GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION
Growth and development are processes that occur throughout a person's life, starting from
conception and continuing until death. Growth refers to physical changes, while development
refers to functional and behavioural changes.
Growth denotes increase in physical size of the body and development denotes improvement
in skills and function of an individual.
Together they denote physical, intellectual, emotional and social wellbeing of a person.
Normal growth and development is observed only if there is proper nutrition and without any
recurrent episodes of infection.
DEFINITION
Growth is defined as the progression of changes in a child's height, weight, head
circumference, and other body features as they mature.
* It refers to an increase in physical size of the body and various organs.
* It is quantitative changes of the body. It can be measured in kgs, pounds, meters, inches etc.
Development is the process of functional and physiological maturation of the individual.
Development involves the biological, psychological and emotional changes that occur in
human beings between birth and the conclusion of adolescence.
* It is progressive in skill and capacity to function.
* It is a qualitative change in the child’s functioning. It can be measured through observation.

GROWTH DEVELOPMENT

Growth is cellular. It takes place due to Development is organizational. It is

the multiplication of cells organization of all the parts which
growth and differentiation have
produced.
Growth may or may not bring Development is also possible without
development growth.
It is a part of development process. It is a comprehensive and wider term and
Development in its quantitative aspects refers to overall changes in the
termed as growth. individual.
Growth does not continue throughout Development is a wider and
life. It stops when maturity has been comprehensive term and refers to overall
attained. changes in the individual. It continues
throughout life and is progressive.
 1

PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1. CEPHALOCAUDAL
Cephalocaudal means "head to toe" and is a term used to
describe the general pattern of development in infants and
toddlers.
It refers to the direction of physical and functional development,
from the head to the toes. It describes the direction of growth and
development.

The head region starts growth at first, following by which other

organs starts developing.

2. PROXIMODISTAL
The directional sequence of development during both prenatal
and postnatal stages may either be:
(i) from head to foot,
(ii) from the central axis to the extremities of the body.
(iii) the spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body.

3. DEVELOPMENT IS CONTINUOUS
The process of growth and development continues from the
conception till the individual reaches’ maturity. It goes on
continuously throughout life. Even after maturity has been
attained, development does not end.
Development is a continuous process that happens gradually and
cumulatively from conception to death. This means that
development is never ending and involves a series of progressive
changes

4. DEVELOPMENT IS GRADUAL: It does not come all on a sudden. It is also cumulative

in nature.

5. DEVELOPMENT IS SEQUENTIAL
Development is sequential or orderly. The sequence of
development is that the child learns sitting first before it can
stand, it learns standing first before it can walk.

6. PREDICTABLE: The difference in physiological and

psychological potentialities can be predicated by observation and
psychological tests.

7. DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS FROM SIMPLE TO

COMPLEX
Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and
solve problems. Children at first are able hold the big things by using both arms.
In the next part able to hold things in a single hand, then only able to pick small objects like
peas.
8. DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS FROM GENERAL TO SPECIFIC
In all areas of development, general activities always precedes
specific activity. • Eg: The fetus moves its whole body but
incapable of making specific responses
Infants wave their arms randomly. They can make such specific
responses as reaching out for an object near them.

9. GROWTH IS UNEVEN: Asynchronous development refers to

an uneven intellectual, physical, and emotional development.

10. CERTAIN STAGE OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT ARE MORE CRITICAL

* By age five most children demonstrate fairly good control of pencils, crayons, and scissors.
* Gross motor accomplishments may include the ability to skip and balance on one foot.
* Physical growth slows down between five and eight years of age, while body proportions
and motor skills become more refined.

11. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE: Individuals differ in the rate of growth and

development. Boys and girls have different development rates.

12. CO-ORDINATION BETWEEN INCREASE IN SIZE AND MATURATION

Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development.
Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely
for maturation and help children to improve in thinking
and motor skills.

13. THE PRINCIPLE OF DEVELOPMENTAL PACE

Maturity indicators do not appear at regular intervals.
Infancy is a period of accelerated growth when maturity
indicators appear in various aspects of growth.
During the pre-school and early school years, the pace of growth slackens.

FACTOR INFLUENCING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1. Heredity is the transmission of physical characteristics from parents to children through

their genes. It influences- physical appearance such as height, weight, body structure, the
colour of the eye, the texture of the hair, and even intelligence and aptitudes.

2. Environment involves the physical surroundings and geographical conditions of the place
the child lives in, as well his social environment and relationships with family and peers. –
well-nurtured child does better than a deprived one; the environment children are constantly
immersed in contributes to this.

3. Sex: It affects the physical growth and development of a child. – Boys and girls grow in
different ways, especially nearing puberty. – Boys tend to be taller and physically stronger
than girls.
 4. Exercise and Health: children deliberately engaging in physical activities knowing it
would help them grow. Exercise here refers to the normal play time and sports activities
which help the body gain an increase in muscular strength and put on bone mass

5. Hormones: Their timely functioning is critical for normal physical growth and
development in children. Imbalances in the functioning of hormone secreting glands can
result in growth defects, obesity, behavioural problems and other diseases.

6. Nutrition: it’s a critical factor in growth as everything the body needs to build and repair
itself comes from the food we eat. • Malnutrition can cause deficiency diseases that adversely
affect the growth and development of children

7. Familial Influence: Whether they are raised by their parents, grandparents or foster care,
they need basic love, care and courtesy to develop as healthy functional individuals. • The
most positive growth is seen when families invest time, energy and love with child through
activities, like reading, playing with them and having deep meaningful conversations

8. Socio-Economic Status: Children from poorer families may not have access to
educational resources and good nutrition to reach their full potential.

9. Maternal nutritional deficiencies: Mal positions, metabolic, endocrine disturbances.

Infectious diseases (or diseases like rubella, toxoplasmosis, syphilis, herpes). Rh
incompatibility, smoking, alcohol and intake of certain drugs.

10. Genetic factors: Actual outcome of growth= genetic potential+ environmental

influences. Mutations- inherited by offspring Genetic studies make use of twin and family
data.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT MONITOTING

Assessment of growth:
Assessment of physical growth can be done by
anthropometric measurement and the study of velocity of
physical growth.
Measurement of different growth parameters is the
importance nursing responsibility in child care.

WEIGHT
* Weight is one of the best criteria for assessment of growth
and a good indicator of health nutritional status of child.
* Among Indian children, weight of the full terms neonate at
birth is approximately 2.5kg to3.5 kg.
* There is about 10% loss weight first week of life, which regains by 10 days
of age.

LENGTH AND HEIGHT

* Increase in height indicates skeletal growth. Yearly increments in height
gradual ly diminished from birth to maturity.
* At birth average length of a healthy indian newborn baby is 50 cm.
* Then weight gain is about 25-30gmper day for 1st 3 month
and 400gm/month till one year of age.
* The infants double weight gain their birth weight by 5 month
of age, trebled by 1 year,4th time by 2 years, five times by3 year
,6 times by 7 year and ten times by ten year.
* Then weight increases rapidly during puberty followed by
weight increases to adult size.
In 2nd year, there is 12cm increase,3rd year it is 9 cm, 4th year
it is 7cm, and in 5th year is 6cm. So the child double the birth
by 4 to 4.5 years of the age afterwards there is about 5cm
increase in every year till onset of puberty.

BODY MASS INDEX(BMI)

* It is an important criterion which helps to assess the
normal growth or its deviations. BMI = kg/m2.
* BMI Categories
 Underweight ≤18.5
 Normal weight=18.5-24.9
 Overweight=25-29.9
 Obesity=BMI of 30 or greater

HEAD CIRCUMFERENCE
* It is related to brain growth and development of
intracranial volume. Average head circumference
measured about 35cm at birth.
* At 3 months it is about 40cm, at6 month 43cm, at 1year
45cm, at 2 years 48cm, at 7 year50cm and at 12 years of
age it is about 52cm, almost same a adult.

CHEST CIRCUMFERENCE
* Chest circumference or thoracic diameters is an
importance parameter of growth and nutrition status.
* At birth it is 2-3cm less than head circumference at 6 to12
months of age both become equal.
* After 1st year of age, chest circumference is greater than
head circumference by 2.5cm and by the age of 5 year, it is
about 5cm larger than head circumference.
 GROWTH OF NEWBORN
DEFINITION
Period from birth to 28 days of life is called neonatal period and the infant in this period is
termed as neonate or newborn baby.

REFLEXES

1. ROOTING REFLEX

* The rooting reflex is an innate response of the head

due to the stimulation of the face, mouth, or cheek by
touching/stroking (the head is turned towards the side of
the stimulus). It is a brainstem mediated primitive motor
reflex also called the frontal release reflex.

* When the cheek or corner of the mouth is stroked,

infants head should turn towards the stimulus and the
mouth should open.

2. SUCKING REFLEX

* The sucking reflex is an involuntary movement that

causes a baby to suck when the roof of their mouth is
touched. It's a survival reflex that's present even
before birth and is essential for breastfeeding and
bottle-feeding.

* Rooting helps the baby get ready to suck. When the

roof of the baby's mouth is touched, the baby will start
to suck. This reflex doesn't start until about the 32nd
week of pregnancy and is not fully developed until
about 36 weeks. Premature babies may have a weak
or immature sucking ability because of this.

3. SWALLOWING REFLEX

* The swallowing reflex is an involuntary

physiological mechanism that helps prevent food
and other materials from entering the lungs while
eating, drinking, or managing saliva. It involves
the activation of the tongue, pharyngeal, and
laryngeal muscles to move food from the mouth
to the esophagus.

* The passage of food from the posterior aspect of

mouth to the stomach.
4. GAGGING REFLEX

A gagging reflex is a natural response in babies that

helps prevent choking. It's normal for babies to gag
when they're learning to eat solid foods or when you
introduce new textures. Gagging can be triggered by:
 Food
 Fingers
 Toys
 Spoons
 Transitioning from smooth to lumpy foods
 Learning to chew

5. EXTRUSION

* The extrusion reflex, also known as the tongue-thrust

reflex, is a natural, involuntary response in babies that
causes them to push their tongue out of their mouth when
something touches the roof of their mouth.

* Tongue-thrust reflex helps protect babies from choking or

aspirating food and other foreign objects and helps them to
latch onto a nipple. You can see this reflex in action when
their tongue is touched or depressed in any way by a solid
and semisolid object, like a spoon.

6. BLINKING REFLEX

* The blink reflex is a neurological development in newborns that

causes them to blink their eyes when they are touched or when
they are exposed to a sudden bright light. It is one of many
protective reflexes that newborns have.

* Protection of eye by rapid eye lid closure when the eyes are
exposed to bright light.

7. DOLLS EYE REFLEX

* The doll's eye reflex, also known as the

oculocephalic reflex, is a reflex that causes a
newborn's eyes to move in the opposite direction
when their head is turned.

* This reflex can be used to assess a newborn's

neurological development. A positive doll's eye
reflex indicates an intact brainstem, while a negative reflex indicates severe brainstem
dysfunction.
8. PAPILLARY REFLEX

* The pupillary light reflex (PLR) in newborns is the

involuntary response of the pupil to light, which constricts
in response to light on the retina.

* Pupil contracts when bright light shines, it persists

throughout life.

9. SNEEZE REFLEX

* Sneezing is a normal reflex in newborns and is a

sign that their nervous system is working properly

* Sneezing in infants is a reflex just like it is with

adults. The reflex occurs when the nasal passages
are irritated. Unlike a lot of other reflexes like the
startle reflex or the Moro reflex, the sneezing
reflex is one that sticks around as the baby grows
and into adulthood.

* Passage respond spontaneously to irritation or

obstruction, persists throughout the life.

10. GLABELLAR REFLEX

* The glabellar reflex is a primitive reflex that is present in newborns

and normally causes them to blink when the forehead is tapped
between the eyebrows and nose

* Tapping briskly on glabellas (bridge of nose) cause eyes to close

tightly.

11. YAWN REFLEX

* Yawning is a newborn reflex that helps babies

increase oxygen intake, which enhances brain
activity and helps control body
temperature. Yawning is a primitive behaviour
that can be observed in human fetus as early as
the eleventh gestational week.

* Infant has spontaneous response to decreased

oxygen by increasing amount of inspired air,
persists throughout life.
12. COUGH REFLEX

* A newborn's cough reflex is not fully developed at

birth, but it begins to develop in the first few months of
life.

* Irritation of mucous membranes of larynx or

tracheobronchial tree causes coughing, persists
throughout the life usually present after 1st day of birth.

* A cough is a defensive mechanism that protects the

lungs from aspiration and clears airways of foreign
objects, noxious substances, and secretions.

13. BABINSKI REFLEX

* The Babinski reflex is a normal reflex in

newborns and infants up to two years old. It's a
reaction to the sole of the foot being stroked from
heel to toe, causing the big toe to move upward and
the other toes to fan out.

* The Babinski reflex is a survival mechanism that

helps doctors assess the health of a newborn's
nervous system. It's named after Joseph Babinski, a
French neurologist who discovered the reflex in
1896.

14. TONIC NECK REFLEX

* The tonic neck reflex, also known as the fencing

reflex, is a primitive reflex that occurs when a
baby's head is turned to one side, causing the arm
on that side to straighten and the opposite arm to
bend

* Turning the head quickly to one side while the

baby is supine

15. PEREZ REFLEX

* The Pérez reflex is a primitive reflex in newborn infants that

helps with the development of whole-body coordination and
spine movements.
* The Pérez reflex is elicited when an examiner runs their finger or thumb along a baby's
spine from the pelvis to the neck while the baby is lying face down on a hard surface.
16. PALMAR GRASP

* The palmar grasp reflex is an involuntary reflex in

babies that causes them to grasp an object placed in
their hand.

* The palmar grasp reflex is a primitive, prehensile

reflex that occurs when an infant's palm is stroked or
an object is placed in it. The infant's fingers will close
around the object or finger, and they may grip tighter
if you try to remove it.

17. DANCING OR STEPPING REFLEX

* The dancing or stepping reflex is a reflex in babies

that makes them appear to walk or dance when held
upright with their feet on a solid surface.

* A reflex is an automatic muscle reaction to a

stimulus. The stepping reflex is a developmental
indicator that will eventually go away, but it's
important to be aware of it.

* Hold newborn in vertical position with the feet

touching a flat firm surface, there will be a rapid
alternating flexion and extension of the legs.

18. MORO REFLEX

The Moro reflex, also known as the startle reflex, is a

normal response in newborns when they are startled
or feel like they are falling.

The baby will arch their back, fling their arms out and
up, open their hands, and then bring their arms back in
close to their body.

The newborn head is suddenly allowed to drape

backward an inch, there will be symmetric abduction
and extension of the arms and legs with fanning of
fingers.

In response to the sound, the baby throws back his or

her head, extends out his or her arms and legs, cries,
then pulls the arms and legs back in.
 GROWTH OF INFANT(1-12 MONTHS)
MILESTONES

 1st month: Social smile

 2nd month: Vocalize
 3rd month: Head control
 4th month: Hand control
 5th month: Turns over
 6th month: Sits alone
 7th month: Crawl
 8th month: Creeping
 9th month: Stands with support
 10th month: Walk with support
 11th month: Stands alone
 12th month: Walk without support

1st MONTH

Reflexes
 Primitive reflexes present and strong
 Dolls eye reflex and dance reflex fading
 Obligatory nose breathing (most infants)

Gross Motor
 Assumes flexed position with pelvis high but not under abdomen when prone
 Can turn head side to side when prone
 In sitting position, back is uniformly rounded with absence of head control.

Fine Motor
 Grasp reflex strong
 Hand clenches on contact with rattle

3rd MONTH

Reflexes
 Primitive reflexes fading

Gross motor
 Able to hold head more erect when sitting.
 Assumes symmetric body positioning
 When held in standing position, able to hear slight
fraction of weight on legs.

Fine Motor
 Actively holds rattle but will not reach for it.
 Grasp reflex absent
 Pulls at blankets and clothes
4th MONTH

Reflexes
 Drooling begins
 Moro, tonic neck and rooting reflexes have disappeared.

Gross Motor
 Has almost no head lag when pulled to sitting
position.
 Balances head well in sitting position.
 Rolls from back to side
 Able to sit erect if propped up.

Fine Motor
 Inspects and plays with hands, pulls clothing or
blanket over face in play
 Tries to reach objects with both hands
 Play with rattle placed in hand, shakes it but cannot pick it up if dropped.
 Can carry objects to mouth.

5th MONTH

Physical
 Beginning signs of tooth eruption
 Birth weight doubles

Gross Motor
 Able to sit for longer periods when back is well
supported back straight.
 When sitting, able to hold head erect and
steady.
 Can turn over from abdomen to back -when
supine, pulls feet to mouth.

Fine Motor
 Able to grasp objects voluntarily
 Uses palmer grasp approach
 Plays with toes
 Takes objects directly to mouth
 Holds one cube while regarding as second one.

6th MONTH

Physical
 Growth rate may begin to decline
 Weight gain of 90 to 150 gm weekly for next 6 month
 Height gain of 1.25cm monthly for next 6 months
 Teething may begin with eruption of two lower central
incisors
 Chewing and biting may occur.
Gross Motor
 When prone, can lift chest and upper abdomen off surface, bearing weight on hands
 Sits in high chair with back straight
 When held in standing position, bears almost all of weight

Fine Motor
 Re secure a dropped object
 Grasps and manipulates small objects
 Holds bottle
 Grasps feet and pulls to mouth.

7th MONTH

Physical
 Eruption of upper central incisors

Gross motor
Sits, learning forward on both hands
sits erect momentarily
bears full weight on feet
when held in standing position, bounces actively.

Fine Motor
 Transfers objects from one hand to another
 Holds two cubes more than momentarily
 Bangs cubes on table

8th MONTH

Physical
 Parachute reflex appears

Fine motor
 Sits steadily un supported
 May stand by holding a furniture

Gross Motor
 Retains two cubes while regarding 3rd cube
 Rings bell purposely
 Reaches persistently for toys out of reach

9th MONTH

Physical
 Eruption of upper lateral incisor may begin

Fine Motor
 creeps on hands and knees
 pulls self to standing position and holds a furniture
 recovers balance when leaning forward but cannot do so when leaning sideways.

Gross Motor
 Grasp 3rd cube
 Preference for use of dominant hand now evident

10th MONTH

Reflexes
 Labyrinth
 Righting reflex is strongest when infants is in prone
or supine position, is able to raise hand.

Gross Motor
 Can change from prone to sitting position
 Recovers balance easily while sitting
 While standing lifts one foot to take a step.

Fine Motor
 Crude release of an object begins
 Grasps bell by handle.

11th MONTH

Physical
 Eruption of lower lateral incisor may begin

Gross Motor
 When sitting, pivots to reach toward back to pickup
an object.

Fine Motor
 Explores objects more thoroughly
 Has neat pincer grasp, puts one object after another in to a container

12th MONTH

Physical
 Birth weight trebled
 Birth length increased by 50%
 Anterior fontanel's almost closed
 Landau reflex fading
 Lumbar curve develops during walking.

Gross motor
 Can sit down from standing position without help.
Fine Motor
 Releases cube in cup
 Tries to insert a pellet into a narrow-necked bottle but fails.

LANGUAGE/ SPEECH DEVELOPMENT

 Receptive language: Responds to human voices

 Expressive language: Cries when hungry or uncomfortable, speaks 6-8 words at 1 year

Hearing
 3-4 months: Child turns his head towards the source of sound.
 5-6 months: Child turns the head to one side and then downward if a sound is made below
the level of ears.
 10 months: Child directly looks at the source of diagonally.

Vision
 1st month: Baby can fixate on his mother as she talks to him.
 3-4 month: Child can fixate intently on an object shown to him (grasping with eye).
 6 weeks: Binocular vision begins and is well established by 4 months.
 6 months: Child adjusts his position to follow object of interest.
 1 year: Follow rapidly moving object.

SIGMUND FREUD THEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Psychosexual theory is a theory of human development that was proposed by Sigmund Freud.
Freud's theory states that human development occurs in five stages, and that each stage is
characterized by a focus on a specific part of the body, or erogenous zone.

Stages
The five stages are:
 Oral
 Anal
 Phallic
 Latent
 Genital

Erogenous zones
Each stage is associated with a specific erogenous zone, which is a part of the body that is
particularly sensitive to stimulation.

Development
Freud believed that a person's personality and sexuality develop as they progress through
these stages. He also believed that a person's ability to resolve conflicts at each stage
determines whether they can move on to the next stage.

Fixation
Freud believed that if a person is unable to discharge their libidinal drives at a particular
stage, they may become fixated on that stage. This fixation could lead to anxiety and neurosis
that persists into adulthood.
 Frued (1905) believed that life was built around tension and pleasure. Freud also believed
that all tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure
came from its discharge.
 In describing human personality development as psychosexual, Freud meant to convey
that what develops is the way in which sexual energy of the id accumulates and is
discharged as we mature biologically.
 Freud used the term “sexual” in a very general way to mean all pleasurable actions and
thoughts.

ORAL STAGE (Birth to 1 year)

The Oral Stage is the first stage of Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual development,
occurring from birth until approximately 18 months.
During the oral stage, a baby’s libido, or innate pleasure-seeking energy, is focused on the
mouth.
Example:
 The baby derives immense satisfaction from engaging in oral activities such as sucking,
biting, breastfeeding, and chewing various objects, satisfying their inherent desires.
 During the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in
its mouth to satisfy the libido.
 An example of this stage is an infant who gains pleasure from sucking on a pacifier or
bottle. This gives them satisfaction and helps them learn about their environment.
Oral Fixation:
 Freud theorized that experiences during the oral
stage significantly influence personality
development.
 For instance, he suggested that a child underfed
or frustrated during feedings might become a
pessimistic, envious, and suspicious adult.
 On the other hand, a child who is overfed or
overly gratified could become optimistic,
gullible, and full of admiration.
 Freud also linked oral behaviors to specific personality types in adulthood. For example, a
person fixated on the oral stage may engage in excessive eating, smoking, nail-biting, or
becoming overly talkative, symbolizing the continued fulfillment of oral needs.
 We see oral personalities around us, such as smokers, nail-biters, over-eaters, and thumb-
suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.

ANAL STAGE (1 to 3 years)

 The anal stage is the second stage of psychosexual development happens between the
ages of 18 months and three years.
 During the anal stage, the libido becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great
pleasure from defecating.
 An example of this stage would be a child who
takes pleasure in controlling and releasing their
bowels.
 Freud believed this type of conflict tends to come
to a head in potty training, in which adults impose
restrictions on when and where the child can
defecate.
 The nature of this first conflict with authority can
determine the child’s future relationship with all
forms of authority.
Anal Fixation:
Unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems later on, such as
excessive cleanliness, stubbornness, or a need for control.
The way parents approach toilet training can lead to two outcomes:
1. Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive
personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual, and respectful of authority.
They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions. This is all related
to pleasure of holding on to their feces when toddlers and their mom insist they get rid of
it by placing them on the potty until they perform!
2. The anal-expulsive personality underwent a liberal toilet-training regime during the anal
stage. In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you.
 They like giving things away. In essence, they are “sharing their s**t”!” An anal-
expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized, and rebellious.

PHALLIC STAGE (3 to 6 years)

 The phallic stage, which spans ages three to six, is the third phase of psychosexual
development, identified by Sigmund Freud.
 This period is marked by the child’s libido (or desire)
focusing on their genitals as the primary source of
pleasure.
 In this stage, children become increasingly aware of
their bodies, exhibiting a heightened interest in their
own genitals and those of the opposite sex.
 Additionally, their understanding of anatomical sex
differences begins to form, sparking a complex
mixture of emotions – erotic attraction, rivalry,
jealousy, resentment, and fear – collectively termed the Oedipus complex in boys and the
Electra complex in girls.
 This period of conflict is resolved through identification, where children start adopting
the characteristics of their same-sex parent.
Phallic Stage Fixation:
 Freud theorized that unresolved conflicts during this stage could potentially lead to future
issues such as sexual dysfunction, problems with gender identity, or difficulties in
forming relationships.
 If fixation occurs during this stage, Freud suggested it may lead to various issues in
adulthood.
 Freud suggested that fixations at this point could lead to adult personalities that are overly
vain, exhibitionistic, and sexually aggressive.
 In men, phallic fixation might result in anxiety about sexual performance, the need for
reassurance and validation, or a tendency to be overly assertive or aggressive.
 In women, fixation at the phallic stage could lead to a desire to dominate men, a rivalry
with other women, or the need for male attention or approval.
Oedipus Complex:
 The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of
Freud’s most controversial ideas that many reject outright.
 The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young
man, kills his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out
and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and
Electra complexes.
 In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or conflict arises because the boy develops sexual
(pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get
rid of his father to enable him to do so.
 Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father
would take away what he loves the most.
During the phallic stage, what the boy loves
most is his penis. Hence the boy
develops castration anxiety.
According to Freud, the fear of retaliation from
the father (castration anxiety) eventually leads the
boy to repress these incestuous desires and
identify with the father, adopting his
characteristics and values.
The little boy then begins to resolve this problem
by imitating, copying, and joining in masculine dad-type behaviors. This is
called identification and is how the three-to-five-year-old boy resolves his Oedipus complex.
Identification means internally adopting another person’s values, attitudes, and behaviors.
The consequence is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and
values that become the superego.
Electra Complex:
 The Electra Complex, a component of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, posits that during
the phallic stage of psychosexual development (roughly between ages 3-6), a girl
unconsciously cultivates a sexual attraction towards her father, viewing her mother as a
competitor.
 In essence, the girl covets her father, yet recognizes that she lacks a penis, leading to the
phenomenon Freud labelled as ‘penis envy ‘and a subsequent wish to be male.
 This girl then ostensibly resolves her dilemma by repressing her desire for her father and
replacing her yearning for a penis with a longing for a baby.
 During this process, the girl purportedly blames her mother for her ‘castrated state,’
generating significant tension.
 In order to alleviate this tension, she then represses her feelings and begins to identify
with her mother, thereby adopting a traditional female gender role.
 However, it’s important to note that these theories have been widely contested and aren’t
broadly accepted in contemporary psychology.

LATENCY STAGE (6 years to puberty)

 The latency stage is the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning six years to
puberty. The libido is dormant during this stage, and no further psychosexual
development occurs (latent means hidden).
 In this stage, Freud believed sexual impulses are repressed, leading to a period of relative
calm.
 During this stage, children’s sexual impulses become suppressed (the libido is dormant),
and no further psychosexual development occurs (latent means hidden).
Example:
 The focus shifts to other pursuits such as education, social relationships, and other skills
necessary for successful adult life.
 Children focus on developing social and intellectual skills, including school, friendships,
and hobbies, instead of on sexual or romantic interests.
 Freud thought most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual
energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
 Much of the child’s energy is channelled
into developing new skills and acquiring
new knowledge, and play becomes largely
confined to other children of the same
gender.
An example of this stage would be a child who
engages in hobbies and interests rather than
sexual activities.
Latency Stage Fixation:
 According to Freud, unresolved conflicts or
issues during this stage can lead to
problems later on, such as difficulty expressing emotions or forming healthy
relationships.
 For instance, if a child fails to make strong social connections or falls behind
academically during this stage, they may struggle with feelings of inadequacy, insecurity,
and social isolation in adulthood.
 If a child fails to make strong social connections – perhaps they struggle to make friends
or fit in with their peers – this could impact their social skills and potentially lead to
feelings of isolation or inadequacy.
 Similarly, if a child falls behind academically during this stage – perhaps struggling with
reading, writing, or math skills – they might feel less competent than their peers, leading
to insecurity or inadequacy.
This stage ends with the onset of puberty, when sexual urges resurface, and the individual
enters the final stage of Freud’s psychosexual development, the Genital Stage.

GENITAL STAGE (Puberty to adult)

 The Genital Stage is the fifth and final phase of Freud’s psychosexual development
theory, beginning at puberty and lasting into adulthood.
 During this stage, the libido re-emerges after its latent period and is directed towards
peers of the other sex, marking the onset of mature adult sexuality.
 During this stage, individuals start to become sexually mature and begin to explore their
sexual feelings and desires more maturely and responsibly.
 This period marks the onset of romantic and sexual emotions, leading to the formation of
intimate relationships.
 Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure, like during
the phallic stage.
Example:
 An example of this stage would be a teenager who begins to experience sexual attraction
and begins to explore their sexuality.
 As they mature physically, they develop deeper romantic interests and sexual attractions
toward others.
 These feelings may lead to their first romantic
relationship, or perhaps a crush on a peer. The
teenager might also learn about sexual
education and understand the importance of
consent and safe sex.
 They might experience emotional ups and
downs as they navigate these new feelings and
relationships. This stage isn’t just about sexual
attraction, but also about forming meaningful
emotional bonds with others.
 Through their experiences, they better understand their own sexual identity and learn how
to form mutually satisfying relationships.
It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling
down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20s.

Genital Stage Fixation:

 For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual
intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual
perversions may develop.
 For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure
primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
 According to Freud, if individuals have unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage, it
can lead to problems such as sexual dysfunction, difficulties forming healthy
relationships, or other emotional problems.

ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential
theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's
work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual
development.
The stages that make up his theory are as follows:
 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months)
 Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18 months to three years)
 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five)
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11)
 Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18)
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40)
 Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65)
 Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death)

STAGE 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST

 The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and
1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly
dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's
caregivers.

 At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for
everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a
caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they
cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life.

STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.

 The Role of Independence: At this point in development, children are just starting to
gain a little independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and
making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and
gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.
 Potty Training: The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense
of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays
an important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy.
STAGE 3: INITIATIVE VS. GUILT

 The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At
this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control
over the world through directing play and other social interactions.

 Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who
fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

STAGE 4: INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY

 The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense
of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.

 Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of
competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

STAGE 5: IDENTITY VS. CONFUSION

 The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often-turbulent teenage years. This
stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will
continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need
to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to
yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

 During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.
Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel
insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

STAGE 6: INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION

 Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads
to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers
the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.2

 Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with
other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are
enduring and secure.

STAGE 7: GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION

 Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or
creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of
usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

 During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the
 world by being active in their home and community. 2 Those who fail to attain this skill
will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

 Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of
unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
STAGE 8: INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR

 The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on
life. At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and
determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they
did or didn't do.

 Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout
the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a
sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results
in regret, bitterness, and despair.

 At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who
look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of
their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead
feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they should
have.

Psychosocial Stages: A Summary Chart

Age Conflict Important Outcome
Events
Infancy (birth to 18 Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Hope
months)
Early Childhood (2 to 3 Autonomy vs. Shame Toilet Training Will
years) and Doubt
Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose
School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School Confidence
Adolescence (12 to 18 Identity vs. Role Social Fidelity
years) Confusion Relationships
Young Adulthood (19 to 40 Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Love
years)
Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 Generativity vs. Work and Care
years) Stagnation Parenthood
Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Wisdom

PIAGET THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of
children’s thought.

Key features:
 Developmental Stages: Piaget proposed four sequential stages of cognitive development,
each marked by distinct thinking patterns, progressing from infancy to adolescence.
 Constructivist Approach to Learning: Children actively build understanding by
exploring their environment as “little scientists,” rather than passively absorbing
information.
 Schemas: Mental frameworks for organizing information, growing in number and
complexity as children develop, enabling deeper world understanding.
 Assimilation: Integration of new information into existing schemas.
 Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to fit new
information.
 Equilibration: Process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to progress through
cognitive stages, resolving conflicts and shifting to new thought patterns.

Each child goes through the stages in the same order (but not all at the same rate), and child
development is determined by biological maturation and interaction with the environment.
At each stage of development, the child’s thinking is qualitatively different from the other
stages, that is, each stage involves a different type of intelligence.

Stage Age Goal

Sensorimotor Birth to 18-24 months Object permanence

Preoperational 2 to 7 years Symbolic thought

Concrete operational 7 to 11 years Logical thought

Formal operational Adolescence to adulthood Scientific reasoning

1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
During the sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2) infants develop basic motor skills and learn to
perceive and interact with their environment through physical sensations and body
coordination.
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant learns about the world through their senses
and through their actions (moving around and
exploring their environment).
 During the sensorimotor stage, a range of cognitive
abilities develop. These include: object permanence;
self-recognition (the child realizes that other people are
separate from them); deferred imitation; and
representational play.
 Cognitive abilities relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the
capacity to represent the world mentally.
 At about 8 months, the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they will
still exist even if they can’t see them, and the infant will search for them when they
disappear.
Individual Differences:
 Cultural Practices: In some cultures, babies are carried on their mothers’ backs
throughout the day. This constant physical contact and varied stimuli can influence how a
child perceives their environment and their sense of object permanence.
 Gender Norms: Toys assigned to babies can differ based on gender expectations. A boy
might be given more cars or action figures, while a girl might receive dolls or kitchen
sets. This can influence early interactions and sensory explorations.
2. THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
Ages: 2 – 7 Years
 Piaget’s second stage of intellectual development is the preoperational stage, which
occurs between 2 and 7 years. At the beginning of this stage, the child does not use
operations (a set of logical rules), so thinking is influenced by how things look or appear
to them rather than logical reasoning.
 For example, a child might think a tall, thin glass contains more liquid than a short, wide
glass, even if both hold the same amount, because the child focuses on the height rather
than considering both dimensions.
 As the preoperational stage develops, egocentrism declines, and children begin to enjoy
the participation of another child in their games, and let’s pretend play becomes more
important.
Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g.
superheroes, policemen), and may play these roles
with props that symbolize real-life objects. Children
may also invent an imaginary playmate.
Major Characteristics and Developmental
Changes:
 Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to
internally represent the world through language
and mental imagery.
 During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability
to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself.
 A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not yet
capable of logical (problem-solving) type of thought.
 Moreover, the child has difficulties with class inclusion; he can classify objects but cannot
include objects in sub-sets, which involves classifying objects as belonging to two or
more categories simultaneously.
 Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think
that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s.
Individual Differences:
 Cultural Storytelling: Different cultures have unique stories, myths, and folklore.
Children from diverse backgrounds might understand and interpret symbolic elements
differently based on their cultural narratives.
 Race & Representation: A child’s racial identity can influence how they engage in
pretend play. For instance, a lack of diverse representation in media and toys might lead
children of color to recreate scenarios that don’t reflect their experiences or background.
3. THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
Ages: 7 – 11 Years
 By the beginning of the concrete operational stage, the child can use operations (a set of
logical rules) so they can conserve quantities, realize that people see the world in a
different way (decentring), and demonstrate improvement in inclusion tasks.
 Children still have difficulties with abstract thinking.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 During this stage, children begin to think
logically about concrete events.
 Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although
things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
 During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g., picture a ball of plasticine
returning to its original shape).
 During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how
other people might think and feel.
 The stage is called concrete because children can think logically much more successfully
if they can manipulate real (concrete) materials or pictures of them.
 Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child’s cognitive
development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This means
the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out
in the real world).
 Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is
the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance
changes.
 But operational thought is only effective here if the child is asked to reason about
materials that are physically present. Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or
be overwhelmed when asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical problems.
Individual Differences:
 Cultural Context in Conservation Tasks: In a society where resources are scarce,
children might demonstrate conservation skills earlier due to the cultural emphasis on
preserving and reusing materials.
 Gender & Learning: Stereotypes about gender abilities, like “boys are better at math,”
can influence how children approach logical problems or classify objects based on
perceived gender norms.

4. THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE

Ages: 12 and Over
The formal operational period begins at about
age 11. As adolescents enter this stage, they
gain the ability to think abstractly, the ability to
combine and classify items in a more
sophisticated way, and the capacity for higher-
order reasoning.
Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is (not
everyone achieves this stage). This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science
fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning.
Adolescents can deal with abstract ideas; for example, they can understand division and
fractions without having to actually divide things up, and solve hypothetical (imaginary)
problems.
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 Concrete operations are carried out on physical objects, whereas formal operations are
carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and
perceptual constraints.
 During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g., they no longer need to
think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions).
 They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific
examples.
 Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. For
example, if asked, ‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour?’ they could
speculate about many possible consequences.
 Piaget described reflective abstraction as the process by which individuals become aware
of and reflect upon their own cognitive actions or operations (metacognition).
Individual Differences:
 Culture & Abstract Thinking: Cultures emphasize different kinds of logical or abstract
thinking. For example, in societies with a strong oral tradition, the ability to hold complex
narratives might develop prominently.
 Gender & Ethics: Discussions about morality and ethics can be influenced by gender
norms. For instance, in some cultures, girls might be encouraged to prioritize community
harmony, while boys might be encouraged to prioritize individual rights.
Piaget’s Theory:
 Piaget’s theory places a strong emphasis on the active role that children play in their own
cognitive development. According to Piaget, children are not passive recipients of
information; instead, they actively explore and interact with their surroundings.

GROWTH OF TODDLER (1-3 YEARS)

1 YEAR

Gross motor
 Walks without help
 Creeps upstairs
 Runs clumsily
 Falls often

Fine Motor
 Builds tower of 2 cubes
 Holds 2 cubes in one hand
 Scribbles spontaneously
 Uses cup well but often rotates spoon before it

2 YEARS
Physical development
 Hand circumference 49-50cm
 Usual weight gain of 1.8-2.7kg/year
 Usual height gain of 10 to 12.5 cm/year
 Primary dentition of 16 teeth.

Gross motor
 Picks up object without falling
 Kicks ball forward without over balancing.

Fine motor
 Builds tower of 6 or 7 cubes
 Aligns two or more cubes like a train
 Turns door knob
 Able to remember and imitate some actions and gestures.

3 YEARS

Physical development
 Birth weight quadrupled
 May have day time bladder control

Gross motor
 Jumps with both feet
 Stands on one foot momentarily
 Takes a few steps on tiptoe

Fine motor
 builds tower of 8 cubes
 good hand finger co-ordination in drawing, imitates vertical and horizontal strokes.

LANGUAGE/SPEECH DEVELOPMENT

 1nd year: 6 to 8 words

 2nd year: 300 words
 3rd year: 900 words

GROWTH OF PRESCHOLER (3-5 YEARS)

3 YEARS

Gross motor
 Rides tricycle
 Jumps of bottom steps
 Broad jumps
 May turn to dance but balance may not be
adequate.
Fine motor
 Builds tower of 9-10 cubes
 Builds bridge with 3 cubes
 In drawing copies a circle imitates a cross.

4 YEARS

Gross motor
 Skips and hops on one foot
 Catches ball
 Throws ball over head
 Walks down stairs with alternate footing

Fine motor
 Uses scissors successfully to cut out picture
following
 Can lace shoes but not able to tie

5 YEARS

Gross motor
 Skips and hops on alternate feet
 Jumps rope
 Walks backward with heels to toe
 Balance on alternate feet with eyes closed

Fine motor
 Ties shoelaces
 Uses scissors, simple tools
 In drawing, copies a diamond and triangle occurred
many hours or day before.

GROWTH OF SCHOOLER (6-12 YEARS)

6 YEARS

Motor changes
 Central mandible incisor erupt
 Loses first tooth
 Likes to draw, print color

Mental changes
 Develops concepts of numbers
 Can count 13 rupees
 Knows right and left hands
 Attends first grade
 Define common objects

7 YEARS

Motor changes
 Maxillary central incisors and lateral mandible incisors erupt.
 Repeats performance to master them
 More cautious in approaches to new performances

Mental changes
 Can copy a diagram -repeats 3 numbers backward
 Attends 2nd grade 8 years

Motor effects
 Movement fluid, often graceful and poised
 Always on the go, jump, chase, skips

Mental effects
 Gives similarities and differences between two
things from memory
 Makes change out of a quarter
 Attends third grade
 Reads more, may plan to wake up early just to
read.

9 YEARS

Motor effects
 Dresses self completely
 Hard to quite down after recess
 More limber, bones grow faster than ligaments.

Mental effects
 reads class books
 more aware of time and attends 4th grade
10 YEARS

Motor effects
 Posture is more similar to an adult
 Perform tricks on bicycle-races participate in sports.

Mental effects
 Writes brief stories
 Attends 5th grade

11 YEARS

Motor effects
 Will over-come lordosis
 Dresses neatly
 Likely to over do

Mental effects
 Uses telephone for practical purposes
 Attends 6th grade
 Knows right and wrong

12 YEARS

Motor effects
 Girls - pubescent changes may begin to appear, body lines soften and round out
 Boys - slow growth in height and rapid weight gain, may become obese in this period.

Mental effects
 Responds to magazine, radio or other advertising
 Attends 7th grade.

GROWTH OF ADOLESCENCE (13-18 YRS)

13 YEARS

Reproductive organ development

 Male: prostate begins functioning and penis begins to lengthen
 Female: internal and external organs continue growing.

Cognitive development - adolescent learn to think new ways to understand complex ideas

14 YEARS

Reproductive organ development

 Male -pubic hair grows -growth spurt may
begin
 Female -under arm hair growth and onset
of menstruation.

Cognitive development - mind has great

ability to acquire and utilize knowledge - members of the peer group often try to act.

15 YEARS

Reproductive organ development

 Male: rapid growth of the penis , testes
color deepens
 Female: underpants may be wet at times
with a clear mucous.
Cognitive development -imaginative thinking develops and the peer group expands to
include romantic friendships.

16 YEARS

Reproductive organ development

 Male: -under arm hair, voice change
begins
 Female: -most of the growth spurt
complete

Cognitive development: they learn

selectively and have better memory

17 YEARS

Reproductive organ development

 Male: average age that sperm matures and majority of the
growth spurt complete
 Female: acne and voice gets deepens.

Cognitive development: problem solving skills gets improved

18 YEARS

Reproductive organ development

 Male: chest and shoulders fill out, facial body hair
becomes heavier and acne
 Female: full height achieved

Cognitive development: able to think in logical way, able to sound judgment.

CONCLUSION
Understanding human development is essential for many reasons. For one, it helps you gain a
better understanding of yourself. Knowing what factors played a role in your childhood
development can help you understand the person you are today. Learning human
development can also help you to better understand your own children. Whether you are
currently a parent or a planning to become one knowing the psychology behind your child's
growth can be greatly beneficial. You'll gain a better understanding of how to interact with
children. Studying human development will also give you a greater appreciation of your own
development throughout life. Lastly, you'll gain the ability to decipher between what is
normal and what is not. Something that can come in handy in several
situations. Understanding human development is essential for many reasons. For one, it helps
you gain a better understanding of yourself. Knowing what factors played a role in your
childhood development can help you understand the person you are today. Learning human
development can also help you to better understand your own children. Whether you are
currently a parent or a planning to become one knowing the psychology behind your child's
growth can be greatly beneficial.

RESEARCH ABSTRACT

Background: Optimal development of children in their early months and years has a bearing
on their achievement levels later in life.
Objectives: To assess the socio-emotional and cognitive development in children 0-5 years
and to find out the proportion of children having developmental delay and its associated
factors.
Methods: A community-based cross-sectional study was carried out in 520 children in Delhi.
Development was assessed using the Indian Council for Medical Research Development
Screening Test.
Results: In all, 10.6% of children <5 years old were found to be developmentally delayed.
Maximum number of children (10.1%) were found to have a delay in the domain of 'hearing
language, concept development'. Of all the factors, the strongest association was found with
stunting, paternal education, alcohol abuse, attendance in Anganwadi/playschool.
Conclusions: The study concludes that developmental delay is present in a sizable proportion
of children <5 years of age and may be a significant factor in the overall achievement of life's
potential in them.
Keywords: alcohol abuse; cognition; developmental delay disorders; developmental
surveillance.
The Author [2016]. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For
Permissions, please email: [email protected].
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Websites
 https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/growth-and-development-in-child/139291054
 https://www.scribd.com/presentation/333544273/40693497-Principles-of-Growth-and-
Development-ppt