BiomassEnergy

advantages of biomass energy are

The
main.

it is a renewable source,

( t h e energy storage i5 an in-built feature of it,

Hit is an indigenous source requiring little or no foreign exchange.

the forestry and agricuitural industries that supply feed stocks
Biomass Energy .hctantial economic development
the Dollutant emissions
from fossil fuels,
from
opportunities in rural areas,
combustion of biomass are
also provide

usually lower than those

commercial use of biomass may avoid or reduce the problems of waste disposal in
Snhoduclion other industries, particularly municipal solid waste in urban
centres,
vi) use of biogas plants, apart from supplying clean gas, also leads to
Biomass is a general term for Iving material-plants, animals. sanitation, better hygienic conditions in rural areas as the harmful decayingimproved
earth's biomass represents an enormous fung,
biomass
bacteria. Taken together, the e get stabilized,
of energy. It has been estimated that just one-eighth of the total hire
mass
vi) the nitrogen rich bio-digested slurry and sludge from a biogas plant serves as a very
produced annually would provide all of humanity's current demand for good soil conditioner and improves the fertility of the soil, and
energy. And since biomass can be regrown, it is a potentially renewable

resource.
(ix)varying capacity can be installed any capacity can be operated, even at lower ioads,
with no seasonality involved.
The energy obtained from biomass is known as biomass energy. Animals feed
Its main disadvantages are
on plants, and plants grow through the photosynthesis process using solar energy. Thus,the
photosynthesis process is primarily responsible for generation of biomass energy. A small ( it is a dispersed and land-intensive source,
portion of the solar radiation is captured and stored in plants during the photosynthesis
(i) it is often of low energy density,
process. Therefore, it is an indirect form of solar energy. The average efficiency of
photosynthetic conversion of solar energy into biomass energy is estimated to be 0.5-1.0%. (ii) it is also labour intensive and the cost of collecting large quantities for commercial
application is significant. Most current commercial applications of biomass energy,
To use biomass energy, the initial biomass
may be transformed by chemical or biological use material that has been collected for other reasons, such as timber and food
processes to produce more convenient intermediate bio-fuels such as methane, producer processing residues and urban waste,
gas, ethanol and charcoal. On combustion, it reacts with oxygen to release heat, but the (v) capacity is determined by availability of biomass and not suitable for varying loads,
elements ofthe mateial should be available for recycling in natural ecological or agricultural and
processes. Thus, the use of industrial bio-fuels, when linked carefully to the natural
ecoiogical cycle, may be non-polluting and sustainable. For biomass to be considered a ()notfeasible to set up at all locations.
renewable, growth must at least keep pace with its use. It is disastrous that forest
firewood consumption is of the
significantly outpacing their growth in ever-increasing
World. t is estimated that biomass, 90% of which comprises plant matter, isarea alent
equ ass of
PHOTOSYNTHESIS PROCESS
to the current proven extractable fossil-fuel reserves in the world. The
biological material cyciing in the biosphere is about dry-marte energy
rd 8.1 Solar radiation incident on green plants and other photosynthetic
bound in 250x 109 t/y. The assoia oTganisms performs two basic functions: () temperature conrrol tor chemical
photosynthesis is 2 10" Jly (o.7 10 W).
*
tundamental conversion
Although fossil fuels have their origin in ancient S to proceed, and (i) photosynthesis process. The ot
by the generally accepted definition biomass, they :
sidered biomass
out' ofthe S i n green plantsis photosyntbesis, which is the process combining CO, from
because they contain and carbohvdrates
carbon carbon that has pthere with plus light energy to produce oxygen
disturbs theDeendioide
cycie for
content in the
a
long time. Their combustion therefore
very S water
the ulümate source of
atmosphere. ca hmost Starches, celluloses and hemicelluloses). They are

Our toods and other necessities of daily lite such as clothes (in the form
Biomass, mainly in the form of O
wood, is Ofton), furniture (in the form of wood), etc
been used both in
domestic as well mankind's oldest form of energy.
aditionaly

As industrial
activities increased, the as industrial activities, basically Dy ra
reserves. The
of new, growing demand for energy
iamass natf * CO, +y H,O +light energr PhotosyntheS xO, +C. (H,0), (8.1)
energy has leddevelopment
to its replacement to amore
largeconcentrated deplereu
extent by other sources. Hov nient sources
and more
a
significant role in the supply of convEr
ever, it stll P
plays

The indicate the carbohydrates. The

biomass energy primary world. Thou
Prodieralized symbol C, (HO), is used to
share in primary energy energy in in energy than the
than 3, a number of supply for the countries
many or t r i e s is not
mol initi Ot this reaction about 5 e\ per C
are atom higher
form of
non-commercial developing countries still use a industrialisedcouit mostly
y i nt h e

dCTial. Photosynthesis is a complex process. It involves several

successive
energy. substantial amoun
 Biomass Energy
Non-conventional EnergyResources

form bhitt more often it is transtormed into modern energy forms such as
f hexose (glucos. riginal seous fuels, electricity, and processes heat to provide energy services
but the
overall
basic
reaction
is the
tormation

fructose, orngh
d and gaseous
rural
urban
and urbar populations and also by industry. Some of its forms
by
stages,
represented by needed users
are discussed
discusse below:
etc) as Photosynthesis 60, +CHO atailable
to

+ light energy 3.2

6CO, +6H,O starch,
celuloseetc.) are f
ormed by a ( Cel
Fuel Wood (Virgin Wood) Wood is the most obvious and oldest source
(sucrose, was the main source of
f this process is called ass energy. This energy used by mankind for
More complex
chain of
hydrocarbons

these simple
The
reverse

structures.

a r e produced
using carbohy.
of
respiration,
ohydrate and oxyge Direct
centuries. Direc
combustion is the simplest way to obtain heat energy. Its energy
and energy is used in several -20 M]/kg.
density is 16-20 It can also be converted to more useful forms such as
in which CO,, H,O in the plants by respration Ses
t s . In
The energy produced
moisture and
n u t r i e n t s through
its r o ots. green plants, both charcoal
or producer
gas.
draw and only respiration
such as to
photosynthesis
the day
and respiration occur during is a net overall gain of ene
in the
night. AAhout
half of the world fuel wood or other biomass
population depends on
8.1. There
shown in Fig. less as compared tos as cow dung, croP
residue, etc., for cooking and other domestic uses
This is symbolically 1s mucn use of fuel wood in conventional household stoves (chulha),
losS in resplrauon such
the rate of energy he process also results in Recause of inetficient utilized. The remainder is lost due to wind, incomplete
process, as process. I et
photosynthesis
rate of energy gain
during
carbon in the
torm of biomass. The net. el 5% of the heat is
and fixation of energy losses and other losses resulting from mismatch
of fire and
can be measured from combustion, radiation
gain of oxygen radiation during photosynthesis
m ts
from the uncovered
absorbed from solar Considerable energy 1S also wasted in evaporation
not size. and carbon,
ot wet fuel. Smoke, which is in fact
unburnt tar
combusion:
Dot and from the use which wood is burnt.
Photosynthesis There is little control over the rate at
xCO, +yH,O + AQ
Combustion
2x0, +C, (H,O), (8.3) is a health hazard.
household stoves and use of pressure
cooker is being encouraged for
of the combustion Improved
AQ is the enthalpy change better fuel util1zation.
to the energy absorbed from
process, equal colour.
clean (smokeless), dry, solid fuel, black in
Solar radiadon
radiation minus the energy of Charcoal Charcoal is a
CO photons of solar (i) of about 30 MJ/kg It is
The value of AQ is It has 75-80%% carbon content
and has energy density
respiration during growth. biomass to achieve higher energy
per mole of of woody
Leaf 4.8 eV per carbon atom, 470 k obtained by the carbonisation process
It can be used
carbon or 16 MJ/kg of dry carbohydrate it more economical to transport.
density per unit mass, thus making industrial sector
material. lt be noted that combustion
is to as uel in domestic environment as
it burns without smoke. In the
Chemical fuel characteristics are required,
exchange
requires the temperature of approximately It 15 used in applications where specific
specialised charcoal has many
at 20c content. Chemical grade
HO 400°C, whereas respiration occurs Such as high carbon and low sulphur used for making high-
CO2 chemical processes. It is also
enzyme reactions.
through catalytic uses in laboratory and industrial in countries such as Brazil.
Roots quauty' steel. It is in use
common many developing
functon
The intake of CO, by a plant leaf is residues such as straw, rice husk
and
of many factors, especially temperature, (m) Fuel Pellets and Briquettes Crop and used
wavelengu known as fuel pellets or briquettes
Nutrients HO concentration and the intensity and wood are pressed to form lumps,
w4ste reduce moisture content
and increase the energy
Fig.8.1 Photosynthesis and distribution of light. Solar radiation incident ou SOlid fuel. The purpose is to distance transportation.
a leaf is reflected, transmitted and absorbeu
respiration processes in a plant feasible for long
Csty of biomass making it more
Part of the absorbed radiation (< 5%) provd non-edible, can be used
the energy stored in the Bio-diesel Some vegetable oils, edible as well as

the remainder is absorbed

photosynthesis and produces oxygen
Ygen and carbohydrate
ana
a re. of form or blended
with petroleum diesel
in the atter chemical processing) in pure
plant as sensible heat Ising its temperatur
raisif i n the ne engine.
Bio-diesel is simple to use,
compression-ignition (diesel)
as latent heat tor water s fuel
evaporation. Absorption aromatics. In fact,
blue and red is usually most mars a free of sulphur and
regions. biodeg
gradable, non-toxic, and essentially
that could run on peanut
oil. He believed
Desel demonstrated an engine 10
USABLE FORMS OF th the real future of his engine. August
BIOMASS, THEIR COMPOSITIO h utilization of biomass fuel was
e
F U E L PROoPERTIES
D e e n declared as International Bio-diesel Day.
8.2 Biomass Biom is
organic material that reacts with OXygen n combusio

and natural metabolic

processes to release heat. oxygc
neat. Sometimes, it is used as Su
inits
Sometimes, it iS us
 Non-conventional Erergy Resources
Biomass Energy

as
bio-diesel through
a chemical ,
proc cal. heati ating andoperating small 1C
engines. It is unlikely to be used for mobile
is upgraded from the animal farSs led
lamps),

oil large scale because of low

Raw vegetable or vegetable and high inert fraction. Use ot
in rural China and pressure
is separated
idespread
vehicles

the glycerin
products-methyl r ethyl)
whereby (orc esters biogas is wide.
India. Two-third of China's
rans-esterfcation (the
oil. The process
leaves behind two
and glycerin (a valuable
byproduct usually used chemical
aps and use
biogas
as heir primary fuel. rural families
n a m e for
bio-diesel) from vegetable oils
be produced fats or
other products).
Bio-diesel can
) Producer Gas Woody matter such
crop residue, wood chips, bagasse
as
recycled restaurant greases. esidue of sugar cane after juice
extraction), rice husk and coconut shells,
strict industry specificatis. 1DT ansformed
can be transfo to
producer
gas (also
known as
bio-diesel must be produced
to
Such synthesis
gas, syn gas, wood
Fuel-grade pertormance. Bio-diesel 1at t gas, and
nd water gas or Diue gas) by a method known as gasification of solid fuel. The
order to insure proper meets
ASTM D6751) in gas produced depends upon the type of biomass and the design
as
and registered with the Enviro
legally
1s
the prescribed specificationsmotor fuel for sale and distribution. Raw eSifier. For wood chips as input, the typical gas composition is 19% CO,
Protection Agency is a legal vegetable oil 1R% H, 1% CH, 1170 CO, and the rest N,. It has a typical energy density of 4-8
bio-diesel fuel specifications,
since it is not registered
with the EPA
This can be used to fuel IC
reters to the pure fuel before bia dual fuel-mode(diesel,
c a n n o t meet

and it is not a legal

motor fuel.
Bio-diesel
MJ (5-10 MJ/kg).
irrigation
engines
pumps, motor vehicles, and small-scale power generation
fuel. Bio-diesel blends are denoted as, 'BXX with XX renre engines) for
with diesel process heat.
contained in the blend (1.e., B20 is 20% bio-diese l and or to produce
the percentage of bio-diesel
80% petroleum diesel, B100 is pure biodiese). The commercial diesel engine has to be modified to a dual-fuel mode engine.
bio-diesel
resources. ome The air intake manifold is modified to a suck (air + producer gas) mixture. Limited
Jatropha Karanj are the most promising
and to initiate the ignition. The engine is started with
latex, which can be processed to obtain quantity of diesel is required
plants, e.g, Eupborbia latlyris, produce diesel fuel only and subsequently the quantity of diesel is reduced as producer gas
molecular weights very close to petroleum. It also
hydrocarbons, which have 85-87% diesel replacement can be obtained.
the technology is at the research stage is mixed with air. About
produces sugar as a byproduct. However,
and its economic viability has not been assessed yet. BIOMASS RESOURCES

Bio-ethanol Ethanol (C,HOH) is a colourless liquid biofuel. Its boiling

(v) 8.3 of materials
resources for energy production encompass a
Biomass
ranging from silviculrure (forest), agriculture
wide
(field),
point 78°C and energy density is 26.9 MJ/kg. It can be derived from wet biomass
is spectrum
activities that produce
containing sugars (eg, sugarcane, sugarbeet, sweet sorghum), starches (grains
and aquaculture (fresh and sea water) and industrial and social When
tubers such as potato, cassava) or cellulose (woody matter). The main constituents organic waste residues (food processing, urban refuse etc). plants are

cultivated especially for the purpose of energy, it is known as energy jarming

of woody matter are legnin (fibrous part) and cellulose (juicy part). Ethanol is
largely produced from sugar cane (maize in the USA due to surplus production
source of fuel wood,
) Forests Forests, natural as well as cultivated,
serve as a
Commercial ethanol is used in specially designed IC engines with 25%% mileage
and residues from forest-processing
penalty compared to conventional vehicles. Blend of up to 22% anhydrous ethano charcoal and producer gas. Forest waste is consumed, not just
with gasoline, requires no industries can be utilized the mill itself. Forest resource
engine modification and incurs no mileage penaty and other industrial purposes.
is being used by a
large number of automobiles in the world. Brazil, the bigg Or tirewood but also for sawn timber, papermaking eucabpius, poplar, pine
are specially
trees such as
producer ot sugar cane, presently produces around 24.4 billion litres/year
e Tast-growing energy intensive
of ethanol
representing
18% of the automotive fuel. Major bio-cuta cultivated for the purpose of energy
country's This
programmes are also being developed in USA, Zimbabwe and Malaw. oil on pressing.
oOme plants produce seeds (or nuts) to yield vegetable of oil-producing
categories
biofuel (bio-diesel). There
are two
(Vi) Biogas Organic wastes from plants, animals and humans Serv as a
liquid and karanj (a tree
energy to contrbute contain c plants, e.g, jojoba (a
shrub, producing nuts)
significantly to
energy supply many areas, Pau in ticularly ES: (a) wild
small seeds) that
take care of
seen on roadsides in India, produces
rural regions of
is produced in a
developing countries. Aquatic biomass can also
be us
gas
ie ady Jatropha c u r a s (Ratanyot)
which require
is also
biogas fermentor or digester. ogen-rich sludge (fert
nus. If
themselves,and (b) agricultural crops, eg,
are more
than 300 ditterent species of

produced as a
raw material is cow
byproduct
with improved
sanitation as an added
There
n o n agricultural techniques. wild and do not require much c a r e and
effort.

manure, the output biogas will O%CH

ntain about 50-60 Thee 8 trees; most
of them are
little water, can
resist s e v e r e drought
and
30-40% CO,, 5-10%
H, N, 0.5-0.7% with trace amour of O, and HS. Is unts
P a n t s are quite hardy, require
climates and can grow on
most soil types. In
energy density is about 23 mante

s u r v i v e in hot and cold

M]/m. It is used for cooking, lighüng (u*
 Biomass Energy
Non-conventional EnergyResources

Grains, such euch as maize, barley, rice and wheat

oil-bearing tree, ka karanj (Pongamia pinnata has converted t o ethanol.
provide starch, which can be
wild,
experience
with a
illion hectares woul
plantation
on 30 million
India, the is thatits
estimated
the curren
It replace Oil-producing Plants
been encouraging. could completely
enough
biofuel that tossil
produce
hort-term diesel engine test, over 40 different plant-derived oils have
fuels in the country. such as straw, rice hust
k,
In .

Residues Crop
residues
cocor been evaluated
including sunfiower, rapeseed, palm oil, castor oil, soybean, groundnut
gasitied to obtain been ed The benefits
(it) Agricultural bagasse cane
are to be derived from
plant-oil fuel industry are the
a
shell, sugar pellets or briquettes and used as
shell,groundnut
these are
converted to
fuel
following
Alternatively,
solid fuel. Most of these plants are very adaptable and hardy.
material for bine.
raw
Certain culuvated plants produce the relatively simple technology involved in oil extraction and
Because of tho
(ii) Energy Crops o c c u r s in tropical countries, een

The greatest potential

for energy tarming
conditions.
Gltering, oil can be produced right on the farm.
the

those with adequate

rainfall and soil . The leftover biomass after the extraction of oil, known as cake, can be used
to produce biogas in a biogas plant and the sludge produced thereof can be
Sugar Plants used as a quality fertilizer.
for bi0-ethanol. Various The by-products trom the oil press can often be used as a high-protein
is major raw material source
ducts .
Sugar cane a
Alcohol represents only 30% of the total animal feed.
from sugar cane are shown in Fig 8.2. Most of these plants require low cost and low input.
About 35% is available in bagasse and another in leavee 35 %
Plant oils are safe to handle and store.
sugar cane energy.
and tops of the sugar-cane plant.
.Marginal lands and wasteland can be used for cultivation, and boost the
also supplies raw material for ethanol production, especiall I t will increase the employment opportunities in rural areas

SweetSorghum
the sugar mills.
during off-season supply for economy

faster than land-based plants and

SugarBeet supplies raw material
for ethanol production. (iv) Aquatic Plants Some water plants grow ethanol. These are water hyacinth,
provide raw materials for producing biogas
or

Sugar-cane
- Fibre products kelp, seaweed and algae.
fam
Electicity Solid Waste
Transport Urban Waste Urban waste is of two types: (a) Municipal
(v) from MSW can be
(MSW or garbage), and (b) sewage (liquid waste). Energy
Fuel
Crushingagasse_Prne Boiler Process heat be
obtained from direct combustion (incineration)
or as a landfill gas. Sewage can
Sugar Refined sugar used to produce biogas after some processing
Processing
Other products
BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES
Juice Sugar Molasses Alcoholic Ethanol
production fementation Cattle feed
extracting energy from
biomass.
- Other products 8.4 There are

technologies
many
different ways of
grouped into four
may be
basic types:

Fig. 8.2 Sugar-cane industry products CSe energy-conversionincineration (i) thermochemical

(direct combustion), these technologies
physical method, (i) outines of
Starch Plants biochemical method. The general
Cthod, and (iv)
are briefly described here.
Jerusalem Artichoke provides raw material for bio-cthanol.
and can be
It is a tubular pie
grown on marginal lands and
adverse conditions such relatively poor soil. It is able to witna 8.4.1 Physical Method
as cold and draught conditions. of biomass is through compression
Cassava is also a tubular he
simplest form of physical conversion volume by
plant. It is seen as complementary to as it reducing the
can be cultivated in
areas with acidic suga
garcane

Combustible material. Its density is increased by pelletization.

and
amenable soil. It also infertile soils, whereas cane requ Comp called briquetting
provides raw material (starch) for bio-ethanol. es and PCSSion through the processes
sweet potatoes also fall in the same Fou
category.
 C N o n - c o n v e n t i o n a l Energy Resources
Biomass Energy

plant products by
expelling them
(iv) Fue
Extraction Occasionally,
.ol
1aterial is called exudates andmilky
trom
Also, light latex is obtained from
Fuel oils can be extracted
from c e r t a i n plants
in the same war
as production plants. T h e n is obtained freshly cut
hydrocarbons may be
obtained
of living plants (a technique similar to thatbyusedcutting (tapping) the stems
or tru in rubber
of rubber. are not amenable to
S o m ep l a nrs
ts are
tapping and in such
cases, the
production).
whole plant (usually
shrub) is rushed
which waste wood ic to obtain the
in
product. For
,

Pelletization is
.

process
extractederized,
a

hed to extract hydrocarbons of less example, Euphorbia lathyris plant

Pelletizaton the
(i)
pressure through dia and 12 mm
The
an extrusion device. The
a
is crushed

molecular weight than rubber, which

dried and forced under
(rod; 5 to 10
is in the form of pellets
mm long), facilitatiing itsmass be used as a petroleum substin
Pelletization reduces e use may
and gasifiCation system.
in steam power plants
cent and i n c r e a s e s the
heat value of the biomace oisture 8.4.2 Incineration
to about 7 to
10 per
from woody nma Tncineration means direct combustion of biomass for immediate useful heat.
briquettes are made
Biomass ter eg,
(i) Briquettng are a replacement for fossil ffuels such as oil eat and/or steam produced are either used to generate electricity provide
waste and saw dust),
or
or
agricultural coal industrial
heat for process, space
boilers in manufacturing plants. Burning a wood heating, cooking or district heating.
and can be used to heat
tirewood. I he moisture content of a bria
briquette
is far more efficient than burning Eurnaces and boilers have been developed for large-scale burning of various
can be as low as 4%,
whereas tor green firewood, it may be as high as 650 ete
eS of biomass such as wood, waste wood, black liquid from pulp industry,
industry waste, and The moisture content in the biomass and wide
Briquetting is brought about by compression and squeezing out moisture and food MSW.
breaking down the elasticity of the wood and bark. If elasticity is not suffcioienty range of composition tends to decrease the efficiency of conversion. However,
removed, the compressed wood will regain its pre-compression volume the economic advantage of cogeneration makes it attractive for adoption.
Densification is carried out by compression under a die at high temperature and
8.4-3 Thermochemical
pressure. It is a process similar to forming a wood pellet but on a larger scale
There are no binders involved in this process. The natural lignin in the wood The basic thermochemical process to convert biomass into amorevaluable and/
binds the particles of wood together to form a solid piece. Biomass is heated absence of
or convenient product is known as pyrohsis.
Oxygen or by partial combustion of some of the biomass in restricted air or oxygen
eitherin
Sawdust briquettes have developed over time with two distinct types: those
with through the centre, and those which are solid. A solid supply. Pyrolysis can process all forms of organic materials including rubber and
holes is briquette plastics, which cannot be handled by other methods. The products are three types
manufactured a
using piston press which simply sandwiches
together, and ones which have a hole are produced using a screw press. The hole
layers of sawdust of fuels-usually, a gas mixture (H,, CO, cO,, CHrand N.), an oil-like liquid (a
water-soluble phase including acetic acid, acetone, methanol and a non-aqueous
is simply a by-product of the screw thread
passing through the centre. The screw oil and tar) and nearly pure carbon char. The distribution
of
press briquettes are more homogeneous, have better crushing strength and better phase including a
these products depends upon the type of feedstock, the temperature and pressure
storage properties with extraordinary combustion
area unit
properties due to large surrace during the process and its duration and the heat1ng rate.
per weight.
maximizes the gaseous product.
(tii) Expelling Agro Products Concentrated High temperature pyrolysis (~1000°C)
vegetable oils may be obtained ne process is known as gasification. Low temperature pyrolysis (up to 600 C)
from certain agro products and may be used as fuel in diesel engines. Howev been used for centuries for production
difticulties arise with direct use of
plant oil due to high viscosity and on maximizes the char output. The process has
combus A product is obtained
deposits. Therefore, these oils are
upgraded by a chemical method known a Charcoal. The process is known as carbonization.is a liquid
eSterticaton to overconme theses difficulties. rough catalytic liquefaction process. Liquefaction relatively low temperature
examples are as follows: Categories of certain materias w thermochemical conversion of wet biomass,
4U450C), high-pressure (270 atm) and also a catalyst to enhance the rate
Seeds ualy with high hydrogen partial pressure of the
Nut Oil
Sunflower, rapeseed, soya beans Teaction and/or to improve the selectivity process.
palm, coconut copra, jojoba nuts
.Fruits Oive 8.4.4 Biochemical
Leaves Eucalyptus microbial organisms on
n e process makes of metabolic action pf
use are
biochemical processes
bio fuel. Two major
ev to produce liquid and gaseous
explained below:
 Resources

Non-conventional
Energy
C Biomass Energy C
fermentation is the dere
Ethanol
Fermentation
Alcohoic

(sugars containing six mposition

the
(a)
absence of air
of simple
in
hexose

aqueous
sugars
solution by the action of O n ato 8.5 URBAN WASTE TO
ENERGY CONVERSION
per
molecule, i.e., CH,,0)
in acidic
conditions alue of 4 to 5). me (a
(p value of 8.5.1 MSW Incineration Plant
natural catalyst) presentin
yeast,
Thus,
S'C2CH,OH +2CO, solid waste
Municipal solid is the solid
waste
generated by households, commercial
CHO Fermentation

dioxide.
and institutional
operations and some
industries. Disposal of MSW is
The products
are ethanol and carbon blem in big citieswhere major
large quantities of waste is to be disposed of,
a

pro m the city centres. 'The far

Fermentation (Anaerobic Digestion) This proces
away trom
emerging solution is to use this waste biomass
(b) Anaerobic wastes into biogas through the decompo
biomass and animal
position converts ov resource in a
waste-to-energy conversion plant near the city centre.
decaying wet anaerobic bacteria (bacteria that live and grow
he energy thus generated is used within the city itself and only relatively
process by
the action of in absence used biomass (ash, etc.) is
Of
a

be ultimately vided between fully smallresidue

disposed away in landfills.
eration gasitication, electrical energy may be generated along withThrough
in biomass may
of oxvgen). Carbon present or
reduced CH,. Thus, thermal
Oxidized CO, and fully aerov for process heat. Alternatively, anaerobic digestion may be used to
enet
20-55 C
Decaying wet biomassAnaerobic Fernmentation Biogas (largely CH, and CO) produce methane.

of
The biomass material in the form of water slurry 1s digested by the bacteria The composition waste urban on the
depends
style and standard of living
of the people. A general national profile of waste in USA is given in Table 8.2.
anaerobically for several days in an airtight container. The reactions are slightl
The energy content of domestic refuse differs significantly from area to area.
exothermic and a small amount of heat (equivalent to 1.5 MJ per kg dry digestible
Generally, it lies in the range 4.2 to 14 MJ/kg
material) is also generated that helps in maintaining a tavourable temperaure,
The process may be expedited at somewhat higher temperature. The most useful Table 8.2 General composition of urban waste in USA
biomass materials appear to be animal manure, algae, kelp, hyacinth, plant residues
and other organic waste materials with high moisture content. The energy available SN Waste material
from various biomass resources is listed in Table 8.1.
Percentage
1. Paper and paper board 39.2
Food and yard waste 21
Table 8.1 Energy available from various biomass resources 2.
3. Glass 6.2

SN Biomass source Biofuel Conversion technology Available energy (MJ/kg)

4. Metals 7.6
produeed 5. Plastics, rubber 9.1
Wood chips, saw mill
(Directheat)| Incineration 16-20 6. Wood 7.1
dust, forest residues
Others (including hazardous wastes e-g chemicals, 9.8
Wood chips, saw mill Gas 40 (Nitrogen removed lead, insecticides, house hold cleaning chemicalsetc)
il
dust, forest residues Pyrolysis 40
the sequence
DIOck diagram of MSW-to-energy incineration plant showing
Char
20
3. Gran crops of varlous is shredded to pieces of
biomass
Straw Incineration -16 steps is shown in Fig, 8.3. The dry
4.
Sugar-cane residue the refuse-derived fuel (RDF),
5.
Bagasse Incineraion 5-8 (fresh cane) t 2 cm diameter. An air stream segregates These are reclaimed and
Urban refuse
Direct hecat)| Incineration 5-16 (dry input)
1 S ighter from heavier metal and glass pieces. The RDF thus obtained
,
Sugar-cane juice Ethanol cled. About 30% of the US waste stream is recycled.
. Fermentation 3-6 (fresh cane) n a furnace at about 1000°C to produce steam
in the boiler. Combustion
Animal waste
Biogas Anaerobic digestion
he of auxiliary fuel when RDF does
Municipal sewage 4-8 (dry input)
R ay be assisted by required amount a
is used
Biogas steam obtained from boiler
Anaerobic digestion 2-4 (dry inpur) in properly by itself. The superheated electrical output in the
alternator to produce
turbine coupled with an
am discharged to the
Same
atm
AS in a conventional thermal plant. The flue gases
are

such particulate matter,

mosphthrough
SO
stack after removal of pollutants
a
extracts
as

maximum possible heat

steam generator
NO. A heat-recove
 Biomass Energy
Non-conventional Energy Resources

many incineration plants are

rOcess steam and electricity andbreaking even with the income
Financially
and
I h e ash 1S removed from
to form
thermal output.
posed of the sale o f
tipping at the on facility each truck.
from flue gases
to EnerEy Conversion
to landfills.
HRSG: (Heat recovery
8.5.2 Sewage
Stack steam generator)
produced by human settlements also has some energy potential as
Sew
ewage

Table 8.1. It can also be anaerobically digested (after some

Removal of
indic e methane in the same way as with animal processinge
manure. The gas
Dry duly treated pollutants to produce

produced
biomass Themal output Te used to heat the aigester and/or to generate electricity for street lighting.
Can
HRSG

Superheated ST Electrical BIOMASS GASIFICATION

Shredder Preheated Boiler output
feed water

Refuse
steam Gen
8.6 The word gasification (or thermal gasification) implies converting
lid fuel into a gaseous fuel by thermochemical method without leaving any
derived fuel solio
Air Condenser carbonaceous residue. Gasification is an established technology, the first
classifier
Fumace solid
-Preheated air
ommercial application of which dates back to 1830. During Wodd War II,
Auxfuel
Cooling
Metal Glass
Boiler
tower Liamass gasification systems appeared all over the world to power vehicles to
Gasifier is the equipment that converts
Recycled
Ash to
feed water keep the basic transport systems running
landfill I he most common raw materials used are wood chips
biomass into producer gas.
MSW to energy incineration plant and other wastes trom wood industry, coconut shells and straw. Biomass that has
Fig. 8.3
such as rice husk also be handled with some difficulty.
exist about the pollutants emitted during combustion
high ash content can

Strong concerns

Because of various materials contained in the waste stream, pollutants in the

Gasification involves partial combustion (oxidation in restricted quantity of air/
flue gases include derivatives of sulphur, chlorine, fHuorine, nitrogen, chlorinated and reduction operations of biomass. In a typical combustion process,
and heavy metals. One particular important group of pollutants, Oxidant)
hydrocarbons generallythe oxygen is surplus, while in a gasification process, the fuel is surplus.
polychlorinated dibenzo-p dioxins (PCDD) and the dibenzofurans (PCDF) are The combustion products, mainly carbon dioxide, water vapour, nitrogen,
carbon
possibly among the most acutely carcinogenic compounds known so far. It has monoxide and hydrogen pass through the glowing layer of charcoal for the
been proven to cause cancer in animals and is linked with a variety of other health dioxide and water
reduction process to occur. During this stage, both carbon
problems, including genetic defects. PCDD/PCDF are formed either in the are the typical
vapour, oxidize the char to form CO, H, and CH. The following
combustion chamber or after combustion when the gases cool in the exhaust stac.
reactions, which occur during gasification:
Disagreement continues over establishing safe levels of dioxins emission from any
incinerator. It has been discovered at various levels at
every incinerator tested so (Combustion, 240 kJ/mole) (8.1)
tar. The residual ash, which has high metal concentration, is also of concern. 1he
C+0, »
CO,
ash is usualy disposed of in landfils; the leachate (garbage juice; liquid that resulis h e moisture availablein the biomass is converted to
steam and generally no

when extra moisture is required. Thus the product of

combustion of pyrolysis gases
water percolates through the landfill) must be well contained to
prevent with char:
steam), which further
groundwater contamination. The typical metal concentrations found in fiy a> react
results in and
cO, H,O
and bottom ash of an incinerator are
listed in Table 8.3. (Boudouard reaction,-164.9 kJ/mole) (8.2)
Table 8.3 Typical metal concentrations in fly ash and bottom ash C+CO 2CO
of an incinerato -122.6 kJ/mole) (8.3)
C+ H,O CO + H, (Water gas reaction,
SN Elements Fy ash (mg/ kg or 40.2 kJ/mole) (8.4)
1.Calcium
ppm) Bottom ash (mg/ kg orppm)
O+
H,O CO, + H, (Water shift reaction,
54,500 50,500
2. Cadmium reaction, 83.3 kJ/mole) (8.5)
3. Lead
470 100 C+2H CH, (Methane
of cquilibrium
5200 on the degree
4. Aluminum 900
Composition of the gas
produced depends
70,000
5. Iron 33,000 4tained among various reactions.
17,000 132,000
 Non-conventional EnerEy Resources

Biomass Energy

) gasifier and Ga
mproving the thermal efficiency of the
Auidized-be
fxed-bed
classified into ()
broadly
are
ied
classified: as (a) downdraft,
c h i p si n s i

Gasifiers
are further s zone. The inner wall system in addition to
gasifier. Thefixed-bed
gasifiers the direction of air flow
depending upon
. updraft, t h ew o o d

rs of operation. Thi temperature reaches more than 350°Cdrying

his aspect enables after
cross-draft types,
a f e wh o u r
the use of wood
and (c)
content
as high 25%.
as%. The chips with moisture
regenerative heating due to the transfer of heat from
8.6.1 Downdraft 1ype to mass
the biom moving downwards also increases
hotgas its residence time in the
of biomass. Its desion ne. This leads to better tar
variety cracking
high-temperature.

best suited for a

The downdraft type is zone so that most of
o c e s the
high-temperature
raw products to pass through
(especially tars)
a
into
gaseous hydrocart
can be crackedi
unburnt
ebons,
oroducer gas thus obtained can be used as such for thermal
for use in IC engines, further processing is applications.
pyrolysis products develope open-top downdra thus gasinto an engine results in loss of power and hencerequired.
the gas Admission
of hot
However

a relatively
clean gas. A recently has to be cooled.
producing
8.4.
gasifier is shown in Fig. contains varying amounts of dust (ash
particles, and char) moisture and
In steady-state operation, Nas 2nd tar are detrimental to the lite of an engine. Hence, the has to be
Open top
from the combustion heat tad and cleaned before admitting to the engine. The upper limit gas
of allowable
Air air
zone, near ohout 50 mg/m' and that for particulate (size less than 10 um) content is
Biomass hopper the nozzle is tar i
Gasout transferred
Wood chips
upwards by radiation, about 50 mg/m. The gas may be cooled to the ambient temperature by direct
conduction and rtion Of coolingwater from a tower. A
spray sand-bed filter may be deployed
convection to remove the particulate collected by the cooling water. Periodic washing of this
Annularjacket
-Drying zone causing wood chips to pyrolyse
(upto 350°C) and lose 70-80% of and bed is adequate to keep the operation smooth. For filtering of the gas, a
sand
Insulation their
weight. These pyrolysed gases sAnd-bed filter with specific particle size distribution is used. The filter is divided
to coarse (sand particle
size 0.5 to 2 mm) and fine sections (particle size 0.2 to
burn with air to form CO, CO0
/0 Pyrolysis zone
06 mm). The size of the filter area is so chosen that the gas velocities through the
Oo00 (350-600°C) H, and H,0, thereby raising the
filter bed do not exceed 0.1 m/s. This low velocity coupled with a tortuous path
Oxidation zone temperature to 1000-1200°C.
causes the removal of a large part of the dust from the gas. Some part of the
tar
(1000-1200°C) The product
gases from the
Producer also gets deposited in the filter circuit, particularly when the moisture carried over
gas o000 % 1Airnozzle
O combustion Zone further
from the cooler causes slight wetting of the sand bed.
OO0O Air undergo reduction reaction with
char to generate combustible 8.6.2 Updraft Type
-Reduction zone
(700-1000°C) products like CO, H, and CH,
The updraft-type gasifier (also called
Ash Generally about 40-70% air is Biomass hopper
well as
drawn through the open top counterflow gasifier) is the simplest as

the first type of gasifier developed. This type

depending on the pressure drop Gas out
Grate The
conditions due to the size of - Wood chips
of easy to build and operate.
gasifier is
- and
combustion zone
air enters below the
************ ***

Water seal wood chips and gas-flow rate Drying zone the gas is drawn off at the top. The updraft
This flow of air opposite to the as the hot
Fig.8.4 Downdraft biomass gasification plant lame front helps in maintarning gasifierachieves highest efficiency
yrolysis zone leaves
flow Insulation o oo
gas passes through the fuel bed and
the bed. homogeneous air/gas gas The
across
Combining the open top with the air nozzle towards the Reduction zone the gasifier at a low temperature. contains
of the reactor
helps in stabilizing the combustion zone by bo produced has practically
no ash but
uncovered char left and also
by preventing the movement of the Hame
consuming 0oo0 Oxidation zone tar and water vapour
because of passing of

the top. As a rnozzle (Hearth zone) unburnt fuel. Hence, the updraft
consequence,
the gas through
by radiation and high-temperature spreads above the a
zone suitable for tar-free feed
stock
conduction,
eliminated in the best
aided by air flow from the top. The tar Grate gasifers are are most unsuitable
(fuels like charcoal.) They
AI
possible way by creating a Ash
of various
atmosphere in the reactor itself. The
the bottom and
high-temperature o t
gas produced is withdrawn
for high volatile fuels. The
in
zones

8.5.
reintroduced in the annular fro a O3 FIg.8.5 Updraft biomass reactions are shown Fig.
which enters the jacket for heat recovery.
annular jacket around 500°C, transfers 1 wood
gasification plant
some heat tO
(Fixed Dome or Constant Volume)

13
14
 Emerginglecmolge
j e l

I pure oxygen
( a n dp u r e

hydrocarb
as
oxidant),,is water
fuel, carbon dioxide vapour, which
of a is also is not
stnitrogen (spent air) also is pollutant.
in the prod ced. If air is used
a
n
aIdar
late matter, NO, andproduced
Emerging exhaust. No other
particul s
S0 produced.
are
easily dissipated to the Some amount ofpollutant
h As
duced, which can be
hydrogen
heat
atmosphere or used locallyis
IsOp r a

ating purpOses. No
cooling water is required unlike
eating Pn devices where
Technologies pOwer-

s the
esion of chemical
of
conversion
substantial quanuity of conventional thermal
energy
thermal stage, the
intermediate
a

of fuel to cooling water is required.

electrical
energy occurs directly
fficiency of thermaletficiency
hout
of conversion is
better and not
Snuoduclion inmited by
cellmayaround
be
The
50%. The average cell stage. is efficiency of a practical fuel
Some newly emerging technologies are covered
in this
voltage typically about 0.7 V (on rated
and several cells may be connected in
chapter. Fuel-cell and hydrogen-energy technologies are oad series to increase the
voltage. The

12
relatively new and in the initial stages of development. The the electrode area and can be
nt depends on
increased by connecting several
principle of the fuel cell was discovered way back Thus modules of different
in 1838 by the cells in parallel. sizes can be constructed
German scientist Christian Friedrich
Schönbein, and published in arallel connection of the required number of by series-
cells. A general
one of the scientific
the first fuel cell was
magazines of that time. Based on this work, euire the development of a low-cost fuel cell with
use will large-scale
demonstrated by the Welsh scientist Sir
William Robert Grove in the
rcqu
Advantages of Fuels cells
a
reasonably long ife.
this idea into a practical meansFebruary 1839. However, turning
of energy conversion has The main advantages of a tuel cell are: () it is quiet in operation as it isa
to be elusive. Its proved
high cost as compared to other available widespread use is hindered mainly due to its satic device, (1) it is less polutant, () its conversion efficiency is more due to
techniques to reduce the cost in a variety of technologies. Many companies are working on
ways including reducing the amount of direct single-stage energy conversion, (iv) fuel cell plant can be installed near the
needed in each individual cell. United platinum
the first company to Technologies Corporation's UTC Power subsidiary
manufacture and commercialise was
point of use, thus transmission and distribution losses are avoided, (v) no cooling
use as a
a
large, stationary fuel-cell system for
co-generation power plant in hospitals, universities vater is needed as required in the condenser of a conventional steam plant. The
and
fuel cell as the PureCell 200, a 200large
Power continues to market this office buildings. UTC heat generated can be easily removed and discharged to the atmosphere or used
kW system. realised
Hydrogen is an energy carrier, and not an energy locally, (vi) because of modular nature, any voltage/current level can be
and the capacity can be added later on as the demand grows, (vii) fuel-cell plants
from other source, because it is usually produced
energy
cells. Electrochemical
sources via
petroleum combustion, wind power, or solar of choice from large number
method of meeting
extraction of energy from
hydrogen via fuel cells is an
photovoltaic
especially clean are compact and require less space, (vii) availability load from 50% to 100%, and
power requirements,
adding large amounts of energy to either water
but not an efficient
one, due to the necessity of Or possible fuels, (ix) can be used efficiently at part
the hydrogen. A number or
hydrocarbon fuels in order to no charging is required.
applications
of issues like
are involved in production, delivery, storage, conversion and produce
end use Application of Fuel cells
order to realise
hydrogen economy. 12.1.1 Potential Applications
cost and long
life become available, they
nce fuel cells of reasonably low Some of their potential
will in a large
number of applications.
12.1 A fuel cell is an
electrochemical
FUEL CELL preterred
Pplications are listed below:
continuously converts chemical energy of energy conversion device that When the generation
Continuous operation fuel directly into electrical
a used for load leveling converted and stored
requires energy. cells can be effectively be
vapour, spent fuel, spent supply of fuel and oxidant and
removal of water
*Fuel
e x c e s s generated
energy
can
load time,
when the
because of some oxidant, inert residue and heat. It is known as a cel CXCEeds the demand,
of water. During peak would be used in fuel
similarities with a primary cell. Like by electrolysis
it also has two a
conventional nydrogen the stored hydrogen
electrodes and an
It is also a static electrolyte between them and producesprimarydc
cell
and
exceeds the generation,
also possible using
gasified
power-conversion device. However, active
supplied from outside unlike a conventional power.
materials are generaly cells to meet additional
demand.
using fuel cell is due to direct
cell. Fuel is cell 2. power plant would be higher
where it is contained inside the c e n t r a l station such a plant Thus coal
supplied at the negative electrode, also
aode and the oxidant is Coal as fuel. The efficiency of thermal plants.
known as fuel
conventional

electrode or cathode. The supplied at positive electrode, also knownelectrode

to
or
Conversion
as compared reduced
emissions.

with
only exhaust of a fuel cell, if as Oxidant Tgy efficiently
pure hydrogen is used as w l be used m o r e
 merging Technologies 3
Non-conventional Energy Resources
sed on Operating Temperature
3. Fuel clls are also suited for dispersed generation. By locating the fuel Low fuel cell (below
temperature
cells near the load centre, transmission and distribution cost would be Mediu erature fuel cell 150°C)
avoided/reduced, although there would be some cost for transporting the (150°C-250°C)
High temperature fuel cell (250°C-800°C)
hydrogen. ery high temperature fuel cell
4. To meet the demand of isolated sites such as construction sites, military
camps and small village communities or hamlets, fuel cells are more suited
on Application
(800°C-1100°C)
than diesel generator sets. H) Based
5. For remote and inaccessible locations, fuel cell can be used unattended for aFuel cel for space applications
a long period.
6. Emergency/auxiliary supply to critical loads such as hospitals, etc., can be
i Fuel cell forvehicle propulsion
Fuel cell for submarines
better met using fuel cells as compared to diesel generator sets. i)
Fuel cells can also be used as a mobile power source in Fuel cell for detense applications
vehicles (iv)
submarines and spacecrafts. A hydrogen-oxygen alkali fuel cell has been c Fuel cell for commercial applications
used successfully in USA to provide electric power in shuttle
such as Apollo.
spacecrafts
lel Based on the Chemical Nature of Electrolyte
8. Fuel cells are also proposed as a
power source tor propulsion of electric
vehicles. 0 Acidic electrolyte type
9. Fuel cells can be used to
power portable electronic devices (e.g, mobile Alkaline electrolyte type
phones and other low-power appliances, especially those used in
as substitute for military) ) Neutral electrolyte ype
primary or rechargeable batteries. Instead of waiting for
several hours for recharging, a small
in the same
cartridge of methanol can be replaced 12.1.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)
way as an ink cartridge in a computer printer.
12.1.2 Classification of Fuel Cells PAFC was developed in the 1980s. The basic phosphoric acid fuel cell is
shown in Fig 12.1. It consists of two electrodes of porous conducting material
Fuel cells classified in several ways.
can be
commonly nickel) to collect charge, with concentrated phosphoric acid filled
erween them, to work as an electrolyte. Pure hydrogen or a hydrogen-rich gas
(a) Based on the Type of Electrolyte air is supplied at the positive
5Supplied at the negative electrode and oxygen or electrode
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) Ectrode. The pores provide an opportunity for the gas, electrolyte and
Gi) Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) reaction. The reaction is normally very
Lme into contact for electrochemical accelerate the reaction.
(11) Polymer Electrolytic Membrane Fuel Cell W and a is required in the electrode to
catalyst
Cell SPFC) or Proton (PEMFC or Solid Polymer Fuel
Exchange
(iv) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) Plati the best catalyst for both
serves
electrodes and used for premium
(MCFC) aunum as
electrode)
()Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) material such as nickel (for negative
ngeneral, a less expensive Thus, finely divided
positive electrode) is used wherever possible. used as
(b) Based on the h.r(or outer surface of
electrodes are

Types of the Fuel and Oxidant nickel/silver deposited on the loses its activity. This
or the catalyst gradually
the cell,
(inactivation) of the catalyst by
the of
) Hydrogen (pure)-Oxygen (pure) o ring usage
to poisoning
fuel cell is attributed
) Hydrogen rich gas-air fuel cell ei4uvty
often
in the fuel.
(i) sulphur compounds)
Impurities (most
Hydrazine-Oxygen/hydrogen
(iv) Ammonia-air fuel cell peroxide fuel cell
At the is converted to hydrogen ions (H")
and

hydrogen gas
(V)Synthesis gas-air fuel cell 2 equal numb negativeofelectrou Thus,
electrons (). Thus,
(vi) Hydrocarbon (gas)-air fuel cell
(vii) Hydrocarbon (liquid)-air fuel cell 2H* + 2
stedi H through the
external
clectrode fow
electrode

The electrons
rons originating
at the negative
H' ions migrate
from the negative
d Also, the
to
the POSitive electrode.
364 Non-conventional Energy Resources
erging Technologies
n
ernal load equivalent
water.
roduce
towards the positive electrode through the electrolyte. On reaching the positive
top

hrought h e
number ectrons are
towards positve
electrode, they interact with C, to produce water. Thus, electrode. Thus, liberated that flow
Cono de
2 0, 2H'+2 H,O
H,+2OH 2HO+2
Cocic
reaction is same
Combining the above equations indicates that a fuel
cell combines H, and O, to
Theoverall as
that with PAFC. That is,
overall reaction is therefore,
produce water (plus electrical energy). The H, + %0,
HO
OvER 7
HO
ceu Pccchho) H, +%0, The fuel 1scd
in
l uscd in . AFC must be free from
This is true for any type of hydrogen-oxygen cell. The operating temperature Ssjum hydroxide electrolyte to form CO, because this gas can combine
of PAFC is 150°C-200°C. At atmospheric pressure it produces an ideal emf of gtetrical resistance of the potassium carbonate. This increases
cel, which in turn decreases
the e
the available output
1.23 V at 25°C, which reduces to 1.15 V at 200°C. The actual value is always less the cell. Similarly, it air is used instead of
oltage of the
pure oxygen, the CO, must
than this and decreases with current. Normally, at rated values of current the hrst be removed from the air by scrubbing with lime.
voltage lies between 0.7 V to 0.8 V.
Electrons fow
Electrons flow
Fuel(H,or Spent
Fuel (H,or Spent oxidant H, rich gas) Oxidant
H, rich gas) +H,O vapour H,O
2e

2H-
2 O 20H
o-%0,N
HO
Phosphoric
Acid |40% aqueous
KOH
(electrolyte)
(electrolyte)
Spent N Oxidant
Spent N Oxidant w (0, or air)
fuel
fuel (O, or air)
- ive electrode Electrolyte +ive electrode
Ive electrode Electrolyte ive electrode to coolant
to coolant
AO-2 Alkaline Fuel Cll
Fig.12.1 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
Fig. 12.2
Membrane Fuel Cel (PEMFC) or Solid
12.1.4 Alkaline Fuel Cell 12.1.5 Polymer Electrolyte
(AFC) Polymer Fuel Cell (SPFC)
or
that
An alkaline fuel cell, the oldest of all fuel sulphonic acid)
cells, uses 40% aqueous KOH as of organic material (such as polystyrene
electrolyte. The operating temperature is about 90°C. The electrodes and other A Solid membrane The desired properties
as an electrolyte.
details to pass through it, is used non--permeable (ideally)
to
are same as
explained
for PAFC. Like PAFC it also works with and
H, and SH 1ons
ionic conductivity, () (iv)
O, active materials and the same level of emf is produced. The operation of e membrane are () high low degree ot
electro-osmosis,

and oxygen, (11) oxidation or hydrolysis,

movements of charge carriers is shown in Fig. 12.2. At the positive electrode, L gases, i.e., hydrogen resistance to its
oxygen, water (trom electrolyte) and returning electrons from the external load dehydration, (v) high
resistance to
combine to
produce OH ions: and (vi) high mechanical stability.
12.3. A thin layer (about
shown in Fig of
of the cell
are resistance
internal
2 the
0, + H,O + 2 2 OH The Dasic components
membrane is
used to keep each surface
a Cm thickness) of the platinum deposited
on
collector.
These OH ions migrate from the L ossible. Finely
divided
and current

the
positive to the negative electrode throug cell as low as poss
electrochemical catalyst and gets
electrolyte. On reaching the
positive electrode, these ions OH combine witn of the
the as with negative
electrode

membran
serves
interacts

compartment,
closed
Hydrogen
gCn o cnters a
 imerging Technologies
Non-conventional Energy Resources
MCFC and SOFC)
cells

fied iinto
n.
two cat
can also use CO
H,O +2
iel
be
classtfied

gories: ) direct alongandwith All types of fuels

At positive electrode H, +O an type, indirect
fuels are
direcdy type.
rming, to introduced
pirect type
And CO+O- CO+2 on or retorm in the cell
active material. such, with
transtorn serve as as
hdrogen, mixture
1ire of
of vithout any
At negative clectrode 0,+ 4r 20- hydrogen with other Examples are pure
gases, hydrazine
The overall reaction is H,+CO++O H,O +CO,
methanol.
NH) and
12.1.8 Development Stages and Relative Pertormances of Various
els are
Indirect fuels
hydrogen-rich fuels, which are first converted
and some other products,
H.
Fuel Cells mUxture
eg, CO, CO, andand N (reformed) to
N, Hydrocarbon fuels
a

decomposed reaction with Stea

by reaction steam at
aC high
The process is knownas.steam reforming oftemperature
in the
Various characteristics of fuel cells are summarized in Table 12.1. PAFC hac fuels. The presence ot a

reached commercial or pre-commercial stage. It can tolerate the presencc of

yH, CO d CO, are then supplied to the fuel cell. products containing
CO, in the fuel or oxidant, however, presence of sulphur compounds have to be
fuel: used in el cells are listed below:
avoided as they lead to poisoning of catalysts and cause corrosion of internal Common

parts
(coolant circuit). At a low temperature, phosphoric acid has low conductivity. High Hydrogen Pure hydrogen gas is a premium fuel for all fuel cells. Pure
temperature operation is limited by the stability problem of electrode material, Ldrogen with pure oxygen is used in space and military applications. However,
Thus a moderate operating temperature ot 150-200UC is maintained.
Efforts are oduction and storage of pure hydrogen is expensive. Hydrogen-rich gases
on to increase the life of a cell to at least 5
years. PAFC 1s suitable for stationary prod
applications. PEMFC is being developed as a portable power ource for mobile obtained from retorming of other huels is more economical alternative.
ot

electronic devices, transportation and domestic

cell is intolerant to the presence of CO or
apPplications. The catalyst in the ()Hydrazine (N H) Hydrazine, a iquid fuel, has high energy density and is
in
SO, the fuel. AFC is already in the introduced
market. Requirement of pure H, and O, has restricted its use to convenient to store. However, it is toxic, costly and highly reactive. It is
space and military transformation.
applications only. MCFC and SOFC are in the early stages of development. Like directly to a cell without any
PAFCs these are also being
more efficient than PAFC. With
developed for stationary applications. These are A compact AFC (alkaline fuel cell) with hydrazine
fuel and hydrogen peroxide/
either by
cogeneration, the efficiency of these fuel cells oxygen as Oxidant is proposed
for vehicle propulsion. Oxygen is obtained
may reach close to 90%. However, they suffer from short life, ambient air. Electrodes are

stresses and
high temperature from
catalytic deecomposition of hydrogen peroxide and silver (at positive electrode)
or

high cost. They can run on a large variety

of fuels such natural gas,
made of Ni screen with Ni (at negative electrode)
as
landfill gas, biogas, etc. The main
problem in MCFC is that the electrolyte is very a5 catalysts. The reaction at the negative
electrode is
corrosive and current density is low.
Very high operating temperature is the main
concern in SOFC.
4 OH N,+4H,0+4
NH,
Table 12.1 Characteristics of various fuel cells i1s
and at the positive electrode it
SN Fuel cell Op. Temp. Fuel 4 OH
Effiaieny O, + 2 H,O +4
1. PEMFC 40-60°C H, 48-58%
2. AFC 90°C The overall reaction 1s
H 64%
|3. PAFC 150-200°C H, 42%% N,H, +0,
N,+2HO
discharged
4. MCFC 600-700° C H, and CO 50% water
and nitrogen,
which are

5. SOFC oxidised to produce

600-1000°C H, and CO 60-65% hydrazine is
,
to the atmosphere. be stored
of fucl. It
can

12.1.9 Fuels-for Fuel Cells is

indirect type temperature.

Ammonia
an
catalytically
at high heat tor
(NH) he.
Ammonia decomposed the required
Hydrogen is a
primary fuel and the main source of easily provide
hus for all fuel ceus In liquid a can be
form and burnt in
air to
pure hydrogen or hydrogen-rich gases are generally energy
used in fuel cells. SOe Part of the
Torm
hydrogen
is
produced
 Non-conventional Energy Resources merging Technologies
AH change in enthalpy of the How
decomposition. The product, i.e, mixture of H, and N, is introduced in a fuel o (of the cell) stream trom
(e.g, AFC). Nitrogen present in the mixture is discharged with exhaust.
cell entrance to exit
The cha KE and PE ot the
stream are
(iv) Hydrocarbons (Gases) Hydrocarbons such as methane, propane, etc., are AIV= AQ- AH
usually negligible. Thus,
first converted to a mixture of H, and CO by steam reforming
to be the maximunm,
ForAlt o
(12.2)
Hydrocarbons (CH, CH, etc.)- steam reforming at 900" C, i Catalst H, + CO the
process
rhermodynamics, for a reversible process, must be reversible. From the second
The mixture is then used as such after removal of CO by water-gas
or
shift AQ= TAS
reaction, as required. Commercial fuels such as natural gas, LPG,
b1ogas, coal gas (12.3)
landfill gas and gasified coal can be used in this way for large-scale the ot the
generation of where
Tis temperature process and it remains constant.
power.
Thus from Eq. 12.2, A -(AH-TAS
(v) Hydrocarbons (Liquid) Light hydrocarbons (naphtha)
max
(12.4)
are first steam Gibbs free energy is given by,
reformed to get H, and CO. The
product gas mixture is then used as fuel as
explained above. G=H-Ts
(vi) Synthesis Gas Mixture of H, and CO in various AG= AH- (TAS-SAT)
other proportions, along with or
impurities (known as synthesis gas) can be produced
conventional or non-conventional sources. The economically from As there is no change in temperature, AT= 0, and thus
asfuel in MCFC and (H, + CO) mixture can be used
SOFC. For use in hydrogen fuel cells, CO is to AG= AH-TAS (12.5)
and be removed
hydrogen content is increased by a process known as water
as given below: gas shift reaction,
Therefore, fromEq. 12.4,A max
-AG (12.6)
write,
CO+H,O (steam) 400 C, 27 atm, cobalt molybdate catalyst Combining Eq. 12.3 and Eq. 12.5 we can

CO, +
H, +1440 kJ/kg
CO, present in the AG AH-AQ
AFC.
products is also removed if the mixture is
to be used in (12.7)
or AQ= AH-AG
AW
(vii) Methanol Methanol is used both as direct as well as The efficiency of energy
conversion of a fuel cell: -AH
can be indirect type fuel. It
catalytically reformed with steam at about 200°C to AW AG
and CO. The mixture is then used as
yield a mixture of
discussed above. H, Maximum efficiency Imax =-AH AH
285838 k}/kg
k]/kg mole, AH
= -

= -237191
Methanol can also be used AG
For H,-O, cell at 25°C,
cell, a modified version of directly
without reforming in direct methanol fuel mole and therefore,
proton membrane exchange fuel cell.
12.1.10
Efficiency ofa Fuel Cell may0.83
would be
liberated as heat. Actual

In fuel 17% of the enthalpy temperature rise,

a
cell, electrochemical reactions take hus, even in
ideal cell
In order to avoid
excessive

done by
converted to place whereby reactants
products in a steady flow process. If the are
LWproduce
even
more
heat.
the operation.
This c a n be
of the How the cell during through an
stream from entrance to exit temperature and pressure to be removed
from
by circulating
the electrolyte
from the first law of (during reaction) remain unchangea, 1S electrode o r

thermodynamics: passirn air at positive

external cooler.
AQ-AW= AH +
A(KE) + A(PE) of Fuel
Cell

where (12.1) 12.1.11 VI

Characteristics

from the change in Gibbs

AQ= heat transferred to the be
calculated

steady flow stream from the of a fuel

cell can

AW= work done

by the flow stream
surrounding ne theoretical enf
the
reaction,

on the free energ AG during

surrounding
 Emerging Technologies
C Non-conventional Energy Resources 12.1.12 Fuel Cell Power Plant
which is equivalent to
AH -56.83 kcal/mol,
The
diagram showing the main
AH=-238.7 k]/mol i sgiven in ia. 12.7. Electrical components of fucl-cell power
is
a

From Eq. 12.6, the electrical

work output per mole of fuel cell. Fuel is managed and generated from primary fossil plant
energy
through a
fuel is received, stored, supplied by fuel processing unit.fuelsIn a
(methanol) consumed: this unit, retormed, purified
and supplied to
AW=-AG =16.3 kJ modules Fuel--cell: modules convert fuel fuel-cell
energy electrochemically into de
configurations of cell, module and plantpower
max air as oxidant Basic
ambient

That means, 166.3 k] electrical work is produced from 1 mole using

own in Eia.
Fig 12.8. A number of cells are stacked to are
form a module. Several
i.e., 32 g) of methanol and mole (1.e., 1.5 X 32 g) of oxygen modu are interconn nnected to form
modules from commonpower-generating
a
2 unit. Fuel gas and air
are
lied
supplicd to
to moc
supply pipes. The exhaust is collected
In other words, 166.3 kW electrical power is produced from in a ommon pipe and ischarged to the atmosphere either directly or after
fow rate of 32 g/s of methanol and 48 g/s of oxygen. recove
eru of heat in a
cogeneration unit. 'The
power-generating unit generates
Required flow rate of methanol for electrical output of electrical power as dc. Industrial/ commercial loads are rated for standard ac
IDply such as 3 ph., 400 V, 50/60 Hz or 1 ph., 230/110 V, 50/60 Hz. The
100 kW =S4KI =
19.24 g/s electrical power-conditioning unit, converts dc ourput of fuel cell to ac using
166.3
controls and regulates it.
inverter and also
23.09 kg/h
Required flow rate of oxygen for electrical output of 100 kW
Electric
48X100= 28.86 g/s Air Fuel cel
modules
power
Switchgear
and supply
166.3 Fossil Fuel DC conditdoner
fuel Processing H+CO
34.63 kg/h
The heat transferred is
given by Eq. 12.3
AQ= TAS, Steam
which from Eq. 12.7,
may be written as
Control unit
AQ= AH -AG°
scheme
=-
56.83 +39.59 power-generation
=
-17.24 kcal/mol Fig. 127 Fuel-cell based electrical
The
negative sign indicates that heat is removed from the cell
and transferred to the
Thus 1 mole (i.e., 32 of
surroundings. Fuel gas
passage
Separator
Exhaust

g) methanol produces 17.24 kcal of

heat. ive electrode

As calculated above, the fuel Electrolyte matrix

electrical power consumption rate for 100 kW + ive electrode

lue
generation
is 19.24 g/s
(Stacked cells)

Consumption of fuel at the rate Single

19.24 g/s
produces heat at the cell Air passage

rate
17.24x19.24
32
=
10.366 kcal/s
Separator

unit
Fuel

Thus, the required heat Powergeneration

removal rate from the cell Fig. 12.8

ourput of 100 kW is 10.366 at electrical
kcal/s.
 Sources of n e l '
Non-Conventional

574 Chemica Energy Sources 575

standard reversible-cell
potential ne. of 0.21 vol
The cell has a NOCI, in the liouia.21
liquid 10.2.6. Conversion Efficiency of Fuel Cells
r e a c t a n t s may
be regretted
from

the quantum yielo low phase by light electrical energy generated1by a fuel
Under these
conditions,
s

regeneration is
because the The
e "free" energy
rather than on the heat
cell
on what depends
reaction is also rapid.
In the gas phase
NO and
the NO and C.er
Cl. asier alalthoubas i scalled the
The
Th free energy of formation of l mole
energy, of the overall
there is problem of
separating
a r e s u l t of the low value oft
The cucurrer action.
cellrea
(18 grams) of liquid
fthe reversibe anddoxygen
some
o

obtainable are low,

probably a s water
from hydrogen
25°C. The heat
gases at
atmospheric
pressure is 56.67
2 3 7 kJ at
kcalor
energy (or enthalpy)
of the reaction
potential. the
same ne condconditions is 68.26 kcal (286 kJ). The
theoretical
10.2.5. Advantages and Disadvantages of el Cell under
efficiency of the conversion of heat energy into electrical
electrical energy in a
efie to
has very high conversion fuel cell is thus (56.67/68.26) 100 83
Advantages. (1) It
have been observed,
since it is a direct ciencies as hi
conversia high hdrogen-oxygen per cent.
Eiciencies as high as 70 per cent have been observed, but the
a s 70 per cent
thertnal process. In the
on proces
conventional proc practical cells using pure hydrogen and oxygen generally have conver
and does not involve a
process for generatingelectricity, heat
into
energY produced by.
mechanical enery i ti
thermd sion
efficiencies in the range of 50 to 60 per cent. The efficiencies are
when air is the of oxygen. The overall thermal
fuel is converted partially
source
of the in a what lower
turbine and then into electricity by means ofa generator. The efficsteam some

o
electrical
conversion ficiencies are also lower when the hydrogen is
of a heat engine is limited by the operating temperatures, and eney rived from hydrocarbon sources. Nevertheless, they should be higher
in
modern steam-electric plants above 40 per cent of the heate the
han those obtainable from the same fuels is most steam-electrie plants.
large
of the fuel is converted into electrical energy. Fuel cells, on theenerg The theoretical emf (or voltage) of a fuel ceil can be caleulated
hand, are not heat engines and are not subjected to their other free energy. For the hydrogen-oxygen cell at 25°C,
from the reaction
erature the gases at atmospheric pressure, the ideal emf. is 1.23 volts; at
limitations. with

(2) Fuel cells be installed near the use

200 C, it is about 1.15 volts. The discharge voltages observed in actual
can point, thus reducin cells are always below the theoretical value, the difference increasing
electrical transmission requirements and accompanying losses. Conse with increasing strength of the current drawn
from the cell (Refer
quently considerably higher efficiencies are possible. Fig. 10.2.6.1).

3) They have few mechanical components; hence, they operate THEORETICAL e.m.t.
fairly quietly and require little attention and less maintenance.
REACTION RATE LOSS
Atmospheric pollution is small if the primary energy source
4) 1-0
1s bydrogen, the
only waste product is water; if the source is a RESISTANCE
LOSS
hydrocarbon, carbon dioxide is also produced, Nitrogen oxides, such
as
accompeny combustion of fossil fuels in the air, are not formed in the
fuel cell. Seme heat is
generated by a fuel cell. but it can be dissipale
to the
atmosphere or
possibles used locally
5 There is CURRENT ORAIN
such as are
no
requirement
for large volumes of cooling
wate
necessary to condense exhaust systen from a 10.2.6.1. Current and voltage a

conventional power plant. turbine Fig.

discharge of fuel cell
(6) As fuel cells do ceils normaly operate
not make noise, For the moderate currents at which fuel
in residential areas. they car. be readiy
ae
epted
he emf is 0.7 to 0.8 volts. This deviation from the theoretical emt
below the ideal
(7 The fuel cell takes little time to into nts tor the conversion efficiency of a fuel cell being
8 The space requirement for fuel celi operation 15 consider
go maximum value.
behaviour arises from
abiy less as power plant departure of fuel cell from ideal
compared to conventional e a

is the inhrent slowness

of the electrode reactions
power plants. Lal factors one
reduced by an
etfective

Disadvantages The main heir u l i n a n t at low current drains. It can be

high initial costs and low disadvantages of fuel cels ar
service life.
Advantages of Fuel Cells

1. Efficiency – Fuel cells are highly efficient, which means they convert fuel into
electricity with very little waste. This is because fuel cells operate at much higher
temperatures than traditional power plants, which allows them to extract more energy
from the fuel.
2. Clean Energy – Fuel cells produce electricity through a chemical reaction between
hydrogen and oxygen, which means they emit only water and heat as byproducts. This
makes them a clean source of energy that doesn’t produce harmful pollutants like
traditional power plants.
3. Versatility – Fuel cells can be used in a variety of applications, from powering small
electronics to generating electricity for large buildings or even entire cities. They can
also be used in transportation, such as powering buses or cars.
4. Reliability – Fuel cells are highly reliable because they have no moving parts, which
means there is less chance of mechanical failure. This makes them a great choice for
applications where downtime is not acceptable.
5. Longevity – Fuel cells have a long lifespan and require little maintenance, which
means they can last for many years with minimal upkeep. This makes them a cost-
effective option for producing electricity over the long-term

Disadvantages of Fuel Cells

1. Cost – Fuel cells can be expensive to manufacture and install, which can make them a
less attractive option for some applications. Additionally, the cost of hydrogen fuel
can be higher than other types of fuel, which can also impact their overall cost-
effectiveness.
2. Infrastructure – Fuel cells require a dedicated infrastructure for the storage and
distribution of hydrogen fuel, which can be a challenge to establish and maintain. This
can limit their use in certain areas or make them less practical for some applications.
3. Efficiency – While fuel cells are highly efficient, they still require energy to produce
hydrogen fuel. This means that they may not be as efficient as other forms of energy
production that use renewable sources like solar or wind power.
4. Durability – Fuel cells are made up of delicate components that can be damaged by
extreme temperatures, vibration, or other factors. This means that they may require
more maintenance and have a shorter lifespan than other types of energy production.
5. Safety – Hydrogen fuel is highly flammable and requires careful handling to ensure
safe storage and use. This can be a concern in certain applications, such as
transportation or in areas with high population density