice consistently, throughout the historic
period of Indian history. The foregoing discussion makes it quite
clear that the demi-gods under notice, though holding a subordinate
position in the Vaidika and Jaina pantheons were considered in-
dispensable in every temple and that their {nnctions were, singing,
dancing and playing upon musical instruments besides rendering
varicus kinds of service in battles etc. One additional feature of
the Kinnaris is that they were apperently regarded as the protec-
tors of the village or field boundaries, The stones with the figures
of Kinnaris appear to have been planted in the corners of the
boundary line of a field to proclaim that they were being guarded
by the Kinnaris (ef. for example the Lakshmé$vara inscription
of Jagadékamalla dated roth regnal year: [éanyada sime Ittageya
hala holada budagana horeya kinnari gal), We have noted above
 19
that according to the Buddhists, Dhritarashtra-Yaksha was the .
protector of the Eastern quarter paying homage to the Buddha,.

The various functions of the Gandharvas and Kinnaras

namely (1) Singing, music and dancing, (2) seduction and
possession of women, (3) doing service to the principal deity
on whom they attend such as offering flowers, fruits etc, and
(4) participating in battles etc., are represented in sculptures
belonging to different periods of history, These will be studied
in the sequel, after their physiological characterstic features are
made out from the literature and specific icons found in different
parts of India.
 CHAPTER IV
ICONOGRAPHY OF THE GANDHARVAS AND KINNARAS
AS MADE OUT FROM LITERATURE.

In this chapter, we shall study the physiological and icono-

graphical features of the Gandharvas and Kinnaras from the
available literary sources. The Sanskrit lexicons réckon these
mythical beings among the déva-yént gods. Amara (I, II, ) clubs
together all the diva-yéni beings in the verse

1 ணன்‌ gael need fear: |

ப்ளான்‌ ஊன்‌ ஏரிகள்‌ கே: ட
While commenting ont his couplet, Kshirasvami explains the seve-
ral groups, of which the following relevent portion is extracted :—
fara: Siqaqenaa: aan gfeeaafe Revariws + erg acral 2a
afta: tanga)... aeaqiegrgergaa: Sanaa: | ரு. ஏரி:
சாணை: ட ரன: பின்னான? வக்‌ இளி: |. 606. ௨௦. The
Vidyadharas are Jimiitavahana and others who bear a sword,
pilis, magic ointment and charms, the Apsaras are the concubines
of gods moving in water namely Rarhbhaetc: The Gandharvas
are the singers of gods, namely Tumburu and others; the Kinnaras
have the faces of horse etc , and are amorous. The Pigachas are
flesh-eaters themselves being reduced to skeleton, without flesh.
The Sdsvatakisa (verse tor), the Ndandrtha Sangraha of
Ajayapala (p.31 V.6, Madras University edition ), and the
Sabdaugha Kalpadruma describe the Gandharvas as an'animal
born in the mid-region ( sae waadeq ) and moving in the sky
( @aqt). The MédinikSa has similarly the verse

Tags WQNy eyiegeaifns gaat: | siagaaged a may Bdtsh au

The Abhidhanaratnamdlé of Halayudha does not give any descrip-
tive epithets about this demi-god. The Kinnaras are, however,
delineated in some of the lexicons with their characteristic marks
such as horse-face and human body etc. Halayudha gives
 ar

Pear: earfeaaged) agvag acdai | (Amara has eqfaaz: fargeacain

ஏணி எது on which Kshirasvami adds fSPiadsa qacaleeat:
—partially haman with a horse’s head}. The details as to how
they should be portrayed in sculpture and -painting are not
furnished by the lexicons or the commentaries thereon. From
the Matsyapuraiua, Agnipurapa and the Fishnudharmdltara purdna
afew particulars can be gleaned, but they are not enough to
exhaust the full elucidation of the subject. The only source of
information in regard to this study are the sculptures and paint-:
ings available in different parts of India which should he studied
on a scientific classification and a plausible skeleton of the forms
of these demi-gods reconstructed fromthe data thus gathered.
This problem willbe studied iv detail in tbe next chapter. ‘Bot
suffice it to indicate the lterary evidences ewfar as posaible which
throw light on the images of the Gandharvas and Kinnaras
according to the Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina schools of ancient
sculpturalart. Tt hasbeen pointed out on a previous occasion
that the conception of itmage-making in the three principal
schools of Indian religious thought, is practically the same though
in some minor details some defferences are discernible due to the
influence of particular religions bias. The styles of architectural
and sculptural arts are found to exhibit a slow development
marked by a lapse of periods of time combined with the inter-
course with the neighbouring or foreign countries.

The description of the images of the demi-gods is not given

in the Agamas and the technical literature bearing on the icono-
graphy of images. There are however a few statements here and
there which are collected to get a connected 1dea of the subject.
The earliest literary evidence is furnished by the Mdnasara a
work of considerable interest for the history of Indian temple
architecture and sculpture of deities. It is teeming with very
_valuable information on the minute details of image-making with
‘due regard to the measurement of the limbs. The Buddhist and-
Jaina icons are also briefly described in the respective chapters.
 22

In the chapter on the mythical beings (chapt. 58: agerfaengufe

wun ) the Gandharvas are characterised by their erect position
( cag ), by their singing in a dancing pose with a lute or a char-
ming stick and by other musical instruments including the lute

aa mT ana ash ளா னர்கள்‌ |

Teton wRaalefe ன்‌ ய (vv. g-r0 ).
They are stated to be efficient in singing ete, and form
the musician party of the divine troupe எள இர ன்ளீ
ளொண்ள௭ (ஏராள) எண | (10648). There are only two or
three references to their physical appearance inthe Rigvéda.
According to IIL. :8, 6 they are wind-haired (aqzang, But vide
Sdyana: AAU, BSAA}. Gandharva holds brilliant wea pons
(குனி எனல்‌ aff ars sear, scaefaa faseeagafa X, 123, 7)
The Atharva-Véda is more definite on the point. The Gandharva,
the husband of the Apsaras has plumage over head like the
peacock, and dances sportively ( anqcaa; Rrafeeq: neqqencquaa:
A.V. V, 37,7). He wears brilliant weapons and iron lances.
Cala gaea Baa: weiaend: 1 afeafaeeeneaaiq amaresatag ப
ibid 8). They are alsosaid to be shaggy and to have half
anima] forms being in many ways dangerous to men. ‘‘In the
Atharvavéda, they are said to be aclass of gods, hairy, like
monkeys or dogs; they assume at will handsome appearances to
seduce the female of this earth, Therefore, they are invoked so
that they may not indulge in this sort of wrong act but live with
their own wives”? (T.A. Gopinatha Rao’s Hindu Jconography
Vol. I, p. 568). But this deseription of the Gandharvas is no
where adopted by sculptors. For, their figures are not so far found
characterised by the monkey or dog features. The Vishnudharméit-
tara purdna TIT Book chapt, 42 which deals with the characte-
tistic features of the demi-gods, the sages, the Brahmanas etc.,
who should be portrayed as retinne of the principal deity, states
that the sages, with the Gandharvas, the daiiyas and the danavas
 23
siould be drawn in painting with the bhadrapramana, The
following verses depict their features in brief :—
௩௭௭௪8௮ FaaaT: SAAN Rar: |
ஏணி என: செவஏளன ॥ ௩ ॥
ஊளகரிு எனல்‌ ஏக இளி: |
காணான்‌ எனா௭ என்னா எரி ॥
sgaaftaa இன: ஏதா !

Sema Vaasa ater WES YET: vu

ஏராள கர்‌ சிணா a 1
aovargga Fo: aceq: gad au
(4) 25am: ecemeaa faa a7 |
எரனிகக 8 காரர்‌ எகா எ: |
eeageaa @ arat amy araar ae
assy aftaita feared cerar: |
Saeed Tara aa: wal atifag y
MURA TATA TTT AAT fee |
ன: எள: க ௭௭௭ எதிர: ॥
«« The sages should be shown with a cluster of matted hair,
wearing the black antelope skin, weak-bodied but full of lustre.
The demigods Gandharvas should be portrayed with a crown
(எண) but without a mukuta ( aera faafaar: ). The Brahmanas
should wear white graments and bloom with lustre. The Daityas
and the Danavas should havea frowning look, round eyes and
horrid faces. Their dress should accordingly be uncouth. They,
should be shown in the measurement of ru(Bha?) dre as also the’
Vidyadharas who should be decorated with ‘garlands and orna-
ments, bear a sword in their hands, moving in the air or standing
onearth. The Kinnaras, Uragas (snakes) and the Rakshasas
should be depicted in the Mélavya measurement. The Yakshas
should be inthe Ruckaka measurement.......---+ The Pisachas
should be dwarf, and the pramathas hump-bodied'etc. ”’
 24
The specification of the measurements of the images of
different demi-gods and the delineation of their features are no
doubt confined in this work tothe domain of painting. Butas
far as the description of their forms is concerned, it will be the
same both in painting and sculpture. The Maisya purana
(chapter 259), while recommendin g the preparation of the
images of gods {for worship, in gold, silver, copper, ruby, stone,
wood, iron, lead, brass, bronze and ‘copper or auspicious wood,
lays down the size and attributes of the various deities. After
dealing with the figures of Vishnu, Brahma and Sankara, it is
stated that god Sankara should be carved with aretinue of the
chiefs of Gandharvas, Vidyadharas, Kinnaras, Apsaras and
Guhyakas together ‘with groups of Mahéndias, and the Sages
holding in their hands garlands of aksha-sutra beads and offering
Him in humility, presents of tender sprouts and flowers, and
singing His praise. The verse which gives the general attributes
common to all the demi-gods runs as follows :—,

ஏண்‌ இருளா கணை இக கவன |

ண்டி Waar Henga sal telg araqay u
qARIGA: TIT: TNS gotiggersd 88: |
எண்‌ எனின்‌ லியான்‌ சேர ॥
( Chapt. 259, V. 25-26.)

While describing the images of Vishnu and his. surrounding

deities, the same purdna@ enjoins that the déraga ( architrave)
should be carved with the figures of Vidyadharas at the top and
*the Gandharvas with their wives, playing upon the divine drum
( aq eehh \. Itis also recorded that the Gandharvas should be
shown as attendants on the gods Brahm4, Vishnu and Mahéévara
as well as Indra which isin conformity with their status in the
scheme of the gods, being much lower than that of Indra since
they are, as we have already seen, a band of musicians in In@ra’s
heaven, ,
 25

_ No clearer details are furnished about the physical forms of

the Gandharvasin literature. Their general characteristics are
music, singing and the offering of bunches of flowers as seen in
the extracts given above. The same features are attributed to
them in the Jaina pantheon. The Jindlafkara has the following
verse in Prakrit

ளா எச எகர ககன எணண a |

aae a எனம gent afer uo Ze.
‘* The gods inten thousands make merriment, dance, sing and
play on musicak instruments ” on which the J/indlankara-tika adds
the following gloss :— ்‌
ன்‌ கேன்‌ எடப்‌ ஜெ எரா ளவ
ag ௭௭௮8 8 GRA weged gear (என்‌ |
(Annual Report, Archeological Survey of India for 1930-34,
p-. 134), meaning that the Dévaputra Pafichagikha plays ona
bamboo flute and being surrounded by many Gandharvas and
gods, is found singing ( uFAsa ). Vhe Dreshashi:salakapurana of
Hémachandra also bears out this statement iu varse 489, des-
cribing the Gandharvas as ‘‘ expert in the use of the four kinds of
musical instruments always ready to perform music before you
(s.e., Tirthankara)”. The same idea is current among the Buddhists
also whose system of godhocd is considerably influenced by the
theology of the Hindus. This is borne out by the extant icons of
deities and paintings which will be studied in a chronological
order, in the next chapter.
References to Kinnaras and the female Kinnaris are not met
with in the Védic Literature. The classical and Pauranie litera-
ture as well as the workson Hindu iconography contain the
descriptions of the Kinnara figures which give a fairly good idea
of the physiological features of these deties Though the lexicons
equate Kinnara with Kimpurusha, the Vdchaspaiya draws a
distinclion between the two on’the basis of literary evidences.
 26

Ashas already been pointed out, the Kinnaras are mentioned

separately from the Kimpurasha in the Bhagavata, Bharata ete.,
the Vachaspalya adds :—
(கர: -— எ ௮ எள்ள: என: |
ளோ அளகை: எகா gh எக |
i.e. Kimpurusha has the hips of horse and the face of man, while
Kionara has the horse face and human body. While enumerating.
the characteristic marks and special attributes of the images of
the sun, planets and other gods in chapter 51, the Agnipurana
enjoins that the Kinnaras should be sculptured with Viga in their
hands ( alo gear: figgat: eq:1). The Manasdra, on the other
hand, gives in chapter 58 dealing with the attributes of Yaksha,
Vidyadhara etc., thafollowing descriptive verse of the Kinnara
images which materially differs from the one known from the
lexicons cited above.
seit og and வினிகர்‌ கு என்ற !
aaa எனளர்‌ எனக்‌ ௮ வதன்‌ ॥
age BHA STIS aq |
ஏச: களிர்‌ [கணண க ர ॥
“The legs should be like those of animals, the upper body like
that of man, ‘the face like that of the Garuda bird, the arms
furnished with wings, the crown deorated with a lotus, the com-
plexion like the shaded flower, and the sweet lutes should be kept
around them. Such are the, characteristic features of the
Kinnaras.” Their general features which share commonly with the
Yaksbas, Vidyadharas etc., are briefly tquched upon in the verse
farsi a Bast a ausagafaag |
aE TaMERaRad tl = ( bid. Vol. 2. )
t.e. They should have two arms and two eyes, and should be
furnished with the Karanda type of crown. Their legs should be
clad in clothes and they should resemble the shape of the demon.”
The height of the crown of the Kinnaras should be equal to their:
 27
face or one-and-one-half of it. In the South Indian Inscriptions
Volume II ( old series ), there is a reference to the setting up of a
group of copper images in the RajarajéSvara temple at Tanjore
which contained two Kinnaras and two Kinnaris. The Kinnaras
are stated to be solid, having twoarms {and méasuring ) four
Viral (fingers ) in height from the feet to the hair. The two
Kinnaris are similarly solid having two arms (and measuring)
three Viral and a half in height from the feet to the hair (5 1.7.
Vol. II, No. 50, vv. 5-6). The Vishnudhai méitarapurana devotes
afew chapters for the delineation of the forms of several deities
etc., in painting and records that the Kinnaras are of tuo kinds
wiz ,:(i) Those with human head and horse body and (ii)
Those with human body and horse head. This does not seem to
recognise a different type of the Kinnaras, caJled the Kimpurushas
since the features of the latter are attributed to a variety of the
formet. The work further states that the images with horse body
should be decorated with all kinds of ornaments, be full of lustre,
singing, and playing on musical instruments (chapter 42,
v.v. 13-15 ).

It may be noted that a similar description of the animal is

found in the Sanskrit work Ripavaliya (xzith century A D.), a
book of great authority for Singhalese painters. The Kinnara,
according to verse 146 of the work ‘‘ hath a tuft of hair on the
head, garland around the neck, a human body, and singeth
a
melodiously ; hath a human face and hands, but the nether part,
like that of a bird, with wings; a face fair and radiant, a neck
graceful as Brahm4’s ” (quoted from the Medi@val Singhalese Art
by A. K.Coomaraswamy, pp. 80 ff.), Verse 138 of the same
work gives the anatomical proportions of theanimalas: ‘ The
two eyes are five Kélaka the hair and the crowns of them are
twelve Kilaka, the neck, the chest, the navel, the private part, the
thigh, the knees, the calf of the leg, the feet these are three tala’’,

‘In the man-bird form, the Kinnaras are represented at Barhut

( 3rd century B,C.) and mentioned by Aclian ( and century A.D.)
 28

as follows ~~ ‘ They are matchless for the melodious notes of

their throat and tongue, so that they are sirens or nearly so, for
the mythical maidens so named are represented alike in the
song of the poet and the picture of the artist, as winged and
having the legs of brds’ (751d), Griinwedel reproduces a rather
graceful modern Siamese drawing of the bird-woman form
( Buddhist Art in India, English edition, 1901, p. 47).

Magha in his Sigupdalavadha canto IV on the other hand,

describes the amorous play of the Kinnaras in the Raivataka
mountain near Dvaraka in the following verse :—

faralg ag aga quracaaicard qafta feat flena: |

சர்‌ ஏவி ஸ்‌ எனி ணார னனு, ॥ 58 ॥
- which is explained by Mallinatha in his gloss a relevant extract
from which is given below :—

3 ஜி கன சூ எச என உறி அணி உ...

18: ஏன்‌ ஏரார்‌ 9௫ எனா ஒள்‌ கேலிப்‌ க ஐ. எனா GMT: Aaa
ஏன்‌ சசரனை ஏபணவ்ரரிக்‌ எனு ட வடக்‌... எனி எண்‌
85: ரினார்‌ எனக விக்ரம்‌ qusek எத எனா என aga aways: feaceat
earaurafefa |
This shows that Magha had adopted the form of the Kinnara
with a combination of horse and human features.

Thus, from the detailed examination of the literary evidences

starting from the Védic hymns to the late classical literature of
the 17th century A.D., we have found. a continuous flow of
identical traditions maintained by the poets and bards of the
different parts of India, Ceylon, Burma etc., in regard to the
conception of the physical Torms of the mythical beings, the
Gandharvas and Kinnaras. But a difference has been noted
above in the Manasdéra standard and that of the Vachaspatyg the -
former adopting the fusion of bird and human parts and the
latter showing the combination of human and horse parts. Thé
 29
Ripdveliya however shows quite a different representation of the
animal. These different canons: of image-making have been
adopted by the artists of India andthe Far-east, as can be seen
from the study of the typical sculptures and paintings of the
Jaina, Buddhist and Hindu counter-parts of these mythical
beings made in the next chapter.
 CHAPTER V
A STUDY OF TYPICAL GANDHARVA, AND KINNARA
SCULPTURES FOUND IN INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON

Before taking up the study of the Gandharva and Kinnara

images of different historical periods found in distant parts of |
India, Burma, and Ceylon it is incidental to draw attention to the
antiquity of the concep:ion of composite creatures represented on
stone or on seals of the pre-historic period. In his very exhaustive
and illuminating volumes on Mohenjo Daroand the Indus Valley
civilization, Sir John Marshall devotes a chapter on the religion of
the inhabitants of the Indus Valley, in which he refers ‘to the
worship of cult objects. He observes ‘‘ the evidence of Mohenjo
Daro for zoolatry is efar more abundant than for that of tree
worship...........-. closely akin to them, but of more complex form,
are the composite creatures—part ram or goat, part bull, and
part elephant—with human countenance figured on seals 378,
380 and 381, and apparently represented also in the stone images
in the round illustrated in pl.C, 7andg"’, Among the animals
- represented, those ofa definitely mythical character are com-
posite creatures of which one isa human-faced goat or ram or
possibly a more composite creature, part-goat or ram, part bull
and part man, This has been suggested to be ‘‘a tutelary deity
accompanying the votary into the presence of the Goddess .
( Vol I, p.66). This category of therianthropic deities includes
the semi-human and semi-bovine creature attacking a horned
tiger on seal No. 357, and a parallel to this may be foundin the
human-heaed lions of Mesopotamia ‘‘ which figure so prominently
in Assyrian art, and which have generally been interpreted as
genii,but which inone of the cuneiform inscriptions detailing
certain typesof deities are described as actual gods” ( ibid ).
The culture represented by the Indus finds is assigned by scholars
to the period 3250 BC. to 2750 B.C. or approximately 5000
years before the present age of scientific advancerrent. lt is
interesting to note from the evidences set forth from the Vedic
 3r

and the auxiliary sources, that the Gandharvas and Kinnaras

were similarly conceived to be composite creatures in pre-historic
India of the Védic period. Whether the Mohenjo Daro civilization
preceded or followed the Vcdic culture, it may be definitely
asserted that there is a long continuity of tradition regarding the
conception of certain gods bearing human and aninial parts of
body and that the Gandharvas, Kinnaras and other hybrid
creatures were counted among them as cult objects of worship.

In the historic period beginning with the Mauryan, nu-

merous specimens of these mythical beings are unearthed in
the North and South India and the study of a few typical
examples is made in this chapter noticingdn general the lines of
development of the sculptural or mural art and explaining in
brief the adherence of the artists and scwlptorsto the textual
canons embodied in the Sanskrit liturature on the subject,
(i) The Gandharva and Kinnara figures in Gandh4ra art,
The earliest sculptures of the Demigods—Gandharvas and
Kinnaras, hailfrom Mathura,in North ludia, the home of the ்‌
Jaina religion in the 4th century B.C. In one panel is represented
the worship of a st#pa by two supervas, half birds and half men
and five centaurs or Kinnaras (Ef Ind.Vol. II, p. 319 plate ITA).
One of the former offers a garland and the other as well as three
of.the centaurs, two on the right and one on the left, bring jars or
boxes filled with flower-bunches. The last two centaurs on the
left seem to carry brooms or fans made of branches. All these
five figures wear turbans, such asmany ofthe males of rank
represented on Buddhist sculptures wear. A fragmentary
sculpture in the Mathura Museum which is designed apparently
after the Gandhara sculptures of the same place shows some
divine or semi-divine beings in a worshipping attitude flying as
indicated by the position of their legs and carrying cabbage-like
bouquets from which they are showering flowers. They are
muscular and robust figures wearing garments below the naval
upto the anklet, the plait of the Dhoti flying in folds and the
 32

upper garment flying in the air over the shoulders with the swift
movement of their body through the sky. Their hair is tied in
knot into a tapering crown with braid on the edge and they
are decorated with a necklace (see plate LVI on p.159 of the
Annual Report, Archxological Survey of India, 1906-07). They
are evidently the Gandharvas heading towards the Buddha with
offerings of.flowers in their hands. In theTGrana architraves in the
Indragaila cave at Mathura is represented the episode of Sakra’s
visit to Buddha to whose proper right is standing the Gandharva
. Pafichagikha recognisable from his harp. Heis followed by six
female figures probably nymphs ( apsaras ) of Indra’s heaven of
whom the first seems to beat time, the second and forth have
their hands joinedin adoration and the remaining three carry
each a garland and a punch of flowers as offerings. On the other
side of the cave stands Indra himself (A.S.R. 1900-1௦),
p-74 pl. XXVILb). Here again, the functions and cognisances
of the Gandharvas and their wives the Apfsaras, are given
according to the Buddhist canons. Other representation of
Indra’s visit to the Buddha with the figure of the Gandharva
Pafichasika playing upon a harp are found on a fragmentary stone
excavated at Takht-i-Bahi by D.B.Spooner (A.S R., 1907-08
pp. 141-42, plate XLIV,b) and on the illustration given by
A. Foucher reproducinga sculpture from Loriyana Tangai pre-
served in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (thid p 142). Among
the subjects of Kushan sculptures, a common representation
is
_the visit of Indra to Buddha in the Indragaila cave. A partof
frieze on Térana beam at Mathura represents a three tiered
stipa with trees on either side of it and pairs of suparnas (harpies)
and Kinnaras (centaurs) bringing offerings and garlands. The
offering bearing scenes are very common; particularly short and
stout male figures groaning under the weight of big garlands are
abundantly in evidence in all early sculptures. The Suparyas
and Kinnaras mentioned above strictly contorm to their descrip-
tions given in a previous chapter. It may be noted that “the
Kinnara has the horse body and human bust carrying a basket of
 33

offerings in his hands (A History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon

by V. A. Smith: plate15,A). These garland-bearers (see, for
agraphic representation of the scene, the undulating roll motif
on coping of railat Amardvati, figured as pl. 23-B, ibid, facing
page 48) are apparently the Gandharvas whose special duty is
music, singing and offering of ‘flower-garlands to the deity
on which they attend. For the freshness, vigour and simplicity
of expression they are unparalleled and belong to the primitive
period of sculptural art in India. The Amardvati Stipa where the
sculptures of various designs and descriptions illustrating the
Buddhist Jataka scenes are recovered, belongs to about 200 B.C.
to which period the above-mentioned motif should naturally
belong. Similar garland bearing figures are found at Taxila where
three st#pas ranging in date from the Saka-Rahlava period to the
Ist century A.D. have been excavated (Excavation at Taxila,
AS.R., for 1915-16, p. §-6 and pl. V-J ). It is noteworthy that
the stalwart figures carrying over their shoulders thick garlands
are dressed in long shirts and that the alternate figures are
furnished with wings being probably the Suparnas as stated in a
previous case. Their characterstic music is also represented
in early Buddhist art of the znd Century B.C. to 4th century
A.D. as noticed in the suclpturesof Pafichagikha and his retinue
who acted as choristers to Buddha on the occasion of Indra’s
visit to him, . The Gandharvas in flight are also sculptured on the
stiipas of Amaravati and Nagarjunkonda, the latter belonging to
about the and century A.D.

(ii) The Gandharva and Kinnara figures in Gupta,

Chalukya and Pallava art.

In the Siva temple at Bhumara which is assigned to the

middle of the 5th century A.D. (Memotr No. 16 of the Archeologi-
cal Survey of India, p. 3), the doorway of the Garbhagyiha is
decorated with the figures of Ganga and Yamuna standing on
their respective vehicles viz, Makara and Kurma, and other stand-
ing figures on the door jamb, On the horizontal bar at the top
 34

are seen six flying figures—three on each side of the bust of Siva
in the centre, carrying in their left handsa tray full of flowers.
They wear a wig on their head and seem to have decorafed it with
garlands. They are equipped with waist-band and an under
garment below the navel which is seen flyingin the air. They are
sparsely dressed and scantily decorated which is a characteristic
of the sculptures of the early period. The art expresses itself in all
its vigour of child-hood and the sculptures found in the Buddhist
or Hindu environments are potent’ with the sentiments of the
scene depicted or the idea intended to be conveyed by the artist.

It should not, however, be presumed that the early sculptors

were not acquainted with the varieties of dress and ornaments to
be shown on the figures carved by them. Far from it. Incertain
cases where the occasion required the introduction of exuberance
of decorative art, every attention is paid to its delineation without
getting steriotyed or conventionalised. They bestowed primary
care to the expression in preference to decroation. This charac-
teristic continued to mark the sculptures during the whole of the
early period upto 8th century A.D. when conventionalism
began to appear inart. These remarks apply in full to the
figures and stone images of the Kadamba and Ch4lukya periods
in the Dekkan, of the Gupta period inthe north and of the
Pallava period upto, Rajasimha IIT in the south.
Of the early Chalukyan period, it is worthwhile noticing in
brief the two pairs of Gandharva figures kept on a raised
platform near the front gateway of the Durga temple at Athole.
They are boldly executed beautiful pairs flying through the~
clouds, as the position of their legs and body indicates.
They are dressed upto the knee and the male figure is
furnished with udarabandha while the katibandha is shown
for both male and female. In the case of one pair, the male who
is dressed in chagddi (short pant) tied by a lace (#ddz) wearg an
under-garment which drops loose in front but is tied at the back.
Thé female figure is evidently the apsaras the wife of the
 35
Gandharva. One Gandharva is holdinga bow! full of liquor in
his hand and appears,to cajol his consort to partake of it which
she is unwilling to do. Inthe second case, the male and female
arein agreement and conjointly flying in the air. Though the
figures are here decorated with ornaments more profusely than
the sculptures of the earlier periods noticed above, their variety
is limited to the demain of facts and the whole atmosphere
impresses one with the conditions of actual life (see plate).
That the Gandharvas are fond of drink is borne out in this sculp-
ture by the representation of a bowl in their hands. It may be
noted that the Gandharvas in both the cases wear long and
tapering Airitas studded with precious jewels. These pairs belong
to the 7th century A.D, é.e. to the early Chl&ukyan period.

“A considerable variety ia the delineatioa of the Gandharva

figures is found in the sculptures in the temples of Viruapaksha,
Mallikarjuna and Papandtha at Pattadakal which furnish the best
specimens of temple architecture of the early Chalukyan period.
The pillars in the central hall of the Mallikarjuna temple bear
beautiful icons of flying Gandharvas profusely decorated with
ornaments and holding musical instruments or weapons in their
hands. They are invariably foundin company with their con-
sorts, the Apsaras, and playing upon a stringed musical instru-
ment. Gandharva
The is adorned with a crown, wears an
ear—ornament, neck-lace set with precious stones, and arm-lets
and holds a tray full of fruitsin the right hand. He is also
furnished with udava-bandha (stomach belt) and Katibandha
( waist-belt ) and puts ona folded under-garment tied on either
side of the hips, with the skirts Jet loose in profusion. The Apsara
is similarly decorated, but she holds two lotuses with long stalk in
her two hands. In some cases, the Gandharva holds erect, asword
in one hand and a sbield in the other and is portrayed in a fighting
pose while flying. In the Nandimandapa in front of Virtipaksha
temple, he is seen, peculiarly enough, worshipping a miniature
shrine with god inside, represented in different styles of temple
 36

architecture. (cf. the Gandharvas and Kinnirs worshipping the

Buddhist stupa at Barahut, Sanchi etc.). The various types of
gopuras shown on these miniature shrines are interesting in so far
as they bear ample testimory to the adoption and assimilation
of the northern and southern standards of gdpuras’ by the
architects of Karnatak in the beginning of the €th century A.D.
It is worth noticing that in the midst of the worshipping
Gandharvas is figured a ten-headed Ravana inthe act of lifting
up a miniature shrine, evidently Kailasa of Iévara,

Thus, the study of the early Chalukyan sculptures at the

historic places of Badami, Pattadakal and Aihole lays bare the
following characteristic features of the Gandharvas. viz; (1)
Their flying pose in the region of the air, (2) being flanked or
accompanied by thé Apsaras, (3) holding intheir hands (a)
offerings of flowers and fruitsin trays, (4 ) a sword and shield
in a fighting attitude; They are (4) profusely decorated with
a crown set with pearls and precious stones and other ornaments
and (5) are dressed in chagd¢i and tong flowing under-garments.
In some cases, they are also found (6) in the act of playing
upon stringed musical instruments or (7) of worshipping a.
god in miniature shrines. Among these, their chief -distinctive
mark is their fiying pose in the act of offering flowers or fruits,
thus indicating their habitation to be the region of the sky as
determined from the literary texts quoted in a previous chapter.
This is depicted in all the subsequent representations of
the demi-gods, the exceptions being -found in a remarkable
measure in the plaques recovered at Paharpur noticed below.
A similar feature is observable in the sculptures of the East
coast also. A portion ofa frieze in the upper verandah of the
Rani Gumpha in the Hathi Gumpha caves in Orissa, shows a man
in a conventional running or dancing attitude dressedin a dhoti
and ascarf and holding in one hand a tray of garlands and
flowers and in the other, some lotus stalks bearing flower bud§ and
leaves. He had turban on his head and ornaments and flowers on
 37
the head, ears and neck, The offerings in his hands are apparently
intended for Buddha emblematically represented on the other side
of the arch by the elephants crouching in cave ( The Antiquities of
Orissa, vol. IT, by R. L. Mitra, plate VIA, and plate VII, A 2.)
The cave temples of Ellora ranging in date from the 8th to
the xoth century A.D. which are dedicated to the Buddhist,
Jaina and Brahmanical faiths, are replete with the representations
of these demi-gods depicted as flying with a tray of offerings in
their hands or playing upon cymbals, drums and other musical
instruments,
A study of the Gandharva figures inthe Uma-Mahéévara
temple at Gurgaj, a mound at Gurgi in the*Rewa plate and in the
palace of the Thakur of Sohagpur, exhibits that the Gandhasvas
wear a long cap-like Muguta fastened on tife forehead by strings
of flowers or pearls and their consorts have no Kiritfa but havea
close cap-like cover tied by a garland of flowezis. In one case,’
even the Gandharva wears a cap-like Kirita. They bear in their
Jeft hands a jug-like vessel full of offerings.and are seen fiying in
the air with a garland of flowers in one hand, The temple and the
sculptures are referable to the rrth or r2th century A.D. ( see
The Hathayas of Tripurd and Their Mounments by R.D, Banerji
Arch Survey Memoir No. 23). As noticed above, the Gandharva
should be, according to the Vishnudharmmottarapurana, depicted
without a crown but embellished with a braid of hair, The cap-
like cover forthe headis apparently the closely knit and neatly
arrauged hair whichis seen hanging Joose over the shoulders or
, brimming in curls below the ears as in the Aihole sculptures
described above. The various ornaments mentioned in the
Manasara. chapt, L, vv. 292-302 ) are discernible in the figures,
in part or in full.
In the Pallava art which is typically illustrated in the Maha-
balipuram sculptures of the 8th century A.D. a large aumber of
Gdndharvas in pairsare carved in the single sculptures at Papdava
Rathas, the Jalagayana temple, the Govardhana panel and lastly in
 38

the boulder depicting the penance of Bhagiratha for the descent

of the Ganges ( known erroneously as Arjuna’s penance), Here
they are shown with short crowns, flying in the air towards the
flow of the currents of the Ganges, with bunches of flowers in
their hands. But in these cases, the Gandharvas are not usually
depicted in their capacity as musicians at Indra’s court, Their
features are commonly described in their humanform without a
supernatural or fabulous air about them.
(iii) The Gandharva and Kinnara figures in mediaeval art.
The richest collection of the demi-gods comes from Paharpur
an ancient site in Bengal. The figures are terra cotta andare
delineated in numeroug plaques as flying either singly or with the
Vidyadharas or the Apsarasas their female counter-parts (see the
Arch. Survey Memoir. No, 55, Excavation at Paharapur-Bengal,
p. 62 ff.) Among the semi-divine and semi-human subjects
treated by the Paharpur artist, the Gandharvas, Kinnaras,
Vidyadharas, Kirtimukhas or lion faces and Nagas are note-
worthy, Tbe Gandharvas are depicted with their legs covered by
lotus-shaped boots, turned upwards in the act of flight, their
bodies floating in space, In some cases, they hold a sword anda
noose or a garland of flowers in their hands (see plate) In
one plaque the Gandharva is represented as letting loose a broken
necklace, the pearls dropping on the floor in a heap (see plate).
It is surprisingly interesting that the Gandharva is found in one
instance as riding on rhinoceros (see plate ) which feature is
rarely met with in other figuresofthe deity. The Kirtimukhas
whose origin may be traced to the fertile decorative genius of the
Indus valley artist whose productions in terra colta objects are
marvellouslty conventional and bybrid in character with various
kinds of human and animal combinations, are very common in
Indian architrave and their auspicious character is usually
indicated by the issue of strings of pearls or lotuses from their
mouths. They lend a supernatural air to the structures and the
impression receives further strength by the introduction, along-
 ஓ.

PLATE XI

Mahabalipuram, Chingleput District : Details —

from. Arjuna’s penance.—(. Page 38)
a-cotta
 39
side, of the Gandharva and other semi-divine figures on the walls
of the temple, Hindu, Buddhist or Jaina, or as attendants on the
central deity, Of, the different features ascribed to the Gandh-
atvas in the Paharpur collection, the wearing of lotus-covers or
boots, riding on a rhinoceros, carrying erect a sword are of
uncommon occurence, The lotus-covers tothe legs are, it may
be observed, usually shown in the figures of the sun-god and ‘his
attendants (cf. eg., the images of the sun near the Gokak falls and
at Elephanta). It has been noticed above that the Aihole and
Pattadkal sculptures of the 7th-8th century A.D. also represented
these semi-divine beings as flying with swords held erect in their
hands. This feature is likewise foundin thg earliest paintings of
the Dekkan. The fresco-paintings at Ajanta and Badami (cave
No, 3 -back of front Cave ) exhibit very beawtiful drawings of the
Gandharvas with graceful pose and refined expression, On plate
XXIV ofthe Ajanta paintings, part I, p, 29, on the left side of
the fresco at the top are noticed two flying figures ( gandharvas )
one male and the other female, The upper parts of their body
are missing ; but the lower ones’are in tact and show them floating
in the aic Themale Gandharva holdsin his righthand a ‘sword erect
while in theleft was perhaps a trumpet, but this is not clear now
The female figure has clasped the shoulder of her mate and
supported thereby, is drifting in the air. Again in the plate
XXKIII ந, in the upper part of the fresco, above the blocks of
conventional hills, a Gandharva and a pair of other celestial
beings may be seen flying in clouds. They are bringing flowers
on trays made of leaves for presentation to the Bodhisatva,
Thus, the characteristic marks of flight through the mid- -region
with trays of offerings or musical instruments in their hands to
do service to the deity on whom they attend are respected by the
ancient artists irrespective of the faith to which they may have
belonged,
. The same iconographical features of the demi-gods are
adopted i in the figures carved in the temples of the rath century
A.D, and onwards and specific examples may be quoted in large
 40
numbers from the south as wellas north India (see for example
the Kasi Visvesvara temple at Lakkundi, Doddabasappa temple
at Dambal and the temples in the ruingof Hampiand Vijaya-
nagara in the Bellary District of the Madras Presidency).
(iv) The Kinnara figures in the prehistoric and hist-.
oric periods. ்‌
Let us now turn to the examination of Kinnara and Kinnari
figures whose association with the Gandharvas in the divine
orchestra is well known. , It may be observed in conformity with
the literary evidences quoted already that the chief functions of
the Gandharvas consisted usually in serving the main deity by
their vocal songs and 6fferings of flowers and fruits while those of
the Kinnaras, were to please him by playing upon musical instru-
ments. A minute Study of the Kinnara figures in ancient
sculptures and paintings adds to our knowledge of their icono-
graphy by a few interesting details which are explained below.
The idea of a fabulous representation of composite creatures—
part ram or goat, part bull and part elephant—with human coun-
tenance is current in the art-productions of prehistoric India.
Stone images and terracotta sealings recovered from the pre-
historic sites of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa bearample testimony
to the prevalence of worship of cult gods in all common and
uncommon forms. A specific section of these hybrid figures with
a combination of human, horse or bird parts was known to the
ancients as Kinnaras whose iconographical features as gathered
from the technical literature on the subject have been studied in
detail in a previous chapter. In the historic period 7.e. from
the early Mauryan age onwards, theicons of the Kinnaras and
Kinnaris are found cut on the temple walls or separately as
attendants on the main deity whether of the Buddhist, Jaina’ or
Hindu faith and they exemplify different'iconographical standards
which the artists of the times adopted in their art productions.
In the Buddhist stupas at Sanchi, Barahut etc., of the 3rd
century B.C, the man-bird form of the Kinnaras is much in
 41
evidence on the railing pillars and stone beams. They are
equipped with wings and are likely to be confounded with the
Suparnas who are intimately associated with the Buddhist stupa.
But in many cases, they are represented with human busts and
bird legs only, carrying on their shoulders heavy long garlands of
flowers as an offering to the Buddha. The Mathura sculptures of
the same period and the Amaravati carvings and figures ranging
in date from the 2nd century B.C. to the znd century A. D.
exemplify the same characteristic mark of man-bird combination,
They show them hopping on their short birds’ legs, in the
act of adoring a stupa witha tray of offerings in hand. Among
the Bodh-Gaya sculptures occur varioug fantastical hybrid
creatures, winged lions and oxen, a centaur, a horse-headed
female or Kinnari (A History of Fine Art m India and Ceyion,
plate 9, fig. F.) The antiquites of the Nagarjunakonda stupas
belonging tothe 2nd~3rd centnry A.D. contain many tat-bellied,
human-bodied and bird-legged figures carrying a thick,garland
for the worship of the Buddha seated ina circular niche between
two such figures (plate). These and similar figures are
considered to represent the Kinnaras. In Java, Siam and
Ceylon, also the same features are observable in the Kinnara
figures. It may, however, be pointed ont that the horse-man com-
bination is likewise met with frequently in the Nagarjunikenda
sculptures. In the extreme left of the scene on plate XXXIII, a,b
is seen a couple of which the lady dressed to the thigh and stand-
ing by the side of her husband has ahorseface In a similar
manner, the horse-faced lady is.portrayed in a section (right ) of
another panel ( The Buddhist Antiquities of Nagarjunikonda, Arch.
Survey Memoir, No 54, plate XXXIII, a, 6). Both these figures
represent the Kinnaris and the lovers by their side are the
Kinnaras or human beings. A study of the paintings at Ajanta
on the other hand, reveals a different result. The Gandharvas,
and Kinnaras being closely connected with music and song, the
fresco of Bodhisatva Padmapani shows two Kinnaras on the left
side, right below the Gandharvas, who have human busts and
 42
bird’s legs and claws. The long dark lines of surma (eye-powder)
is very prominent in the corner of their eyes, One of them is
playing ona harp. (The Ajanta Paintings part I p. 29 and
Plate XXIV, edited by G.. Yazdani). In another scene, two
Kinnaras appear with the same iconographical features. They are
dwarfish in size and have the bust ofa human being and the
wings and tail of a bird. One of these is playing on a blue flute,
while the other is apparently beating time with cymbals. The
hair of the flute-player cut short on the fore-head is dressed in a
charming way with a matted effect. The wings of these quaint
creatures are shown by whitish dots, but the tails are realistic
and resemble those of the male birds of the domestic fowl. ( Jbid,
part IT, p. 3-5 ). Thus, we find that the Buddhist art of the
ancient period adopted both the standards which likewise appear
to have beenrespected by the artists of the later periods
irrespective of their religious faith. Vincent Smith seems to
make a distinction between the Kinnaras and the Kinnaris by
assigning horse features to thé former and bird combinations to the
latter (A History of Fine Art in Indta and Ceylon, by V.A, Smith-
p.33). This however, isnot founded on facts, For, even the
female Kinnaris are represented with horse marks, in conformity
with their description in literature (seee.g. the Sisupdlavadha
canto IV, vy. 32. quoted above). It may be borne in mind
that the Buddhist literature usually delineates the Kinnaris
with man-bird combinations and the wall paintings in the
Abeyadana temple at Pagan, 8urma, of the rrth century A.D>
illustrate this in the representation of the scenes from the Maha-
Ummagga Jatakas (No.546 of V. Fausboll’s vol VI, p, 422, see
also Cowell’s Translation of the Jatakas Vol. VI,p 217), accord-
ing to which a hermit saved the life of a young Kinnari by killing
a spider which was living on the blood of the Kinnaris, The
hermit is stated to have fallen in love with the Kinnart and
lived with her after killing the blood-suckling spider (Arch.
Survey Report for 1930-34, part one, p. 183 and part two
plate CII, d).
 43
The amorous nature of the Kinnaris (cf. Amara 1,11 }is
brought out prominently in the sculptures of Aihole belonging to
the 7th—8th century A.D, While describing the Raivataka
mountain, Magha has hinted in the verse quoted above that the
horse-faced Kinnaras were eager to’ embrace the Kinnaris of
human body but were disappointed in kissing them on account of
their queer shape, That they were noted for their loving and
passionate nature can be made out from the following sculptuses
found at Aihole.
_ The front mandapa of the Ladkhan temple at Aibole
belonging roughly to the middle of the 6th century A D. has on
one of the pillars a beautiful representajion of a Kinnari with
horse-face, She is standing by the side of a human figure under
the shelter of a plantain ‘tree. He is holding in his left raised
hand a bowl of liquor, while the Kinnari is dragging him to her
a
vside by the necklace worn by him, Here the Kinnari shows
mellow mane dropping from her neck and is graceful in
long
appearance and pose. Similarly in the Durga-temple (6th
size figures
century A.D, ) at the same place, are carvedtwo life
of which cne is a human faced male dressed in lamgott
on a pillar,
aloft, a
(square piece of cloth ) and holds in hisleft hand raised
of liquor, while the other a horse-faced Kinnari
bowl evidently
embrace. That
drags him by the necklace to her side fora clese
world who had taken to
the Kinnaris used to seduce men of this
from the sculptures at the
‘a life of penance is evidenced
matha at Aibhole. The horse-face d Kinnari
Huchchappayyana
neck is seen naked
showing her long soft mane dropping from her
the side of a human faced ascetic who
in an amorous pose by
like Bairags and holds a rosary in his hand:
wears only a langoti
foliage of a bower. A piller
Both the figures arestanding under the
yyanagud i in Survey No. 270
in the front porch of the Huchappa
river, bears the representa tion of a sage
‘on the Malaprabha
completely seduced by the Kinpari. Here also the horse-faced
a creeper in her hands putting her
Kinnari is standing nude with
shoulder of asage close by who in turn puts
right 1and over the
 44
hisleft hand behind her back so as to touch her private parts.
The sage hasalong beard and is dressed in dAdtt. Again,’ on
another pillar in the same porch, a Kinnari is figured nude
holding a bunch’of mango fruitsin her hand. The sage by her
side wears a long Vdsudéva type cap like Bairagis and has a long
beard. Heis dressed in a short chaddi. In all these figures, the
partner is a human being, a sage or an ascetic and the horse-faced
figure is no doubt a Kinnari who appears to take delight in the
seduction of sages and house holders. :
The man-bird form of the Kinnara and Kinnari was not
unknown to the Hindu artist. In the Kailasanathasvamin
temple at Conjeevergm is a sculpture of Siva with eight hands
dancing in a alita-tilaka pose and to his immediate left is Nandi
also dancing, but in the Jalita mode. Immediately to the right
is a Kinnara half-man and half-bird playing apparently ona
stringed instrument (The Elements of Hindu Iconography, by
T.G. Rao, p. 266 ). -
A sketch from Ramesvaram in the Cudappah District
illustrates a female Kinnari (plate). She has a human bust
with protruding breasts and has her hair arranged with a
dividing line on the forehead, dressed into a well-knit knot at
the back. She holdsastringed musical instrument across her
breast, with its broad base touching the lower part of her bird-
shaped form. The figure is embellished with short wings and
_legs of an eagle. ( The south Indian Gods and Goddesses, by
H. K. Sastri. fig.154), The figure, though not apparently an anci-
ent one represents the type of a female Kinnari according to the
canons of ancient works on inconography. The panel of a Kinnari
on a pillar of Kalyana-mandapam near the temple of Krishna
at Udayagiri Nellore District, shows a charming sculpture of
a Kinnara with the feathered wings of a bird and legs of an
eagle. The figure has a man’s bust, the head being decorated
with a kirita, It is a perfect piece of art of the mediaeval
period z.¢e. of the rth and zzth century A.D. and thus proves
that this type of the Kinnara figures was recognised by the
 45
Hindu artists in ancient times. Again, in the Kannada Research
Museur-Dharwar, there is a beautiful wooden image of a female
Kinnari with protruding breasts, embellished with gem-set ear-
ornaments, a series ofneck-lacesof pearls and precious stones and
witha fine makuja on the head, which is tied like a turban with
strings of pearls arranged in a charming fashion. The lower part
is that of an eagle with a short feathered foliage of wings. The
figure also wearsa long garland of flowers hanging upto the
ankle. She holdsa lotus budin her left hand, the right hand
being broken at the wrist. The specimen may be assigned to the
post Vijayanagara period or roughly to the 17th century A.D. The
type of Kinnara known to the Singhalese grtists was also of the
man-bird form. He is called Kindura or Kinduro by the Singhalese
aod Dr. A. K, Coomaraswamy reproduces im the figure of a male
Kindura, from the lid of Kandyan brass box in his possession,
who with his mateis dancing and playing, unconcious of danger
(the Medieval Singhalese Art, Chapter 1V, pp. 80ff, by A. K.
Coomaraswamy }). Besides this find, he refers to two other sorts
of Kindura recognished by Kandyan painters, namely sanda-
Kindara, altogether human in form with wings like an angel and
the jala-Kindura of which the former is rarely seen in Kandyan
work. Griinwedel reproduces a rather graceful modern Siamese
drawing of the bird-woman form of the Kinnara (The Buddhist Art
in India, English edition, 1go1, p. 47). Dr. Coomaraswamy
observes in his excellent note on the Kindurd {The Mediaeval
Singhalese Art p. 80 ) that the Kinduré of Singhalese painters, are
beings, human above and bird-like below ; like a siren or a harpy
but with human arms and shoulders, and the wings not large
enough for flight ( t¢d, fig. ro } 0.0... There has been some con-
fusion as to the meaning of the word Kindura. The meaning given
by Monier Williams ( Skt. Dict. ) is a being of the centaur type,
half horse, half man and he is presumably followed by Dawson
(Hindu Mythology p. 158) and Pincott {Prema sagara, 1897,
pp. 16, 232). Ido not know how the confusion arase,.,....
The type of Kindura known to Kandyan artists is, then, the true
 49
is sot a convincing argument. The Atharva Véda quoted above
clearly distinguishes the Gandharva as a separate class from the
Gardabha and A. V.12, 1,23 suggests the etymology of the
word from Gandha only, apparently onthe basis ef which the
Sabdakalpadruma explainsthe termag aeq eaita எள எனனம
கன்‌ என்ன்‌ வடம show the common stem in the two words by
splitting Gandharva into Gandhar + va and Gardhaba as Gardha+ba
and to think that Gandhar and Gardha are practically identical
can not commend themselves to jogical thinking. It needs no
refutation that the music of the Gandharvas stands no com-
parison with the braying of the asses. It may be remarked that
the Gandharvas as a class are not known to possess a horse-head
either from the literature or sculptures, though in lexicons, the
word conveys among several other meanings the sense of a horse.
Itis only the Kinnara that is definitely described with horse
features,
 CHAPTER VI

Iconometry of the Gandharva and Kinnara images.

The subject of the measurement of images and proportions
of the limbs of gods and demons is dealt with in general in the
following works :—
1, Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira, chapt. 58.
z. Vishnudharméttarapuranam, chapts. 35 & 42.
3. Sukraniti, Chapt. IV.
4. Matsyapuranam Chapt. 258.
5. Agnipuranam Chapt. 49 etc. Here mostly the
iconogrz phy of the deities is treated.
6. Pratimamanalakshanam.
7. Mayasastram,
8, Silparatnam,
g. Manasara, and
io, Ripdvalia (quoted by A. K. Coomaraswamy).
They start with fixing a unit of measurement as an angula
and give specific distances between the various parts of the body"
and the breadth and length of the limbs, in the case of male as
wellas female deities. The measurements of the images are
spoken of in terms ofada'a. A pratima, forinstance, may vary.
in height from three to ten falas. The Pratimimdnalakshana
lays down that a éala is twelve angulas ( gaaugieare a). The
VishnudharmGttara-puranam says the same thing in the verse
games feaneae geaftrfiaq (IIL, 35, 11). According to the
Brahmandapuranam a éZla implies the distance between the tips
of the fully stretched thumb and the middle finger ( அனு
ஸா ன ஈ்எ சோர்‌ | எல: என்‌ எனன எகரி எ எண Il
50
 51

According to the Manasara (chapt. LVIII, v. 6) the Yakshas,

the Vidya4dharas and such other beings should be measured in
the nine #@la system. The nine td@la‘system, it may be noted, is
adopted generally by all writers on siipa-Sastra, The Mayasdstram
says that it is the best standard of measurement (gta aaa@ g )
The Matsyapurdnam lays down that the images of gods,
demons and Kinnaras should be prepared in the WNava-tdla
standard ( aqqie salneg ரிக: ம chapt. 258, v. 16) and
that the face should measure twelve avgulas (i.e. one #ala ) and
its measurement should determine the proportions of other limbs
( ஊனி எரி ௭ வானக |
qaniaa eeu walang sega y tbid v. 19 )
While specifying the proportions of the body, the Vishyudharmo-
ttarapurdnam similarly starts with the stat€ment that the face
should measure twelve—avgulas ( giqnys என்ரான்‌ அள்‌ ).. The
Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira on the other hand states that
the twelve avigulas of one’s own hand, by breadth and fourteen
angulas by length should be the measurement of the face
( eateqe sentigiga இனிச்‌ அ ஏரு
னள ௫ எதனை Fetn alae afar un chapt. 58, v- 4)
country. Thus, accor-
and that this was adoptad in the Dravida
ding to the nava-idla system which is almost unanimously
the
accepted by the sculptors and artists of India, in preparing
Vidyadharas etc., the height of the
images of the Kinnaras,
figure would amount to a total of 108 argulas
An azguia is defined in the Matsyapurayam and Brihatsam-
hita in the following verses :—
aera என்‌ எண்‌ கண: சர!
ஏற: ௭ நனி என்‌ ரோன்‌: ப
ஷ்‌ இனா ௫ ஏன ள்ள |
கன்‌ ர்ககை ॥
Matsya: chapt. 258, vv. 17-18.
 52

னி எள்‌ சாணார்‌ விர்‌ tat arly |

வீணன்‌ எச்‌ of எனா ॥
Ray னி Tea Tseqe Aha.
asta eiaaegeas vafa dear
Brihatsamhita : chapt. 58. vv. 1-2,
This space of 108 angulas is divided into the several parts of the
body from foot to the top of the head and the measurements of
the various limbs are enumerated in almost all the works on the
subject, quoted above.
Instead of the Tala system, the Vishnudharméittarapurainam
gives a new terminology for the measurements of the body in
painting. It states that the Rishis, the Gandharvas, Daityas and
Danavas with their ministers etc., should be drawn according to
the measurement called Bhadra. The Kinnaras, Uragas and
Rakshasas should be in the Mdlavya measurement while the
Yakshas should be in the Ruchaka measurement. (III, chapt,
42, vv. 2-10). The same Puranam explains these terms in
chapt. 35 inthe verses ( 9-II ):—
Saas waa caaefss AAT
TAN ஏர னன எ ௫ ஜெ Ui
agharftrs 34 எனன என ஏர |
Ta FARE BNA WAST A
எண்னை னக ஊன்னிக?்‌ |
Thus, the Hamsa means 108, Bhadra 106, Mdlavya 104,
Ruchaka too and Sasaka go angulas. According to this work, the
Gandharvas should measure 106 angulas and the Kinnaras etc.,
104 angulas. It may be noted that the Silparainam (Trivandrum
Sanskrit series) part II vv. 43-49 lays down that the nava-tdla
has three varieties called the uttama, Madhyama and adhama
of which the Madhyama should be adopted in the preparation
of the images of the Yakshas and the asura-gana and the adhama, ல்‌
of the images of .Vidhyadhara etc., The Siddhas, Gandharvas,
Pitris and Asuras should be in the ashta-tdéla system, whereas
 53
the three ‘ala should be adopted for the figures of the race of the
Yakshas and Kinnaras. According to this work the height of the
Gandharvas would be 96 angulas and that of the Kinnaras would
be only 36. This difference in the height is perhaps due to. the
adoption of different standards by the artists in different locali-
ties or to the nature of the subject treated by them.
Lastly, [ may draw attention to the measurement of the
Kinnara figures given in the Ripfavaliya Verse 138; Dimensions
of Kinnara: ‘The eyes are five Kélaka, the hair and the crown
of them are twelve Kolaka, the neck, the chest, the navel, the
private part, the thigh, the knees, the calf of the leg, the feet,
these are three tala’ (quoted from the Mediaeval Simhalese Art,
by A. K, Coomaraswamy. Appendix to chapt. IV). Here the
Kélaka is evidently the Gdlaka of the Pratimamanalakshanam
‘ where the term is defined to be equal to two avigulas
(எண 4 fafeaqata a | faded Tacs Tes wer zu +).
Among the group of copper images set up in the temple of
RajarajéSvara at Tanjore, the Kinnara are said to measure four
viyal (fingers) i.e. 4 angulam from the feet to the hair and the
Kinnaris, three vival i.e. 3 angulas from the feet to the hair
(S.1I.1. vol. II, No. 50, vv. 6-6). This also shows that the
height of the images was subject to the needs of the occasion
but in all cases the best principle of the Maisyapuadnam that the
limbs should be made proportionate to the face (னள கனா
எ கள | } appears to have been adopted by all
artists and sculptors in their art productions.
 GENERAL INDEX

ENGLISH INDEX

Abeyadana 42 Doddabasappa 40
Aclian 27 Durga temple 34,43.

Aihole 34, 36, 37, 39. 43 - Elephanta 39

Ajanta 39, 43, 42 — ‘Foucher (A) 32
Amar§vati 41, 47 Gandhara 31
Arthuna 17 Gandharewa 48
‘Asia Minor 48 Genii 30
Badami 36, 39 - Gokak Falls 39
Barhut 27, 36, 40, 47 Gordias 48
Basavaraja 7 Gordianus Pius 48
Bhumara 33 Greece 48 ்‌
Bodha-Gaya 41 Grunwedel 28, 45
Buddha 1, 15, 19, 32, 33, 37, Gupta 33, 34
: 4
Gurgaj 37
Buddhist 12, 13, 14, 15, 19,
Hampi 40
21, 25, 28, 29,32, 33, 34. 35> Harappa I, 40
37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 47, 48 Hathi Gumpha 18, 36
Centaur 48 Hémachandra 25
Ceylon 28, 30, 41 Himalayas IT
Chalukya 33, 34, 35> 36
Hindu 28, 29, 34, 39. 40, 44,
Chamundaraya 17 45, 2, 21, 25
Cherub 48 Hindu pantheon 2, 16
Chiron 48 47
Indian Mythology
Conjeevaram 44 IndraSaila 32
Coomaraswamy (A.K.) 27, 45, Indus period 1
. 90, 53
Iranian 48
Daribal 40
Jagadékamalla 18
‘Dawson 45
54
 InpEx 55

Jaina 2,13, 74, 16, 18, 21, 29 Nalanda 47

37, 30, 40, 47, 48 Nedufijadaiyan ரச
Jain pantheon 13, 16, 18, 25 Niece 48 ்‌
Jala—kindura 45 Pagan 42
Jalagayana temple 37
Paharpur 36, 38, 39, 45, 47
Java 41 Pahlava 33 ‘
jJimiitavahana 20 Pattadakal 35, 36, 37
Kaildsanathasvamin temple44 Pauranic 3, 25
Kakusthavarman 16 Phrygia 48
Kandyan 45 Rajasimha III 34
Kannada Research Museum, RaméSvaram 44
Dharwar. 45 Rani Gumpha 36
Kasi Viévésvara 4o Rhinoceros 38
Kentauro 48 Saka 17, 33
Khiaravéla 18
Safichi 36, 40, 47
Kindura 45
Sanda-kindura 45
Kinduro 45
Siam 41
Kshirasvamin 20, 21
Kulliikabhatta 7 Siarhese drawing 28, 44
Sphinx 48
Kushaya sculptures 32
Ladkhan temple 43 Spooner (D.B.) 32
Tammusiddhi 17
Lahore Museum 16
Taxila 33
Lakkundi 40
Terra cotta 38, 40, 45, 46
" Loriyana tangai 32
Tirthankara 18, 25, 48
Mahabalipuram 37
Mallam 46 Udayagiri 44 ்‌
Marshall ( John ), Sir. 30 Vaidika Pantheon 3, 18
Mathura 31, 32, 41
Vedic Literature I, 3, 25
Vedic pantheon Io, 58
Mauryan 31, 40
Midas 48 Vedic period 31
Mohenjodaro rf, 30, 31, 40 Velvikudi 17
Mother Goddess 1 Vijayadhvaja 8
Nagargunakonda 33, 41, 47. Viragaiva 7
4 Yadupatya 8, rr, 16
 SANSKRIT INDEX

Abhiyégya 13 Dhritarashtra-~yaksha 15, 19

Abhraja-gana 7 Diti 9
Adinatha 48 Divya Gandharva I, 4,5, 6
Agama 21, 47 Dvipa-kumara 13
Agni Le Dik-kumara 13
Agnikumara 13 Etasa 3
Aksha-stitra 24 Gandhabba 15
Ananta Narayana 17 Gandharva 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7,8,
Apsara 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 22, 9,10, II, 12, 13,14, 15, 16,
17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,
24, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38
Anika 13 25, 28, 39, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35,
Aryaman 5 36, 37; 38, 39. 40, 41, 46, 46,

Asura 7, 8, 16, 17, 52 47, 48, 49, 59, 52, 53

Asurakumara 13 Gandhafvaloka g, Io
A&vin 5, 47 Gajanana 47
Atmaraksha 13 Ganga 33
. Bhagiratha 38 Gardabha 48, 49
Garuda 47
Bhavanavasi 13, 14
Giriéthiran 18
Bhummadéva 15
20 Giti Kinnaran 18
Bhita 7, 8,13,
Gétamiputa 16
Bhuvanaspati-stkta (5)
Badhisatva 15, 39 Gévardhana 37
Guhyaka 9, 20, 24
Bodhisatva Padmapani 41
Hahamriga 12
Brahm4 11, 14, 24, 27
Hayagriva 47
Brahmanaspati 5
Hanuman 47
Chanda 15
Hémakita If
Charana 7, 8, 10 9
Hiranya Kasyapa
Daitya 16, 22, 23, 52
Inda 15
Daksha-Prajapati 47 17, 21.
Indra 3,5, 6, 13, 15)
Danava 22, 23,52
24, 321 33: 38 ‘
Dapa 18
Devaputra Panchagikha 25 Tgana 14
Dhritarashtra | Itihasa 3

£6
 INDEX 57

Jambiidvipa 11 Maharaja'15
Jatadhara 7 Maharshi 7
jJataka 15, 33, 42 Maha-Ummagga 42
Jyétishka 13, 14 Mahéndra 24
Karanda 26 Mahéévara 24
Kasikhanda 9 Mahishasura 47
Katibandha 34, 35 Makara 33, 47
Kailasa 36 Makara torana 46
Kharabhaga 13, 14 Malavya 23, 52
Kilbishaka 13 Mallikarjuna 35
Kimpurusha 8,9, 11, 13, 21, Manitipaman 18°
25, 26, 27 : Manushya-Gandharva 5, 6, Io
Kinnara 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, IJ, 13, Marddita—viran 18
14, 16, 17, 18, 19, ®, 2%, 23, Maunéya 7
24, 25. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, Méru 11
32, 33, 36, 38, 40,41, 42, 43, Mukuta 23, 45
44,45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, Naga 7,15, 38, 47:
53 Nagini 47
Kinnari 18, 25. 27, 40, 41, 42, Nagakumara 13
43, 44, 45, 46, 53 Nandi 44, 47
Kirtimukha '38, 46 Narasiraha 8, 47
Kolaka 27, 53 Panchagikha-Gandharva 15,32,
Krishna 16, 44 Pandava-ratha 37
Kubéra s.a. 11, 17 Pankabhaga 13
Kfirma 33 Papamiochana siikta 5
Kuga 10 Papanatha 35
Kuvéra 17. Parishada 13:
Kutsa 3 Patanga 4
Lalita 44 Patafijali 47 .
Lalita-tilaka 44 Pigacha 7, 8, 13, 20, 2
Lava 10 . Pitris 5,7, 52
Linga 1 Prajapati 7, 14
Loékanatha 17 Prakirnaka 13
Loékapala 13 Pramatha 23
Magha 28, 43 - PranavéSvara 16 -
 INDEX 58

Praptya 7 Suparna~kumara 13
Préta 7,8 Suriya 15
Pulaha 11 Surma 42
Pulastya 11 Sirya 3
Purana 3, 9, 24, 47, 52 Térmaran 17
Pushpa-t6rana 47 Tirana 24, 32
Raivataka 28, 43 Trayastrimhga 13
Rakshasa 7, 8, 11,13, 16, 20, Trita 3
- 23, 26, 52 Tumburu 4rd, 20, 47
Ratnaprabha 13
Udadhi-kumara 13
Ratna-torana 47
Udara-bandha 34, 35
Ravana 36
Upanishad 5
Rik 3,4
Ruchaka 23, 52 Uraga 23, 52
Vaimanika 13,14
Rudra 23
Vanara 7, 11
Rudrapramana 23
Varaha 47
Sakra 32
Varuna 17
Sakyamuni 15
Vasudéva 44
Salabha ரர
Vatakumara 13
Samaja 18
Vayukééa 3, 5, 22
Samanika 13
Véda 3,6,9
Satikara 24 Vibudha 7,8
Sarpa 7 Vidyadhara 7, 8, 9, 16, 17, 20,
Satakarni 16 22, 23, 24, 26, 38, 47, 51, 52
Satakratu 3 Vidyutakumiara 13
Virtpaksha 35
Sayana 3, 4, 6, 7, 22 Vishnu 24, 47
Siddha 7, 8, 16, 20, 52 Vishti 9
Sikbara 23 Vigvavasn 4, 5, 14
Sirhha 11 Vivahasikta 5
Vyaghra 1
Sima 3, 4,5, 10 ்‌ 47
Vyaghrapada
5்கரம்$ வமர கரக 13 Vyantara 13.14, 18
Sthanaka 22 Yadupatyacharya 8
Yaksha 4, 7,8, 11,13, 16, 17,
Stipa 18, 3%, 32, 33, 35, 36. 20,22, 23, 26, 47, 51, 52. 53
4௦, 47, 48
31, 32, Yama 3
Suparna 7, 14, 15, 18,
Yamuna 33
33, 41, 48