Laboratory Manual

For
Heat Transfer Lab (CHC210)

AY: 2021-22

Department of Chemical Engineering

IIT(ISM) Dhanbad
Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)

Index:-

S.No. Name of the Experiment Page

No.

1. Determination of the thermal conductivity of liquid 4

2. Determination of the thermal conductivity of metal rod 8

3. Determination of the heat transfer coefficient in Natural convection 12

4. Determination of the heat transfer coefficient in forced convection 17

5. Determination of the heat transfer coefficient in film wise and drop wise 22
condensation

6. Steady of unsteady state heat transfer 26

7. Determination of the Stefan- Boltzmann constant 29

8. Determination of the emissivity of test plat 32

9. Demonstration of shell and tube heat exchanger 35

10. Demonstration of calandria evaporator 40

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Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)

Course objectives:

• To provide students with the necessary skills to conduct experiments on conduction, convection, and
heat transfer equipment; perform analysis and interpretation of experimental results to draw valid
conclusions through standard test procedures .
• To determine thermal properties of liquids and metals, performance of heat transfer equipment.

Course outcomes:

• Conduct experiments on conduction, convection and radiation of heat; collect data, perform analysis and
interpret results to draw valid conclusions through standard test procedures
• Determine thermal properties and performance of heat exchanger

LAB INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Laboratory uniform, shoes are compulsory in the lab.
2. Take signature of lab in charge after completion of observation and record.
3. If any equipment fails in the experiment report it to the TA immediately.
4. Students should come to the lab with thorough theoretical knowledge.
5. Don't crowd around the experiment and behave in-disciplinary.
6. Students should carry their own stationary and required things.
7. Using the mobile phone in the laboratory is strictly prohibited.
8. Do not touch anything with which you are not completely familiar.
9. Carelessness may not only break the valuable equipment in the lab but may also cause serious injury to
you and others in the lab.
10. Please follow instructions precisely as instructed by your TA. Do not start the experiment unless your
setup is verified & approved by your TA.
11. Do not leave the experiments unattended while in progress.
12. During experiments material may fail and disperse, please wear safety glasses and maintain a safe
distance from the experiment.
13. If any part of the equipment fails while being used, report it immediately toyour TA. Never try to fix the
problem yourself because you couldfurther damage the equipment and harm yourself and others in the
lab.
14. Keep the work area clear of all materials except those needed for yourwork and cleanup after your work.

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Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)

Experiment no:01 Determination of the thermal conductivity of liquids

(Guarded plate method)

Objective: Experimental Investigation of thermal conductivity of the liquids by Guarded Hot Plate Method.
Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of glycerol.
Introduction:
The dependence ofthermal conductivity of a material on temperature depends on the degree with the
molecules of material are strongly boundto. Thermal conductivity of gases increases with temperature due to
increase in thermal energy that increases the molecularvelocity. In liquids, the temperature dependence of
thermal conductivity depends on the viscosity also. The physicalproperties of fluids, such as thermal
conductivity, play an important role in the design of a wide variety of engineeringapplications, including heat
exchangers and electronic cooling [1].
Also, in many cooling applications ranging frommicro-electronicsto automotive or aero-spatial industries, one
of the key elements is the use of advanced fluids, withincreased thermal conductivity beside to classical cooling
fluids. In such situations, the measurement of the thermal conductivity of fluids is very important in evaluating
the thermal transfer efficiency in thermal equipment and in coolingsystems. The guarded hot plate methodis a
steady state absolute method suitable for material which can be laid flat between two parallel plates & canbe
adopted for loose fill materials which can be filled between such plates. In the present study the work
undertaken to measure the thermalconductivity of glycerol.
Theory:
For thermal conductivity of liquid using Fourier’s law, the heat flow through the liquid from hot fluid to
cold is the heat transfer through conduction fluid medium.
Fourier’s equation:
𝑘𝐴
𝑄 = − ∆𝑥 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

At steady state the average face temperatures are recorded (Th and Tc) along with the rate of heat transfer
(𝑄), knowing the heat transfer area(𝐴ℎ ) and the thickness of the sample (dx) across which heat the transfer
takes place, the thermal conductivity of the sample can be calculated using Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )
𝑄 = 𝑘 𝐴ℎ
∆𝑥
Heat transfer area = Ah (area perpendicular to direction of heat flow)

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Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)

Experimental setup:
The apparatus is based on well established “Guarded hot plate” method. It is a steady state absolute
method suitable for materials, which can be fixed between two parallel plates. The essential components of the
setup are the hot plate, the cold plates, and heater assembly, cold water supply for the cold plate, RTD PT-100
sensors and the liquid specimen holder. In the setup, a uni-directional heat flow takes place across the liquid
whose two faces are maintained at different temperature by the hot plate on one end and by the cold plate at the
other end.
A heater heats hot plate and voltage to the heater is varied with the help of the variac to conduct the
experiment on different voltages as well as different heat inputs. Temperature are measured by RTDPT-100
sensor attached at three different places on the hot plate as well as on the cold plate. These sensor readings are
used as 𝑇ℎ and 𝑇𝑐 at steady state condition. Heat is supplied by an electric heater for which, we have to record
the voltmeter reading (V) and ammeter reading (A) after attaining the steady state condition. The temperature of
the cold surface is maintained by circulating cold water at 60 lph. The gap between the hot plate and cold plate
forms the liquid cell, in which liquid sample is filled. The depth of the liquid in the direction of the flow must be
small to ensure the absence of convection currents and the heat transfer can be safely assumed to takes place by
conduction alone.

Experimental Procedure:
1. Fill the liquid cell with the sample liquid (glycerol) through the inlet port, keeping the apparatus tilted
towards upper side so that there is complete removal of air through the outlet port.
2. Liquid filling should be continued till there is complete removal of air and also liquid glycerol comes
out of the outlet port. close the outlet port followed by the inlet port.
3. Allow cold water to flow through the cold water inlet @ 1-5 lpm. Measure the water flow rate with the
help of stopwatch and a measuring cylinder.
4. Start the electric heater to heat hot plate. Adjust the voltage of hot plate heater in the range of 80-100
volts.
5. Adjust the cold-water flow rate such that there is change in the outlet temperature of cold water.
6. Go on recording the sensor readings on hot side as well as on cold side, and once steady state is
achieved (minimum changes in the sensor readings). Record the three sensor readings on the hot side
and three sensor readings on the cold side on temperature indicator along with the voltmeter (V) and
ammeter (A) readings.

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Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)

7. Stop electricity supply to the heater.

8. Open the liquid outlet valve slightly in the downward tilt position and drain the sample liquid is a
receiver, keeping liquid inlet part open.
Specification:
1. Hot plate material : Copper
Diameter: 160 mm
2. Cold plate material: Aluminum
Diameter: 160 mm
3. Sample liquid depth: 17 mm
4. Temperature sensors: RTD PT-100
Quantity: 6 nos. (No. 1 to no.3 mounted on hot plate and no. 4 to no. 6 mounted on cold plate)
5. Digital temperature indicator range: 0 - 199.9 oC
Least count: 0.1oC
6. Variac: 2 amp, 230 V (AC)
7. Digital voltmeter: 0 – 250 Volts
8. Digital ammeter: 0 – 1.99 Amp
9. Heater: Nichrome heater 400 watt
Observation and calculation:
At steady state: Record the following measurements:
i. Sample liquid:
ii. Voltmeter reading:
iii. Ammeter reading:
iv. Flow rate readings:
a. Volume of water:
b. Time taken:
(𝑇ℎ1 +𝑇ℎ2 +𝑇ℎ3 )
v. Hot face average temperature(𝑇ℎ ):
3
(𝑇𝑐1 +𝑇𝑐2 +𝑇𝑐3 )
vi. Cold face average temperature(𝑇𝑐 ): 3

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Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)

Case V(v) I(A) W(watt) 𝑇ℎ1 𝑇ℎ2 𝑇ℎ3 𝑇𝑐1 𝑇𝑐2 𝑇𝑐3
1
2
3

Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the discussions in your
journal.
Conclusions:Using the results obtained from your experiment comment on the thermal conductivity of liquids
with respect to temperature.
Precaution:
i. Use the stabilize AC single phase power supply only.
ii. Do not disturb any electrical connections of the experimental setup.

Questions:
1. What is thermal conductivity?
2. How thermal conductivity of liquids varies with temperature?
3. Compare thermal conductivities of different liquids.

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Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)

Experiment no:02 Determination of the thermal conductivity of metals

Objective: Experimental Investigation of thermal conductivity of the solids.

Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of given test metal rod.
Introduction:
Conduction is a process of heat transfer through solids, liquids and gases. When the temperature
gradient exists in a body, experience has shown that there is a transfer of heat from high temperature region to
the low temperature region. The heat transfer rate per unit is proportional to the temperature gradient in the
direction of heat flow:
𝑄 ∆𝑇
𝛼
𝐴 ∆𝑋
Where ‘Q‘is the heat transfer in (watts),’A’ is the area of heat transfer (m2), ΔT/ΔX is the temperature
gradient in the direction of heat flow (⁰C/m). Where the proportionality constant is a property of a material and
is known as thermal conductivity.
𝑄 ∆𝑇
= −𝐾
𝐴 ∆𝑋
The positive constant ‘k’ is called the coefficient of thermal conductivity of material. The negative sign
indicates that heat transfer takes place in the direction of decreasing temperature. Coefficient of thermal
conductivity has the units of W/m⁰C. Note that heat flow rate is involved and the numerical value of the
coefficient of thermal conductivity indicates how fast heat will flow in a given material.
Thermal conductivity is a physical property of the material. Although it is fairly constant in narrow
temperature range, it varies over a wide temperature range. Metals, which are good conductors of heat, have
high values of thermal conductivity. Insulating material have low values of thermal conductivity. In any
conduction heat transfer problem, it is essential to have the knowledge of thermal conductivity of the material
involved in the heat transfer process. This study has been designed to measure the temperature gradient along
the length of the given metal rod and to determine its thermal conductivity.
Experimental Setup:
It consists of a metal rod horizontally placed in a M.S. cylinder (insulating jacket) and is insulated by
covering the metal rod by insulating powder. An electric heating coil is fixed at one end of rod while the other
end protrudes in to a water jacket. The heat flow through the metal rod by mode of conduction. A number of
thermocouple are fixed alone the length of rod.

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Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)

Six k-type thermocouplei.e.T1 to T6 are embedded along the length of the rod to measure the
temperature distribution. Four more thermocouples T7 to T10 are placed within the insulating powder at specific
distance, while two thermocouple are placed in the water jacket T11&T12.
The equipment consists of following parts:
Base stand:This is made up of S.S square tubes & euro bound sheets. This is painted specially with
powder coating. All equipment are mounted on base stand.
Insulating Jacket: It is cylinder made up off M.S. It consists of a metal rod, which is surrounded with a
thick layer of insulating material (Asbestos powder).
Water Jacket:We are using water jacket for the cooling of one end of metal rod continues flow of water
is takes place in this jacket with very low discharge. Measure the inlet and outlet temperature of this water.
Heater:This is a clamp type heater fabricated from aluminum strips. One end of this bar is heated with
heating coil so that this heat is transfer from this end to other end by conduction.
Temperature Sensors:We are using k-type sensor for the measurement of temperature in which six
sensors are used for the measurement the temperature of heating bar. Four sensors are used to measure the
temperature of insulation to find out temperature loss. Two sensors are used to measure the temperature of inlet
and outlet water.
Dimmer state:It is used to control the wattage of the heater. We can adjust wattage as per our
requirement by controlling the current supplied to the heater. The voltage supplied to the heater is kept constant.
PROCEDURE:
• Start the water circulation through the water jacket.
• Switch on the heater supply. Adjust the current supply with the help of Dimmer stat.
• Wait for steady state. Steady state can be observed by the temperature reading at one or all points on the
surface of the metal rod. Steady state is reached when these temperatures stop changing with time.
• Under steady state conditions note down the temperature of each point on the surface of the rod as well
as temperature of surrounding. Repeat above procedure for several power input.

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Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)

Figure: Experimental setup of thermal conductivity of metal rod

SPECIFICATIONS:
• Temperature indicator: 0 to 400◦C
• Voltmeter: 0 to 1000V
• Ammeter: 0 to 10A

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• Heater: 500 watt

• Dimmer stat: 0 to 500 watt
• Diameter of metal rod: 30mm
• Length of metal rod:500mm
• Radial distance of thermocouple:T7 to T9 : 25mm
• Length between T1 to T6: 250 mm
• Insulating material: Asbestos powder

Observation Table:

Sr. T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 V I

no ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C (V) (A)
1

Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the discussions in your
journal.
Conclusions:Using the results obtained from your experiment comment on the thermal conductivity of given
metal rod with respect to temperature.
Precaution:
iii. Use the stabilize AC single phase power supply only.
iv. Do not disturb any electrical connections of the experimental setup.
Questions:
1. What is thermal conductivity?
2. How thermal conductivity of metals varies with temperature?
3. Compare thermal conductivities of different metals.

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Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)

Experiment no: 03 Determination of the heat transfer coefficient in natural convection

Objective: Study of convective heat transfer coefficient in natural convection

Aim:To find out the heat transfer coefficient of vertical cylinder in natural convection in stagnant air.

Introduction:

Convective heat transfer is one of the major modes of heat transfer encountered in day to day life. It
occurs due to the bulk motion of the fluid. Natural convection is associated with the molecular transport
mechanism occurring due to buoyancy. This arises due to the temperature effects giving rise to the density
difference. If the bulk motion is induced by some external means such as a pump or blower then the process is
known as heat transfer by forced convection.

Theory:

Natural Convection phenomena is due to temperature difference between the surface and the fluid and if not
treated by any external energy .The setup is designed and fabricated to study the natural convection
phenomenon from a vertical cylinder in terms of average heat transfer coefficient .The heat transfer Coefficient
is given by

𝑄
ℎ= 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑚2 ℎ𝑟 °𝐶
𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 )

Where

Q = Rate of heat transfer (kcal/hr)

h = heat transfer coefficient (𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑚2 ℎ𝑟 °𝐶)

A = Area from which heat transfer is taking place (m2)

𝑇𝑠 = Temperature of the heat transfer surface (°𝐶)

𝑇𝑎 = Temperature of the surrounding fluid (°𝐶)

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Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)

Experimental setup:

The Apparatus consists of a Brass tube fitted in a rectangular duct in a vertical fashion .Duct is open at
the top and bottom, and form aninclosure and serves the purpose of undisturbed surroundings. One side of the
duct is fitted with a transparent acrylic window for visualization. An electric heating element is kept in the
vertical tube that in turns heats the tube surface. The heat is lost from the tube to the surrounding air by natural
convection. The temperature of the vertical tube is measure by temperature sensors and displayed by a Digital
Temperature Indicator with multi-channel switch. A PID Controller is provided for controlling the heat input.
Electronic energy meter will be provided to measure the heat input. The tube surface is polished to minimize the
radiation losses. The heat input to the heater is measured by Digital ammeter and digital voltmeter and can be
varied by dimmer stat.

Figure: Heat transfer in natural convection setup

Specifications:

1. Diameter of tube = 38mm

2. Length of tube= 50mm
3. Size of tube = 20x20x6 cm
4. Temp of sensors ,RTD PT 100 Types
5. No. of RTD temp. sensors = 8
6. Digital voltmeter = 0 to 250V

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7. Digital ammeter = 0 to 2.5 Amp

8. Dimmer stat = 2 Amp/220V
9. Temperature indicator: Digital temperature indication 0 to 200 ºC with multi panel switch.

Experimental procedure:

1. Clean the Apparatus and make it free from dust particle.

2. Ensure that all on/ off switches given on the panel at off position.

3. Ensure that variac knob is at 0 position, given on the panel.

4. Now switch on the main power supply (220 volt AC, 50 Hertz).

5. Switch on the panel with the help of main on /off switch given on the panel.

6. Fix the power input to the heater with the help of variac, voltmeter and ammeter provided.

7.After 30 min, the temperature in the test section was recorded at various points in each 5 min interval.

8. It was assumed that steady state was achieved if temperature readings were same for 3 times.

Closing procedure:

1. When experiment is over, switch off heater first.

2. Adjust variac at 0.
3. Switch off panel with the help of main on/ off switch given on the panel.
4. Switch off power supply to panel.

Formula:-

1. Heat transfer co efficient: (Experimental)

𝑄
ℎ= 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑚2 ℎ𝑟 °𝐶
𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 )

.
2. Heat input: Q = V. I (watt)

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3. Heat transefer Area : A = π.d.L m2

4. Mean surface temperature:
Ts= (T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 + T7) / 7 ºC
5. Theoretical heat transfer coefficient can be calculated from the correlation:
2
1⁄
6
ℎ𝐿𝐶 0.387 𝑅𝑎𝐿
𝑁𝑢 = = 0.825 + 8⁄
𝑘 9⁄ 27
0.492 16
[1 + ( ) ]
{ 𝑃𝑟 }
Where, 𝐿𝑐 - is the characteristic length
𝑅𝑎𝐿 - is Rayleigh number
𝑃𝑟 – is the Prandtl number

Observation table:

SI No. V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

1.

2.

3.

Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the discussions in your
journal.
Conclusions:Compare the experiment heat transfer coefficient that you have obtained with the theoretical heat
transfer coefficient.

Precautions:

1. Use the stabilizer AC single phase supply only.

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2. Never switch on mains power supply before measuring that all On/off switches given on the panel are
at off position.
3. Voltage to Heater start and increase slowly.
4. Keep all the Assembly undisturbed.
5. Operate selector switch of temperature in indicator gently.
6. Always keep the operators free from dust.
7. There is possibility of getting abrupt result if the supply voltage is fluctuating or the satisfactory steady
state condition is not reached.

Applications:

Natural convection heat transfer is extensively used in the following areas of engineering:
1. Cooling of commercial high voltage electrical power transformers.
2. Heating of houses by electrical baseboard heaters.
3. Heat loss from steam pipe lines in power plants and heat gain in refrigerant pipe lines in air conditioning
applications.
4. Cooling of reactor cores in nuclear power plants, though often the coolant is driven by pumps, resulting in
more efficient heat transfer by forced convection.
5. Cooling of electronic devices (chips, transistors) by finned heat sinks, though a fan is often present to
augment the natural convection.

Questions:

1. What is natural convection?

2. How natural convection is different from forced convection?
3. What are different correlations for heat transfer coefficient in natural convection?

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Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)

Experiment no: 04 Determination of the heat transfer coefficient in forced convection

Objective: Study of convective heat transfer coefficient in forced convection

Aim: To determine the heat transfer coefficient in forced convection for hot air flowing through horizontal tube.
Introduction:
It is well know that a hot plate of metal will cool faster in from a fan than when exposed to still air. We
say that the heat is convected away and we call the process as convective heat transfer. The velocity at which air
blows over the hot plate obviously influences the heat transfer rate.
Convection is defined as process of heat transfer by combined action of heat conduction and mixing motion.
Convection heat transfer is further classified as Natural Convection and Forced convection. Natural convection
is associated with the molecular transport mechanism occurring due to buoyancy. This arises due to the
temperature effects giving rise to the density difference. If the bulk motion is induced by some external means
such as a pump or blower then the process is known as heat transfer by forced convection.
In many practical situations and equipment, we invariably deal with flow of fluids in tubes like in boiler,
super heaters and condensers of a power plant, automobile radiators, water and air heaters or coolers etc. The
knowledge and evaluation of forced convection heat transfer coefficient for fluid flow in tubes is essentially a
prerequisite for an optimal design of all thermal systems.
Theory:
Air flows into the heated pipe with very high flow rate, the heat transfer rate increases. The temperature
taken by the cold air from the bulk temperature rises its temperature. Thus, for the tube the total energy that can
be expressed in terms of bulk temperature difference by:
q = mCp(Tb2 – Tb1)
Bulk temperature difference in terms of heat transfer coefficient:
q = hA(Tb2 – Tb1)
A traditional expression for calculation of heat transfer in fully turbulent flow in a smooth tube is that
recommended by Dittus and Boelter equation:
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.023𝑅𝑒𝐷0.8 𝑃𝑟 𝑛
n = 0.4 for heating and 0.3 for cooling of the fluid.

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Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)

Experimental setup:
The apparatus consists of a blower unit fitted with the test pipe. The test section is surrounded by a
Nichrome band heater. Four thermocouples are embedded on the test pipe section and two thermocouples are
placed in the air stream at the entrance and exit of the test pipe section to measure the air temperature. Test pipe
is connected to the delivery side of the blower along with the orifice to measure flow of air through the pipe.
Input to the heater is given through a dimmer stat and measured by voltmeter and ammeter. It is to be noted that
a part of the total heat supplied is utilized in heating the air. A temperature indicator is provided to measure
temperature of pipe wall in the test section is measured.
Temperature sensors:
T1= Air inlet temperature
T2, T3, T4, T5 = Surface temperature of test section
T6 = Air outlet temperature
Utilities required:
Electricity supply: 1 phase, 220V AC, 10 Amp
Floor area of 1.2m*0.5m
Experimental procedure:
Starting procedure:-
1) The apparatus is cleaned and made free from dust.
2) The manometer fluid (water) is put in manometer connected to Pitot tube.
3) It is ensured that all ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
4) It is ensured that variac knob is at zero position given on the panel.
5) Then the main power supply (220V AC, 50 Hz) was switched on.
6) The panel was switched on with the help of mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel.
7) The power input to the heater was fixed with the help of variac, voltmeter and ammeter provided.
8) Blower was switched ON by operating Rotary switch given on the panel.
9) Air flow rate was adjusted with the help of air flow control valve given in the air line.
10) After 30 min, the temperature in the test section was recorded at various points in each 5 min interval.
11) It was assumed that steady state was achieved if temperature readings were same for 3 times.
12) The final temperature was recorded.
13) The manometer readings were recorded.

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Closing procedure:-
1) When experiment was over, the heater was switched off first.
2) Then the blower was switched off.
3) The variacwas adjusted at zero.
4) The panel was switched off with the help of mains on/off switch given on the panel.
5) The power supply to panel was switched off.

Specifications:-
Length of test section = 400 mm
I.D. of test section = 32 mm
O.D. of test section = 38 mm
No. of RTD temperature sensors = 6 Nos
Dimmerstat = 2 Amps, 220V
Digital temperature indicator with multi-channel switch. Digital voltmeter and digital ammeter are also
provided.
Formula:
𝑄𝑎
1) 𝑈 = 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡⁄𝑚2 °C
𝐴(𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑎 )
𝜌𝑚
2) 𝛥𝐻 = 𝑅 [ − 1] 𝑚𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜌𝑎
𝜋
3) 𝑄 = [𝐶𝑑 ∗ 4 ∗ 𝑑𝑝2 ∗ √2𝑔𝛥𝐻]m3/s (where, 𝐶𝑑 = 0.85)

4) 𝑚 = 𝑄 ∗ 𝜌𝑎 kg/s
5) 𝑄𝑎 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ (𝑇6 − 𝑇1 )Watt

Observation and calculations:-

Innerdiameter of test section, di =
Outerdiameter of test section, do =
Length of test section, L =
Specific heat of air, Cp = 1003.2 J/kg °C
Density of air, ρa = 1.205 kg/m3
Density of manometric fluid, ρm=
T1 + T6
Average temperature of air, Ta = 2
°C

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Heat Transfer Lab Manual (CHC210)
T2 + T3 +T4 +T5
Average surface temperature, Ts = °C
4

Manometer reading R =
Observation table:-
Voltage I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Manometerreading
(V) (Amp) °C °C °C °C °C °C (cm)

Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the discussions in your
journal.
Conclusions:Compare the experiment heat transfer coefficient that you have obtained with the theoretical heat
transfer coefficient.

Precautions and maintenance instructions: -

1) Use the stabilize A.C. single phase supply only.
2) Never switch on mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches given on the panel
are at OFF position.
3) Voltage to heater starts and increases slowly.
4) Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
5) Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180V and above 240V.
6) Operate selector switch off temperature indicator gently.
7) Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
8) There is a possibility of getting abrupt result if the supply voltage is fluctuating or if the satisfactory
steady state condition is not reached.

Trouble shooting:
1) If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light, check the fuel and also check the main
supply.
2) If 'D.T.I' displays 'I' on the screen. Check the computer socket. If loose tight it.

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3) If temperature of any sensor is not displayed in D.T.I. Check the connection and rectify that.
4) Voltmeter showing the voltage given to heater by ampere meter does not, tight the heater socket and
switch. If OK it means heater burnt.

Questions:

1. What is forced convection?

2. What are different correlations for heat transfer coefficient in forced convection?
3. Compare the heat transfer coefficients in natural vs forced convection, and give your comment.

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Experiment no: 05 Determination of the heat transfer coefficient in drop wise & film wise condensation

Objective: To study heat transfer in the process of condensation.

Aim: To find heat transfer coefficient for dropwise & filmwise condensation process.

Introduction:

In all applications, the steam must be condensed as it transfers heat to a cooling medium, e.g. Cold water in the
condensers of a generation station, hot water in a heating clarifier, sugar solution in a sugar refinery etc. During
condensation very high heat fluxes are possible and provided the heat can quickly transferred from the
condensing surface to the cooling medium, heat exchangers using steam can be compact and effective.

Theory:

Steam may condense on a surface in two distinct modes, known as film wise and drop wise condensation. For
same temperature between the steam and surface dropwise condensation is much more effective than film wise
condensation and for this reason, the former is desirable although in practical plants, it rarely occurs for
prolonged period.

Film wise condensation: Unless specially treating, most materials are wet table and as condensation occurs as
film condensate spreads over the surface. The thickness of the film depends upon a number of factors, e.g. the
rate of condensation, the viscosity of the fluid, the surface orientation and nature.

Fresh vapor condenses on to the outside of the film and heat is transferred by conduction through the film to
metal surface beneath, as the film thickness increases it flows downward drips from the low points leaving the
film intact and at an equilibrium thickness. The film of liquid is a barrier to the heat transfer and its resistance
accounts for most of the difference between the effectiveness of the film wise and drop wise condensation.

Dropwise condensation: By specially treating the condensing surface, the contact angle can be changed and the
surface become not wettable. As steam condense, a large number of generally spherical beads cover the
surface. As condensation proceeds, the beads become larger, coalesce, and then strike downwards over the
surface. The moving bead gathers on the static beads along its downward in its tail. The bare surface offers very
little resistance to the transfer of heat and very high heat fluxes are therefore possible. Unfortunately, due to
nature of material used in construction of condensing heat exchangers, filmwise condensation is normal.

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Experimental setup:

The equipment consists of a metallic container in which steam generation takes place. The lower portion
houses suitable electric heater for steam generation. A cover is provided for filling water. The glass cylinder
houses two water cooled copper condensers, one of which is chromium coated to promote drop wise
condensation and other is in its natural state to give film wise condensation. A pressure gauge is provided to
measure steam pressure. Separate connections of two condensers for passing water are provided. One Rota
meter is provided to measure flow rate of water through the condenser. A multi-channel digital temperature
indicator is provided to measure temperature of steam, condensers, and water inlet and outlet from condenser.

Specifications:

1. Condensers- one chromium plated for drop wise condensation and one having natural finish for film
wise condensation. Both condensers are identical in construction. Dimensions:
Outer diameter: 20.4 mm
Inner diameter: 20 mm
Length: 150 mm
Material: Copper
2. Main unit: M.S. fabricated construction comprising of test section and steam generator. Test section is
provided with glass cylinder for visualization of the process. It also houses Rota meter and necessary
piping and valves to connect any one condenser in operation
3. Steam generator: Suitable for above experiment with electric heater.
4. Instrumentation:
a) Multy-channel digital temperature indicator with cold junction compensation with
thermocouples. Range 0 to 300°𝐶.
b) Rota meter to measure flow rate of water flowing through condenser. Range 10 to 100
Lph.
c) Pressure gauge to measure steam pressure. Dial type, range 0 to 2.1 kg/cm2
5. Control panel: Separate control panel to house temperature indicator, necessary switches, steam
generator etc.

Procedure:

1) Fill up the water in steam generator by opening the valve

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2) Switch ON the heater switch.

3) After filling the water close to the top cover of steam generator. Start water flow through one of the
condensers which is to be tested and note down the water flow rate in Rota meter. Ensure that during
measurement, water is flowing only through the condenser under test.
4) Slowly steam generation will start in the steam generator of the unit and as the steam rises to the test
section, gets condensed and falls down in the cylinder.
5) Depending upon type of condenser under test drop wise or film wise condensation can visualized.
6) If the water flow rate is low then steam pressure is changed then condensation will occur at more or less
atmospheric pressure.
7) Observations like temperature, water flow rate, pressure, are noted down in the observation table at the
end of each test.

FORMULAE:-

Heat loss from steam :Qs =Ms .θ

Heat taken by cold water: Qw = Mw .Cp.(T5-T4)

Average heat transfer: Q= (QS+QW) /2

Inside heat transfer coefficient:Hi = Q/(Ai.∆Tm )

Outside heat transfer coefficient:Ho= Q/(Ao.∆Tm)

Experimental overall heat transfer coefficient: 1/Uex= 1/hi+ (Di/Do).(1/ho)

Nusset number: Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.4

Theoritically heat transfer coefficient:1/Uth= 1/hi + (Di/Do).(1/ho)

Observation table:

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SI.No. Water flow Steam Time Temperature

rate (lph) condensed (min) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
(ml)
Filmwis 1
e 2
Dropwis 1
e 2

Results: Do calculations and report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the
discussions in your journal.
Conclusions:Compare the experiment heat transfer coefficient that you have obtained for different conditions.
Precautions:

1. Do not start heater supply unless water is filled in the steam generator.
2. Operate all the switches and controls gently.
3. Never allow steam to enter the cylinder unless the water is flowing through condenser.
4. Always ensure that the equipment is earthed properly before switching on the supply.

Questions:

1. What is condensation? How does it occur?

2. What is the difference between film and drop wise condensation? Which is a more effective mechanism of
heat transfer?
3. Consider film condensation on a vertical plate. Will the heat flux be higher at the top or at the bottom of the
plate? Why?

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Experiment no: 06 Study of unsteady state heat transfer

Aim: Study of unsteady state heat transfer at varying fluid temperature.

Introduction:

In heat transfer analysis, some bodies are observed to behave like a “lump”whose interior temperature
remains essentially uniform at all times during aheat transfer process. The temperature of such bodies can be
taken to be afunction of time only, T(t). Heat transfer analysis that utilizes this idealizationis known as lumped
system analysis, which provides great simplificationin certain classes of heat transfer problems without much
sacrifice fromaccuracy.

Theory:

Consider a body of arbitrary shape of mass m, volume V, surface area 𝐴𝑠 ,density 𝜌, and specific heat Cp
initially at a uniform temperature Ti. At time t = 0, the body is placed into a medium at temperature 𝑇∞ , and
heattransfer takes place between the body and its environment, with a heat transfercoefficient h. For the sake of
discussion, we will assume that 𝑇∞ > 𝑇𝑖 , butthe analysis is equally valid for the opposite case. We assume
lumped systemanalysis to be applicable, so that the temperature remains uniform within thebody at all times and
changes with time only, 𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑡). Then the temperature variation is given by:

−ℎ𝐴𝑠
𝑇 − 𝑇∞
= 𝑒 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞

Experimental setup:

This accessory designed to allow exercises and also to be performed in unsteady state heat transfer. A
set of solid shapes are supplied comprising a rectangular slab, long cylinder and sphere, each shape
manufactured from brass and stainless steel and instrumented with a thermocouple to examine the temperature
at the center of the shape. A heated water bath with integral flow duct and external circulating pump ensures
that hot water flows through solid shape under evaluation, at constant velocity and constant temperature.

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Operational procedure:

1. Connect the unit to the heat transfer service unit for performing unsteady state heat transfer experiment.
2. Fill the outer tank with water.
3. Switch on the main supply.
4. Due to heater water gets heated and the hot water passes to the inner tank with the help of pump.
5. Insert the material of which temperature is to be measured.
6. Sensors sense the temperature of material which displays on temperature indicator.

Observation table:

SI.No Temperature Initial Material Final Time (min)

of controller temperature temperature
(°𝐶) (°𝐶) (°𝐶)

Calculations:

If Biot number is less than 0.1, then the value for coefficient of heat transfer calculated as follows:

ℎ×𝐿
𝐵𝑖 =
𝑘

Where, h – is the heat transfer coefficient,

L – is the characteristic length of the test piece

k – is the thermal conductivity (for S.S-14.9, Brass-110.7 W/mK)

The temperature distribution is given by:

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−ℎ𝐴𝑠
𝑇 − 𝑇∞
= 𝑒 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞

Where, volume V, surface area 𝐴𝑠 , density 𝜌, and specific heat Cp

Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the discussions in your
journal.
Conclusions:Using the results obtained from your experiment comment on the unsteady state temperature
distribution of the test material.

Precautions:

1. Keep the system in clean and dry place

2. Use single phase 230 V AC and 50 Hz supply for the unit.
3. Check for wire connection visually.
4. Do not touch the wires when the system is ON position.
5. After completion of experiments switch off the load.
6. Clean the equipment before and after the experiment with dry cloths.

Questions:

1. What is lumped system analysis? When is it applicable?

2. Consider heat transfer between two identical hot solid bodies and their environments. The first solid is
dropped in alarge container filled with water, while the second one is al-lowed to cool naturally in the
air. For which solid is the lumpedsystem analysis more likely to be applicable? Why?
3. A student calculates that the total heat transfer from a spherical copper ball of diameter 15 cm initially at
200°C and its environment at a constant temperature of 25°C during the first 20 min of cooling is 4520
kJ. Is this result reasonable? Why?

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Experiment no: 07 Determination of the Stefan Boltzmann constant

Objective: Study of radiation heat transfer.

Aim: To find out the Stefan Boltzmann constant.

Introduction:

All substances at all temperature emit thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is an electromagnetic wave and does
not require any material medium for propagation. All bodies can emit radiation and have also the capacity to
absorb all of a part of the radiation coming from the surrounding towards it.

Theory:-

The most commonly used law of thermal radiation is the Stefan Boltzmann law which states that thermal
radiation heat flux or emissive power of a black surface is proportional to the fourth power of absolute
temperature of the surface and is given by

𝑄
= 𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎 ∗ 𝑇 4 W/m2 K4
𝐴

The constant of proportionality is called the Stefan Boltzmann constant and has the value of 5.67 * 10 -8 W/m2
K4. The Stefan Boltzmann law can be derived by integrating the Planck’s law over the entire spectrum of
wavelength from 0 to ∞.The objective of this experimental setup is to measure the value of this constant fairly
closely by an easy arrangement.

Experimental setup:

The apparatus is centered on a flanged copper hemisphere B. It is fixed on a flat non-conducting plat A.
The outer surface of B is enclosed in a metal water jacket used to heat B to some suitable constant temperature.
One RTD PT-100 type temperature sensor is attached to the inner wall of hemisphere B to measure its
temperature and to read by a temperature indicator.

The disc D which is mounted in an insulating bakelite sleeves S is fitted in a hole drilled in the centre of
the base plate A. A chromel/Alumel temperature sensor is used to measure the temperature of D i.e TD. The
temperature sensor is mounted on the disc to study the rise of its temperature. The emissivity of the enclosure

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and the disc are assumed unity because of black surface characteristics. The radiation energy emitted by the disc
to the enclosure is given by

𝑑𝑇
𝑚𝐶𝑝 ( ) = 𝜎𝐴𝐷 (𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝐷4 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑡=0

𝑑𝑇
Where , is the rate of increase in temperature (℃/𝑠) at the instant when the disc is inserted in to the
𝑑𝑡

setup. The Stefan Boltzmann constant is obtained using the relationship.

𝑑𝑇
𝑚𝐶𝑝 ( 𝑑𝑡 )
𝑡=0
𝜎=
𝐴𝐷 (𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝐷4 )

Utilities required:

Electric supply: 1st phase, 220 V AC, (2 W). Table for set-up support.

Experimental procedure:-

1) Heat the water in the tank by the immersion heater up to a temperature of about 90o C.
2) The disc D is removed before pouring the hot water in the Jacket.
3) The hot water is poured in the water Jacket.

4) The hemispherical enclosure B and A will come to some uniform temperature in a short time after filling
the hot water in the Jacket. The thermal inertia of hot water is quite adequate to prevent significant
cooling in the time required to conduct the experiment.

5) The disc D is now inserted in A at a time when its temperature is TD.

6) Start noting the temperature change for every five second for a minute.

Specification:-

Hemispherical enclosure diameter =200 mm

Hemisphere base plate bakelitedia= 250 mm

No. of temperature sensor mounted on B = 1

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No. of temperature sensor mounted on D = 1

Test disc dia. =

Mass of test disc, m = 5.1 g

Specific heat of the test disc, S = 418 J/kg ℃

Observation table:

SI.No Time (s) Temperature (TD) °C

Precautions:

1) Start the cooling circuit before switching ON the heaters and adjust the flow rate so that practically there
is no temperature rise in the circuiting fluid.
2) The apparatus should be cleaned before and after the experiment, clean water should be used.
3) The black body should be removed when not heated.
Applications:
1) Determination of temperature of Sun from its energy flux density.
2) Temperature of stars other than Sun, and also their radius relative to the Sun, can be approximated by
similar means.
3) We can find the temperature of Earth, by equating the energy received from the Sun and the energy
transmitted by the Earth.
Questions:
1. What does the view factor represent? When is the view factor from a surface to itself not zero?
2. Why is the radiation analysis of enclosures that consist of black surfaces relatively easy? How is the rate
of radiation heat transfer between two surfaces expressed in this case?
3. What are the two methods used in radiation analysis? How do these two methods differ?

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Experiment no: 08 Determination of the emissivity of a test plate

Objective

Study of radiation heat transfer by black body and test plate.

Aim: To find out the emissivity of a test plate.

Introduction:

Radiation is one of the modes of heat transfer, which does not require any material medium for its
propagation. The mechanism is assumed to be electromagnetic in nature is the result of temperature difference.
Thermodynamic considerations show that an ideal radiator or black and will emit energy at a rate proportional
to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the body. When two bodies will exchange heat by radiation,
the net heat exchange is given by,

𝑄 = 𝜎𝐴𝑇 4

All the bodies emit and absorb the thermal radiation to and from surroundings. The rate of thermal
radiation depends upon the temperature of body. When thermal radiation strikes a body, part of it is reflected,
part of it is absorbed and part of it is transmitted through body. The fraction of incident energy, reflected by the
surface is called reflectivity (ρ). The fraction of incident energy, absorbed by the surface is called absorptivity
(α) and the fraction of incident energy transmitted through body is called transmissivity (τ). The surface which
absorbs all the incident radiation is called a black surface. For a black surface, ρ+ α + τ = 1. The radiant flux,
emitted from the surface is called emissive power (E).

Theory:

An idealized black body is one, which absorbs all the incident radiation with reflectivity and
transmissivity equals to zero. The radiant energy per unit time per unit area from the surface of the body is
called as the emissive power & is usually denoted by e. The emissivity of a surface is ratio of emissive power of
𝐸
a surface to that of black surface at the same temperature. Thus, 𝜖 = 𝐸 . For black body absorptivity =1 and by
𝑏

the knowledge of Kirchhoff’s law of the emissivity of black body become unity. Emissivity being a property of
the surface depend on the nature of the surface and temperature. The present experimental set up is designed
and fabricated to measure the property of the test plate surface at various temperatures.

Experimental setup:

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The experimental setup consists of two circular copper plates identical in size and is provided with heat
coils stacked between them. The plates are mounted on bracket and are kept in an enclosure so as to provide
undisturbed natural convection surroundings. The heating input to the heater is varied by dimmer stat and is
measured by using an ammeter and a voltmeter with the help of double pole double throw switch. The
temperature of the plate is measured by Pt-100 sensor. Another Pt-100 sensor is kept in the enclosure to read the
ambient temperature of enclosure during experiment.

Experimental procedure:

1. We gradually increase the input to the heated to black plate, adjust it to some value and adjust heater
input to test plate slightly less than the black plate.
2. Check the temperature of two plates with regular interval and adjust the input of the test plate. This
requires trial and error method.
3. After attaining steady state, record all the reading.

Observation table:

SI.No Heat input to heaters Test Black surrounding

plate plate (Ts)
Black body Test plate
(T1) (T2)
V(v) I(Amp) 𝑄𝑏 V(v) I 𝑄𝑔
=𝑉×𝐼 (Amp) = 𝑉×𝐼
1
2

From steady state readings:

T1 =

T2=

Ts=

Emissivity = Egrey body/ Eblack body

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Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the discussions in your
journal.
Conclusions:Using the results obtained from your experiment comment on the emissivity of the radiating
surface.
Precautions:
1. Keep the system in clean and dry place
2. Use single phase 230 V AC and 50 Hz supply for the unit.
3. Check for wire connection visually.
4. Do not touch the wires when the system is ON position.
5. After completion of experiments switch off the load.
6. Clean the equipment before and after the experiment with dry cloths.

Questions:
1. Explain all the different mechanisms of heat transfer from the human body (a) through the skin and (b)
through the lungs.
2. How does radiation transfer through a participating medium differ from that through a nonparticipating
medium?
3. How does the wavelength distribution of radiation emitted by a gas differ from that of a surface at the
same temperature?

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Experiment no: 09 Performance of shell and tube heat exchanger

Objective: - Determination of the overall heat transfer coefficient and study the effect of fluid velocity on the
heat transfer coefficient in heat exchangers.
Aim: To calculate overall heat transfer coefficient for shell and tube heat exchanger.
Introduction:
Heat exchanger is a device in which heat is transfer from a hot to a cold fluid across a separating wall.
This is an important component of any thermal system; such as condenser in a thermal power plant, evaporate
and condensers in refrigerator, radiator of a motorcar etc. The heat transfer process is dominated by convection
in fluid – solid boundaries and conduction through the separating wall. The size and weight are the important
aspects in the design of the heat exchangers. The important performances parameter is the overall heat transfer
co-efficient which determines the heat transfer rate in the equipment.
One of the important classifications of the heat exchangers is based on the direction of the flow of hot and cold
fluids. In the parallel flow heat exchangers, both hot and cold fluids flow in the same direction, whereas in the
counter flow type, fluid flow in opposite direction.
Theory:
The most common type of heat exchanger in industrial applicationsis the shell-and-tube heat exchanger,
shown in figure below. Shell-and-tubeheat exchangers contain a large number of tubes (sometimes several
hundred)packed in a shell with their axes parallel to that of the shell. Heat transfer takesplace as one fluid flows
inside the tubes while the other fluid flows outside thetubes through the shell. Baffles are commonly placed in
the shell to force theshell-side fluid to flow across the shell to enhance heat transfer and to maintainuniform
spacing between the tubes. Despite their widespread use, shell and tube heat exchangers are not suitable for use
in automotive and aircraftapplications because of their relatively large size and weight. Note that thetubes in a
shell-and-tube heat exchanger open to some large flow areas calledheaders at both ends of the shell, where the
tube-side fluid accumulates beforeentering the tubes and after leaving them. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are
further classified according to the numberof shell and tube passes involved. Heat exchangers in which all the
tubesmake one U-turn in the shell, for example, are called one-shell-pass and twotube-passes heat exchangers.
Likewise, a heat exchanger that involves twopasses in the shell and four passes in the tubes is called a two-
shell-passes andfour-tube-passes heat exchanger.

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Experimental setup:
The apparatus consists of 1-2 pass shell and tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid is hot water, which is
attained from an insulating water bath using a magnetic drive pump and it flow through the inner tube while the
cold water flowing through the shell side (annulus). For flow measurement Rota meters are provided at inlet of
cold water and outlet of hot water line. The hot water bath is of recycled type with digital temperature controller
0 to 100 ℃.

Operational procedure:

1. Clean the apparatus and make water bath free from dust.
2. Close all the drain valves provided.
3. Fill water bath ¾ with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
4. Connect cold water supply to the inlet of cold water rota meter line.
5. Connect outlet of cold water from shell to drain.
6. Ensure that all ON/Off switches given on the panel are at off position.
7. Now switch on the main power supply.
8. Switch on heater by operating rotary switch given on the panel.
9. Set temperature of the water bath with the help of digital temperature controller.
10. Open flow control valve and By-pass valve for hot water supply.
11. Switch on magnetic pump for hot water supply.
12. Adjust hot water flow rate with the help of flow control valve and rota meter.
13. Record the temperatures of hot and cold water inlet and outlet when steady state is achieved

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Closing Procedure:

1. When the experiment is over, switch off heater first.

2. Switch off magnetic pump for hot water supply.
3. Switch off power supply to panel.
4. Stop cold and hot water supply with the help of flow control valve
5. Drain cold and hot water from the shell with the help of given drain valves.
6. Drain water bath with the help of drain valve.

Specification:

1. Shell:
Material: Stainless steel
Diameter: 220 mm
Length: 500 mm
25 % cut baffles at 100 mm distance 4 nos.
2. Tube side:

Material: Stainless steel

Outer diameter: 16 mm
Inner diameter: 13 mm
Length: 500 mm
Number of tubes: 24

3. Temperature controller : Digital 0 – 199.9 ℃

4. Temperature sensors: RTD PT-100 type (5 nos.)
5. Temperature indicator: Digital 0 to 200 ℃ with multi-channel switch.
6. Electric heater: 2 kW (2 nos.)
7. Flow measurement: Rota meter (2 nos.)
8. Pump: FHP magnetic drive pump

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OBSERVATION TABLE
SI. No. Hot water side Cold water side
Flow rate Inlet Outlet Flow rate Inlet Outlet
(𝑚ℎ ) temperature temperature (𝑚𝑐 ) temperature temperature

Data:
Inside heat transfer area, 𝐴𝑖 = 3.187 × 10−3 𝑚2
Outside heat transfer area, 𝐴𝑜 = 4.827 × 10−3 𝑚2
Calculations:
Rate of heat transfer from hot water: 𝑄ℎ = 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝ℎ (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 ) Watt
Rate of heat transfer from cold water: 𝑄𝑐 = 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑐 (𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 ) Watt
(𝑄ℎ +𝑄𝑐 )
Average heat transfer: 𝑄 = Watt
2
(∆𝑇2 −∆𝑇1 )
LMTD: ∆𝑇𝑚 = ∆𝑇2 , Choose the expression for ∆𝑇1 , ∆𝑇2 depending upon the flow pattern (counter flow or
𝑙𝑛
∆𝑇1

co-current flow).
𝑄 𝑄
Overall heat transfer coefficient:𝑈𝑖 = 𝐴 ∆𝑇 ,𝑈𝑜 = 𝐴
𝑖 𝑚 𝑜 ∆𝑇𝑚

Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the discussions in your
journal.
Conclusions:Using the results obtained from your experiment comment on shell side and tube side overall heat
transfer coefficients.
Precautions:
1. Never switch on main power supply before ensuring that all the on/off switches on the panel are at off
position.
2. Never switch on heaters before filling water bath with clean water.
3. Never fully close the delivery and by-pass line valves simultaneously.

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Questions:
1. Classify heat exchangers according to flow type and explain the characteristics of each type.
2. Classify heat exchangers according to construction type and explain the characteristics of each type.
3. What are the heat transfer mechanisms involved during heat transfer from the hot to the cold fluid?

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Experiment no: 10 Performance of Calandria Evaporator

Objective: To concentrate the solution carbonate using Calandria evaporator.

Aim: To determine an overall heat transfer coefficient for the evaporator.

Introduction:

Evaporation deals with the concentration of a non-volatile solute from a solution by the removal of
required amount of volatile solvent. Usually the solvent is water. By vaporizing a part of the solvent, useful
product i.e. the concentrated solution or thick liquor is produced and the vapor is discarded. This is usually done
before crystallizing or drying the material, or to reduce the volume for transport or storage.

Theory:

For heat transfer from the condensing steam to the boiling solution, the overall heat transfer coefficient
is found from the equation:

𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇

The temperature difference ∆𝑇 is the difference between the temperature at which the steam condenses at the
shell side pressure, and the temperature at which the solution boils at the tube side atmospheric pressure.

∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑤

The area could be taken as either the inside or outside surface area of the tubes. The inside area is chosen
because the greatest resistance to heat transfer is on this side. The area of the central downcomer is included,
but the area of the tube plates is excluded.

𝐴 = 𝑛(𝜋𝐷𝑙)𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 + (𝜋𝐷𝑙)𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟

Heat flow from the steam to solution:

The heat flow is expressed in Watts (W) and calculated from an energy balance on the feed and the two
outgoing streams which are:

Product stream i.e. a saturated hot liquid phase leaving the evaporator.

Condensate i.e. a saturated vapor leaving the evaporator, then being condensed and cooled.

Then the steady state energy balance (neglecting the losses) is:

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𝑄 = 𝑤𝑝 ℎ𝑝 + 𝑤𝑣 ℎ𝑣 − 𝑤𝑓 ℎ𝑓

Q will be in Watts and corresponding units of overall heat transfer coefficients will be, 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 𝐾

Material balance:

At steady state, you would expect: 𝑤𝑓 = 𝑤𝑝 + 𝑤𝑣 (this should check out within ±5%)

Experimental setup:

Present evaporator is a vertical short tube type evaporator with stainless steel tubes. A central
downcomer is provided. The feed solution (to be evaporated) is fed near the top end of the tubes, flows down
through the downcomer and rises through the tubes due to density difference. It circulates up through the tubes
by natural convection, and some of the water is vaporized in the tubes. The liquid and vapor separate in the
vapor space above. The vapor is passed through the condenser and collected as vapor condensed at the end of
the condenser, while liquid returns through the central downcomer to the bottom space before again rising
through the tubes. The water level in the evaporator is maintained nearly at constant level by supplying a
continuous feed and adjusting the product flow at the bottom of the evaporator. The amount of water evaporated
is estimated by measuring the rate of water collected at the base of the rate of water collected at the base of the
condenser.

The heat used to evaporate the water, comes from steam from the steam boiler provided at the base of
the assembly. It enters the (shell side) space around the tube bundle where it loses heat, condenses and collects
at the bottom of the shell space. The condensate drains out through a steam trap (which permits condensed
steam but not the live steam to pass through it). Flow rate of feed is recorded from the readings of Rota meter in
LPH. Bottom product flow can be obtained with the help of measuring cylinder and stop watch. Densities of
feed and product are measured by using specific gravity bottles at ambient conditions.

Sensor positions are as follows:

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T1 = Steam inlet temperature

T2 = Feed inlet temperature

T3 = Liquid temperature in vessel

T4 = Temperature of vapor entering to condenser

T5 = Condensed steam temperature

T6 = Water inlet temperature

T7 = Water outlet temperature

Utilities required:

Water supply 5 LPM and drain

Electricity supply: 1 Phase, 220 V AC, 6 kW

Chemicals: 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3

Experimental procedure:

1. Fill the feed tank with solution (~ 5 wt %) up to ¾ height.

2. Switch on the power supply to the steam generator (keep steam supply closed) and attain the desired
steam pressure.
3. Introduce the feed in to the evaporator by opening the Rota meter needle valve at the maximum. Fill the
evaporator.
4. Direct the steam into the shell side of the evaporator by opening the steam valve. Heat the liquid in the
evaporator till observes boiling in the glass-viewing window. Adjust the steam rate at the desired level
in the steam jacket. Now allow fresh feed to enter by opening the feed valve and adjusting the feed rate
at the desired level.
5. Open the product valve and adjust the flow rate of product such that the liquid level in the evaporator
remains steady by observing it through front window glass.
6. Wait till steady state is achieved. (Temperature and flow rates do not vary with time). It may take about
one hour.
7. During this one hour record the following at 15 minutes interval:

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Product density, product concentration, weight of water vapor evaporated (𝑤𝑣 ), feed rate, product rate,
boiling temperature of liquid in the evaporator (𝑇𝑤 ), condenser water outlet temperature (𝑇𝑤𝑜 ), cooling
water flow rate to the condenser (𝐹𝑤𝑐 ), shell side steam pressure gauge reading (𝑃𝑠 ).

Closing procedure:
1. Close the inlet feed valve.
2. Close the steam supply by switching off the electric supply to the steam generator.
3. Wait till residual vapor is condensed.
4. Drain Calandria, concentrated and condensate receivers.
5. At last close the cooling water supply to the condenser.

Specification:

Evaporator: Material Stainless Steel, OD-30cm, with central down take of 10cm Dia,
Feed Tank: Material Stainless Steel, Capacity 20 Ltrs
Flow measurement: Rotameter 2 Nos. (One each for feed arid cooling water)
Feed Circulation: By compressed air (optional: using mini compressor)
Steam Generator: Made of Stainless Steel provided’ with Pressure & Level Gauge, Safety valve and
drain etc. & insulated with ceramic wool and cladding with Aluminum foil.
Piping: Stainless Steel and PVC, size ¼”
Condenser: Shell & Tube type made of Stainless Steel
Product tank: Made of Stainless Steel, capacity 10 Ltrs.
Heater: Nichrome wire heater.
Water supply tank: Made of Stainless Steel, capacity 100 Ltrs. (for condenser).
Pump: FHP capacity
Temperature Sensors: RTD PT-100 type

Control panel of:

Digital Temperature Controller: 0-199.9°C (For Steam Generator)
Digital Temperature Indicator: 0-199.9°C with multi-channel switch

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On/Off switch, Mains Indicator etc.

Formulae:
1. Mass flow rate of feed: 𝑊𝐹 = 𝑤𝑓 × 𝜌𝑓 , g/s
2. Mass flow rate of product: 𝑊𝑃 = 𝑤𝑝 × 𝜌𝑝 , g/s
3. Mass flow rate of condensed vapor: 𝑊𝑉 = 𝑤𝑣 𝜌𝑣 , g/s
4. Heat transfer area: A = 𝑛(𝜋𝐷𝑙)𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 + (𝜋𝐷𝑙)𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟 , m2
𝑄
5. Heat transfer coefficient: 𝑈 = 𝐴×∆𝑇 , 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 ℃

6. Heat balance: 𝑄 = 𝑤𝑝 ℎ𝑝 + 𝑤𝑣 ℎ𝑣 − 𝑤𝑓 ℎ𝑓
7. Mass balance: 𝑤𝑓 = 𝑤𝑝 + 𝑤𝑣
8. Economy = Amount of water vaporized (kg) / Amount of steam used (kg)
Observations:
Data:
Number of tubes in Calandria, n =
Outer diameter of tube =
Inner diameter of tube =
Tube length =
Downcomer outer diameter =
Calibration curve for sugar solution at 30 ℃
Conc. 0 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30
(% w/v)
Density
g/ml

Plot density vs concentration on a simple graph and obtain a straight line.

Feed density =
Feed concentration from the calibration curve =

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Observation table:

SI. No Time Product P, lph 𝑊𝑒𝑣 𝑇𝑤 𝑇𝑤𝑖 𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝐹𝑤𝑐 𝑇𝑠

(min) density lph ℃ ℃ ℃ lph ℃
1 0
2 15
3 30
4 45
5 60

Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the discussions in your
journal.
Conclusions:Using the results obtained from your experiment comment on the heat transfer coefficient of the
evaporator.
Precaution:
v. Use the stabilize AC single phase power supply only.
vi. Do not disturb any electrical connections of the experimental setup.

Questions:
1. Define evaporator capacity and economy.
2. Write down the enthalpy balances for the single effect evaporator
3. Explain enthalpy – concentrations diagram.

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